Chapter 1 Introduction to Physical Anthropology

Anthropology Anthropos= humankind

ology = study of, science of (Greek)
Anthropology studies the interactions between evolutionary and cultural factors in the human
species.
Recognizes the importance of both in understanding the human condition.
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The Four-Field Approach [Cultural, Archeology, Linguistic, Physical]
Culture shapes most human behaviors, perceptions, values, and reactions.
Biology influences an otherwise human predisposition to assimilate culture.
Language is a product of biology (both brain and anatomy) but conveys learned, information
from one generation to the next.
Cultural anthropology studies all aspects of human cultural behavior.
An interest in traditional societies led early anthropologists to study life ways that are now all
but extinct. Now Cultural anthropology studies all cultures and society using the comparative
approach.
Cultural studies produce ethnographies with emphasis on religion, ritual, myth, use of symbols,
subsistence strategies, technology, gender roles and child-rearing practices.
Archaeology studies and interprets material (cultural) remains recovered from earlier cultures. These
are called artifacts.
Information about culture comes from artifacts and material culture, the earliest of which has
been left by early hominids.
Culture- past and present
On the left, a stone tool from East Africa, one of the oldest types of stone tools found anywhere.
On the right, the Hubble Space telescope.
Linguistic anthropology studies language and speech, which are unique human characteristics (but may
have some shared features with non-human Primates), and
Relationships between different cultures and language. Dialects, language families, but also
evidence of shared terminologies.
How language changes (pronunciation, invention and borrowing)
Language as an adaptation- special terminology, slang,
Physical, or Biological, Anthropology
Studies the biological and evolutionary aspects of humans, and their ancestors (Hominins) and
nonhuman Primates. This provides a context for understanding what we share with other species and
what traits are truly unique to our species.
People once defined humans by being toolmakers, or living in societieswe now know that other
species have those capacities.
Hominins - modern humans and now extinct bipedal relatives.
Species - reproductively isolated from members of all other species
Primates - members of an order of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and
humans
Human footprints, lunar surface, Apollo mission
Laetoli,Tanzania, Hominin tracks 3.5 million years ago

Physical Anthropology studies human biology in the framework of evolution, emphasizing the
interaction between biology and culture.
There is not a nature-nurture debate in Physical Anthropology, though how the interactions occur is not
always completely understood as yet.
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Adaptation response of organisms or populations to the environment, as a result of natural
selection
Genetic related to the gene structure and inheritance of traits from parent to offspring; the
foundation for evolutionary change
Culture learned behavioral aspects of human adaptation, or the strategy by which humans
adapt
Biocultural evolution means biology makes culture possible,
Developing culture further influences the direction of biological evolution. It creates
novel cultural environments.
Biocultural interactions have caused anatomical, biological, and behavioral changes in
humans.
Put simplyhumans are the result of long-term interactions between biology and culture.
Sub-fields of Physical Anthropology
Physical Anthropology has many subfields though three are the most important.
Human Genetics (understanding the evolution of human biological variation)
Primatology (field and lab studies of Primates)
Paleoanthropology (evolution of ancient humans)
Evolution - a change in the genetic structure of a population, this is a continuumthere is no strong
evidence that the processes at the micro level are different from those that occur at higher levels
Microevolution - small genetic changes that occur within a species.
Macroevolution - changes that occur only after many generations, requiring more time e.g. the
appearance of a new species (speciation) may result from cumulative change
Human Genetics
Genetics is the study of gene structure and action, including patterns of inheritance of traits from parent
to offspring.
Genetic mechanisms are the foundation for evolutionary change and different families and local groups
often differ in their genetic patterns
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code and is a
main component of chromosomes.
Anthropological geneticists study the Maasai cattle herders in Tanzania. Data derived from various
genetic and body measurements, including height and weight, were used in a health and nutritional
study. They showed that the Maasai have genetically adapted to their diet of drinking whole milk.
Primatology Jill Pruetz, chimpanzees in Senegal.
Because nonhuman primates are our closest living relatives, identifying the factors related to social
behavior, communication, infant care and reproductive behavior helps us develop a better
understanding of the natural forces that shaped modern human behavior.
Molecular Anthropology investigates evolutionary relationships between human populations
and between humans and nonhuman primates.
Cloning and sequencing methods identify genes in humans and nonhuman primates.
Identifying a genetically modified bacterial clone
Paleoanthropology studies earlier hominins [Drimolen site, South Africa]
The study of anatomical and behavioral human evolution as in the past using the fossil record.
Hominin fossil date back to 7 mya & Primates date back to 60 mya.

Some other Sub-Fields of Physical Anthropology

Anthropometry is the measurement of human body parts [e.g. measuring cranial form]
 Describing visible physical variation among various human populations to determine possible
adaptive significance,
Used to design ergonomically efficient designs, wheelchairs or body armor for soldiers.
Sports medicine [Treadmill test assesses heart rate, blood pressure, O2 consumption].
Osteology: The Study of Skeletal Materials.
Paleopathology: a subdiscipline of osteology, studies disease and trauma in archaeologically
derived skeletal populations.
Forensic Anthropology
Applied Anthropology is the practical use of anthropological theories and methods outside the
academic setting.
Medical anthropology explores relationships between various cultural attributes, health and disease.
Scientific Method
Physical anthropologists adhere to principles of the scientific method- the testing of hypotheses and the
development of testable theories (explanations)
Science is a body of knowledge gained through observation and experimentation, or an
empirical approach.
A hypothesis is a provisional explanation of a phenomenon, verified or falsified through testing.
Collected information, or data, is studied, analyzed, and expressed quantitatively.
Some Scientific Principles
Causes always precede effects in time
Supernatural explanations are non-testable (one can always give attributes to a supernatural
being or force that can produce any result)
To test a hypothesis or some theory one needs to have some possible result that would falsify a
theory an hypothesis should have a predictable outcome.
Hypothesis Testing - based on the potential to falsify the hypothesis (falsification)
Falsification does not mean that the entire hypothesis is untrue, but does indicate that the hypothesis
may need to be refined or modified and subjected to further testing.
Eventually a hypothesis that stands up to repeated testing may become part of a theory or a theory
itself. A hypothesis is not false simply because it may be falsified in the future.
Facts, Laws, Hypothesis, Theory
Facts are merely corroborated observations (sometimes facts themselves can be falsified by new
observations)
Laws are correlated facts (eg. Larger masses have greater gravitational strength than smaller
ones). Laws are patternsnot explanations. Its a common misconception that laws are higher
in Science than a theory [e.g. Moores Law of RAM doubling every 18 months]
From Hypothesis to Theory
Hypotheses are local explanations using natural forces
When a hypothesis is applied to more and more events (i.e. is more general) and proves to have
predictive power (past, present, future, all places on earth, on other planets, etc.) it becomes a
Theory
Some Examples of Theories
Atomic Theory (matter is made up of essential units called atoms)
Electromagnetic Theory
Quantum Theory (deals with subatomic structure)
Theory of Optics
Mendels Theory of Inheritance (how traits are inherited)
 Germ Theory (some diseases are the result of infectious particles like viruses or bacteria; some
diseases ARENT but that doesnt falsify the germ theory, but simply means it applies to SOME
diseases)
Evolutionary Theory (organisms have ancestors and change through time one modification
allows the idea that new species may originate from division of a lineage- creating diversity)
Critical Thinking [evaluating hypotheses and evidence] necessary in science and valuable in
everyday life.
The advertising industry claims cosmetic collagen creams reduce wrinkles.
The most beneficial properties of the creams are the UV filters and moisturizers,
although they wont eliminate wrinkles.
Collagen a major protein constituent of skin tissue, is not absorbed into skin cells, and
even if it were, it would not replenish what has been destroyed.
Climate Change
Some politicians routinely make claims that we do not have enough scientific data to justify spending
billions of dollars on preventive measures aimed at slowing the warming trend in global climate change.
While a small minority of climate scientists are not convinced, most are. Much of the disagreement is
not whether warming is happening or if human activities are a factor, but how fast it is happening, how
warm it will get, and the consequences.
Is it natural vs. anthropogenic?
Past patterns and causes. Milankovich cycles correlate strongly to prior glacial cycles. But modern
situation of astronomical predictors suggests we should be entering an Ice-Age. If we are warming
that would suggest something is over-riding the Natural Cycle.
Effect of release of Greenhouse gasses. Chemists recognize this should have a significant impact on
climate.
Taking an Anthropological Perspective
A broad comparative perspective that helps us understand the diversity of the human
experience within the context of biological and behavioral continuity with other species.
By learning about cultures other than our own, we can avoid an ethnocentric view of other
cultures.
By recognizing that we have similarities with other animals, we may recognize that they have a
place in nature just as we do.