Device To Device Communication

This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been
fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/COMST.2014.2375934, IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
Device-to-Device Communication in LTE-Advanced

Networks: A Survey
Jiajia Liu, Member, IEEE, Nei Kato, Fellow, IEEE, Jianfeng Ma, and Naoto Kadowaki, Member, IEEE
AbstractAmong the LTE-A communication techniques,

Device-to-Device (D2D) communication which is defined to di-
rectly route data traffic between spatially closely located mobile
user equipments (UEs), holds great promise in improving energy
efficiency, throughput, delay, as well as spectrum efficiency. As
a combination of ad-hoc and centralized communication mecha-
nisms, D2D communication enables researchers to merge together
the long-term development achievements in previously disjoint
domains of ad-hoc networking and centralized networking. In
order to help researchers to have a systematic understanding of
the emerging D2D communication, we provide in this paper a
comprehensive survey of available D2D related research works
ranging from technical papers to experimental prototypes to
standard activities, and outline some open research problems
which deserve further studies. Fig. 1. Illustration of D2D communications among multi-tier cells in LTE-A
HetNets.
KeywordsDevice-to-device communication, LTE-A, small cells,
heterogeneous networks.
massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), millimeter
I. I NTRODUCTION waves, low-power nodes (LPNs, e.g., pico eNBs, femto eNBs,
and relays), as well as D2D communication, which are believed
The last decade has witnessed an unprecedented growth in to be able to significantly enhance the current 4G cellular
both the amount of mobile broadband traffic and the user technologies in terms of system capacity, coverage, peak rates,
demand for faster data access. According to the latest Cisco throughput, latency, user experience, etc. The requirement of
visual networking index [1], the traffic amount of global mo- combining such a variety of technologies to operate together
bile data grew 81 percent and the mobile network connection in a seamless fashion, brings about the necessity of supporting
speeds more than doubled in 2013. Whats more, smartphones a LTE-A heterogeneous network (HetNet) deployment, which
representing only 27 percent of total global handsets in use, typically consists of a variety of radio access technologies (e.g.,
generated 95 percent of data traffic. Such massive consumer LTE, HSPA, Wi-Fi, CDMA2000, etc.), multiple formats of
demand for mobile data access has been pushing communi- cells (i.e., mutli-tier cells) with different cell sizes and power
cation engineers to seek for new cellular architectures and levels, various backhaul technologies, and many other aspects.
paradigms to squeeze the last bit out of the limited frequency
resources. Among these LTE-A techniques, D2D communication is
Considering the current 4G technologies cannot fulfill the defined to directly route data traffic between spatially closely
huge gap between the actual communication performances and located mobile UEs. With D2D communication, the data
the forthcoming user expectations, Third Generation Partner- between a UE pair does not need to traverse through the eNB
ship Project (3GPP) has been developing an enhanced Long- (abbreviation for evolved Node B or eNodeB, the evolution of
Term Evolution (LTE) radio interface called LTE-Advanced the element Node B in UTRA of UMTS) or the core network
(LTE-A). LTE-A radio interface is designed with a lot of ad- as long as they are in proximity. Due to the short communica-
vanced communication techniques such as carrier aggregation, tion range between a D2D pair, D2D communication holds
great promise in improving energy efficiency, throughput,
J. Liu and J. Ma are with the State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services delay, as well as spectrum efficiency. The applications of
Networks, School of Computer Science and Technology, Xidian University, D2D communication include content sharing (e.g., videos and
No.2 South Taibai Road, Xian, Shaanxi, 710071, China. E-mail: liujia- pictures), gaming, connectivity extension, traffic offloading,
jia@xidian.edu.cn. disaster relief, etc.
N. Kato is with the Graduate School of Information Sciences, To-
hoku University, Aobayama 6-3-09, Sendai, 980-8579, JAPAN. E-mail: Basically, D2D communication is a very flexible communi-
kato@it.ecei.tohoku.ac.jp. cation technique with unique advantages compared to available
N. Kadowaki is with the National Institute of Information and Communica- communication techniques. In particular, a mobile UE may
tions Technology (NICT), Tokyo, 184-8795, Japan. E-mail: naoto@nict.go.jp.
This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
have multiple radio access technologies simultaneously em-
dation of China under grants 61372073, 61373043 and 61202394, and by the bedded, given the development trend of its processing power
Key Program of NSFC-Guangdong Union Foundation U1135002. and computation ability. For example, most of todays mobile
1553-877X (c) 2013 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
phones support three radio access technologies, i.e., cellular as IEEE JSAC Special Issue on Device-to-Device Communica-
(3G or 4G), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. The diversity of radio accessing tions in Cellular Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine
in mobile UEs provides for D2D communication lots of flexi- Special Issue on Smart Device-to-Smart Device Communica-
bility in the aspects of link establishment, resource allocation, tions, etc. Here we present a review of available D2D research
energy efficiency, as well as applications and services. Fig. 1 works as follows.
illustrates an example of D2D communications among multi-
tier cells in LTE-A HetNets, where the D2D pairs may exist in
the same cell or stretch over different cells, may communicate A. Interference Management
as an underlay or overlay to the existing LTE-A network, or Interference management is regarding the interference con-
even operate in industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band trol aspect of introducing D2D communication to LTE-A
or unused band. cellular network. D2D communication, as a promising tech-
As a combination (or mixture) of ad-hoc and centralized nique to improve spectrum and power efficiency and to in-
communications, D2D communication enables communication crease network coverage, has to fairly address a very basic
engineers and researchers to merge together the achievements requirement for interference management. That is, the adoption
of long-term development in previously disjoint networking of D2D communication should never affect or degrade the
techniques, i.e., ad-hoc networking and centralized networking. surrounding ongoing communication services, such as the
D2D pairs may form clusters or multi-hop routes, and may cellular communication, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc. Depending on
operate autonomously or under partial or full control of the the spectrum used by D2D UEs, the research focus can be
operator. On one hand, due to the ad-hoc feature of D2D com- the interference control between D2D communications and
munication, it can be easily integrated with available promising cellular uplink (UL) and downlink (DL) communications when
techniques such as cooperative communication and cognitive D2D UEs use the same frequency resources as cellular UEs
radio, so as to further enhance its potential in improving spec- (i.e., the in-band case), or the interference control between
trum efficiency. On the other hand, with the assistance of the D2D communications and surrounding ISM band communi-
operator, it is possible to achieve network-wide performance cations when D2D UEs use the ISM band (i.e., the out-
optimization after properly allocating frequency bands to D2D of-band case). Basically, the main technical challenges for
pairs and managing the interference there. Furthermore, since interference management arises from the following aspects: the
the operator may obtain the geographical locations of all random mobility of both cellular and D2D UEs, the random
mobile UEs, it can easily create common links among the channel status distribution, the operation complexity in terms
traffic routes of multiple D2D pairs which are required for of signaling overhead and inter-cell coordination, etc. In light
maximizing the benefits of network coding techniques, by of the essential factors affecting per link signal to interference
appropriately allocating time slots or scheduling transmissions plus noise ratio (SINR), available efforts for interference man-
for D2D communications. agement are mainly taken from the following aspects: power
As motivated by the above significant promise of D2D control, channel status, and frequency resources. According to
communication, worldwide researchers have been intensively the algorithm operation for interference management, available
exploring the potentials and techniques of applying D2D works can also be categorized as centralized algorithms and
communication. In order to best utilize the limited spectrum distributed algorithms.
resources, one of the core issues is to make clear when and how In-Band D2D - Centralized Interference Control
to conduct D2D communication, e.g., in autonomous manner For the in-band case, D2D transmission will cause interfer-
or controlled manner, in licensed band or unlicensed band, etc. ence to and also suffer interference from other ongoing cellular
In this paper, we provide a comprehensive survey of available transmissions. Fig. 2(a) and Fig. 2(b) illustrate the intracell
D2D related research works ranging from technical papers to interference and intercell interference for the UL case and the
experimental prototypes to standard activities, which may help DL case, respectively.
researchers to have a systematic understanding of the emerging The D2D-to-cellular interference, for both the UL case and
D2D communication. the DL case, can be efficiently managed by adopting the
The remainder of this paper is outlined as follows. We power control mechanism and strictly limiting the maximum
review the state-of-the-art research works about D2D com- D2D transmit power, which allows D2D transmissions to reuse
munication in Section II, and introduce available prototypes the cellular spectrum without degrading the performance of
and experiments developed for D2D studies in Section III. We cellular network [2], [3]. In particular, it may include fixed
summarize in Section IV the candidate radio technologies for power scheme, fixed signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) target scheme,
D2D communication, and also the latest progress of 3GPP (LTE) open loop fraction power control scheme, and close loop
activities, discuss the open research issues in Section V, and power control scheme [4]. For the simplest scenario of a D2D
finally conclude the whole paper in Section VI. pair and a cellular UE, it was proved that a simple power
control of D2D transmitter is able to provide D2D UEs SINR
statistics comparable to that of cellular UE in most of the cell
II. S TATE - OF - THE -A RT R ESEARCH W ORKS area, while constraining the SINR degradation of the cellular
Due to the increasing interest in D2D communications link to a certain level [5]. For a single cell LTE-A network
from academia, industry, and standard bodies, there have been including a D2D multicast group in which a D2D transmitter
several special issues dedicated to D2D communications, such needs to transmit to multiple D2D receivers using the same
D2D link is no bigger than a specified threshold. In [13],

a distance-constrained interference management scheme was
proposed for the eNB to select a cellular UE for a D2D
pair, where the cellular-to-D2D interference in UL frame is
controlled by keeping a minimum distance between the cellular
UE and D2D receiver.
In-Band D2D - Distributed Interference Control
For a network where D2D UEs reuse the orthogonal
(a) Case of D2D UEs reusing cellular UL resources. frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) UL physical re-
source blocks (PRBs), a distributed power control algorithm
was proposed to minimize the overall power consumption for
both cellular mode and D2D mode [14]. The algorithm consists
of two part: an SINR setting part to set individual SINR
targets for all links, so as to minimize sum power consumption
with respect to the given sum rate requirement; and a power
allocation part to set power level for each link. Some results
were given there for the case of a single cellular link and a
D2D link, but the algorithm performance for networks with
multiple cellular links and D2D links remains unexplored.
(b) Case of D2D UEs reusing cellular DL resources.
Kaufman et al. [15] developed a distributed spectrum
Fig. 2. Illustration of intracell interference and intercell interference for the reusing protocol for D2D communications without any co-
scenarios where D2D UEs use the same frequency resources as cellular UEs. ordination from the infrastructure, in which D2D users op-
portunistically access the UL frequency resources, resulting
in SINR degradation of an active cellular link bounded by a
UL resources as cellular UEs, an interference management specified margin . In particular, there are two main steps in
scheme was proposed in [6]. The eNB first calculates an upper the proposed protocol. First, each D2D user, in a distributed
bound on the D2D transmitter power to control the interference manner, sets feasible transmit power that keeps the interference
from D2D transmitter to eNB, and then allocates appropriate it causes within the allowed interference bound , by utilizing
PRBs to cellular UEs and D2D transmitter so as to mitigate the statistical estimates of the channel gains between itself and
the interference from cellular transmissions to D2D multicast the eNB. Second, a D2D transmitter utilizes dynamic source
receivers. routing (DSR) protocol [16] to discover either a single-hop
Also, it is possible to manage the D2D-to-cellular interfer- or multi-hop route to the intended D2D receiver, where the
ence by properly allocating channel resources to D2D transmit- transmitter and forwarding relays add their transmit power
ters, i.e., the so-called interference-aware resource allocation and measured interference power as well as their addresses
[7]. An example can be found in [8], where the eNB is assumed to the route discovery packets. The outage probability as well
to be able to obtain the accumulated interference sensed by as a lower bound was derived for the case of single-hop route
each D2D receiver as well as channel gains of both cellular between the D2D transmitter and receiver.
links and D2D links. Distinct SINR threshold values are set Out-of-Band D2D - Distributed Interference Control
for the eNB (UL phase) and D2D receivers, and a D2D link Erturk et al. considered a D2D network where cellular and
transmission can be allowed if and only if it will not cause D2D transmissions use different bands [17]. It was assumed
any other ongoing cellular and D2D transmission to fail. that each D2D receiver only receives from the nearest D2D
The cellular-to-D2D interference, however, should also be transmitter, and the transmit power distribution at all D2D
carefully addressed so as to maintain appropriate SINR for transmitters follows the i.i.d. distribution. A requirement of
D2D links. As the eNB may obtain full channel state infor- minimum SINR value was assumed for all D2D links, and
mation (CSI) of all cellular links, the cellular-to-D2D inter- each D2D transmitter adjusts its transmit power individually to
ference in DL phase may be efficiently managed using the satisfy the SINR requirement at its receiver. After analyzing the
transmit beamforming technique [9]. Regarding the case of network statistics with homogeneous Poisson Point Processes
D2D communication reusing UL resources, Min et al. [10] (PPP), cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) of the transmit
proposed a D -interference limited area (ILA) based control power and SINR are analytically derived for the considered
scheme to manage interference from cellular UEs to D2D D2D network.
receiver. According to the scheme, any cellular UE located Note that besides the cellular-to-D2D interference and the
within the D -ILA is not allowed to use the same UL resources D2D-to-cellular interference discussed above, there also exists
as D2D transmitter; otherwise the interference-to-signal ratio another type of interference, i.e., the D2D-D2D interference
at the D2D receiver will exceed the predefined threshold D . among simultaneous D2D transmissions. For centralized in-
Later, the concept of ILA was extended in [11] for interference terference management, the D2D-D2D interference can be
control of reusing DL resources. In [12], an interference effectively controlled by allocating proper frequency resources
limited ring (ILR) based control strategy (similar to that in to D2D pairs, i.e., the interference-aware resource allocation,
[10]) was proposed to guarantee the outage probability of the see [7], [8] for example. For the case of distributed interference
control, autonomous power adjustment at each D2D transmitter of allocating UL resource for D2D are also obvious in the
according to its required SINR target, appears to be a good perspectives of system complexity, design cost, interference
option for managing the interference among multiple D2D control, etc. The first priority in resource allocation can be
links [17]. given to D2D pairs where the allocation scheme should satisfy
Summary: Although the basic rule is to introduce D2D the QoS requirement of D2D pairs [21], [22], or given to
communication without degrading available cellular commu- cellular UEs which is the major case in literature. A summary
nication (actually, most works fell into this group), we should of available resource allocation related works can be found in
also try to avoid affecting ongoing D2D communications when Table I, where the research works are classified according to
scheduling cellular links. In addition to the very limited works, a quantitive description of their considered network scenario
i.e., the beamforming technique for D2D reusing DL resources complexity. In particular, the papers are divided into rows
[9] (of which the actual effects are still unknown), and the according to the number of involved D2D pairs and cellular
spatial distance based schemes for D2D reusing UL resources UEs, namely one/multiple D2D pair(s), one/multiple cellular
[10][13], more research efforts are desirable to further explore UE(s). For the research papers in each row of Table I, besides
techniques for managing the interference from cellular UEs introducing the resource type (i.e, UL/DL) reused for D2D
to D2D receivers. Another issue is that the impact of UE communication, we also identify the problem target in resource
mobility on the interference management schemes remains allocation as well as the solutions and tools.
unknown, since almost all available works assumed static Up to now, there are three resource allocation modes for
nodes. Also, the controlling overhead should be analyzed reusing licensed spectrum resources [23]:
together with the efficiency when proposing an interference Underlay Mode: D2D pairs and cellular UEs share the
management scheme, which are essential for enabling a fair same spectrum resources, which has the advantage of
comparison between centralized and distributed schemes, but achieving the best spectrum efficiency. It is noticed that
currently missing in literature. Whats more, the applicability in underlay mode, one of the key issues is to effec-
of adopting ISM band for D2D communication needs more tively control the D2D-to-cellular and cellular-to-D2D
attention, for which the benefit of no interference issue with interference. A commonly adopted method in literature
cellular communications is clear but the potential impact on is to control the transmit power of both D2D links and
the prevalent Wi-Fi and Bluetooth services, especially in urban cellular links.
areas, is still untouched. Overlay Mode: Dedicated frequency resources are allo-
cated for D2D communications, and the remaining part
is allocated for cellular communications. In such mode,
B. Radio Resource Management and Optimization there is no interference issue between D2D and cellular
The topic of radio resource management and optimization, communications. One research focus is how to optimize
mainly addresses the research issues of how to optimally assign the resource allocation ratio.
frequency resources to a group of or all D2D pairs so as Cellular Mode: Instead of communicating directly with
to optimize some performance metrics. Depending on the air each other, D2D UEs communicate with the eNB acting
interfaces available at UEs, D2D pairs can use either licensed as an intermediate relay, which is the same as the
spectrum resources or other unlicensed or unused band for traditional cellular system.
communication [2], [18]. Basically, the frequency resources For a simple scenario with a single cellular UE and a D2D
should be allocated to D2D communications according to pair, the optimality of above three distinct resource allocation
the specific rule instructing network design. For example, a modes in terms of sum rate was discussed in detail under
D2D pair may select a resource pool for both upstream and practical constraints, e.g., minimum and maximum spectral
downstream or dedicated resources for upstream/downstream efficiency restrictions [24], maximum transmit power and
autonomously and individually; on the other hand, a D2D pair energy limitation [23], average CSI [25], cellular rate guarantee
may have to use the radio resources assigned by the eNB in SINR domain [26]. Later, for the same network scenario,
and is not allowed to decide by itself. The main technical the energy efficiency issue of the three allocation modes were
challenge comes from the network dynamics in terms of analyzed [28]. Liu et al. [29] discussed the mode selection of
varying distributions of D2D pairs and cellular UEs, the a single D2D pair between underlay mode and overlay mode
network state information required for optimal solution, as well by introducing specific relay nodes. Another example of mode
as the limited time available for computing and scheduling. selection for the setting of including relay nodes can be found
Available works proposed optimal or suboptimal distributed or in [30].
centralized schemes to allocate frequency resources for D2D In [27], Yu et al. applied Han-Kobayashi rate splitting based
communication, maximizing the spectrum efficiency, the sum resource sharing scheme for a single cell scenario with a D2D
rate of whole system or a particular groups of users, the energy pair and a cellular UE. In such scheme, the transmitted mes-
efficiency, minimizing the interference or outage probability, sage is split into a private part which is decodable only by the
achieving some specific fairness or other defined target. intended receiver, and a public part which is decodable by both
For the case of exploiting licensed cellular band for D2D receivers. For the case of reusing DL resources, the optimal
communication, basically, allocating UL resources for D2D rate splitting factors of total transmit power are derived for
communication are preferred [19], [20]. Besides the fact that both the D2D transmitter and the eNB. Comparisons with other
UL frequency band is always under-utilized, the advantages resource sharing modes which are based on power control
TABLE I. S UMMARY OF AVAILABLE RESOURCE ALLOCATION RELATED WORKS .

Network Scenario Related Works Reused Resources Target Solution and Tool
[23][26] UL and DL to maximize the sum rate linear optimization
One D2D pair [27] DL to maximize the sum rate Han-Kobayashi based derivations
noncooperative game theory
One cellular UE [28] UL to maximize the overall energy efficiency
and bisection method
One D2D pair
[29] UL to evaluate the function of relay node basic math derivations
One cellular UE
Three relay nodes [30] UL to maximize system sum rate basic math derivations
deriving the CDF of SINR
One D2D pair [22] UL to minimize the outage probability of D2D link
at the D2D receiver
Multiple cellular UEs [31] UL and DL to maximize the sum rate basic math derivations
One cellular UE to maximize the rate of D2D communications
[32] UL gradient descent method
Multiple D2D pairs and the number of admitted D2D links
[33] UL to maximize the sum rate MINLP and a two-phase algorithm
[34] UL to maximize the sum rate linear optimization and centralized algorithm
[35] UL to maximize the system energy efficiency exhaustive search
[36] UL to minimize the overall network transmission power MILP and distributed suboptimal joint scheme
max-min fairness integer optimization and
[37] UL and DL fair resource allocation
a cognitive-based two-phase solution approach
a subgradient-based algorithm
Multiple D2D pairs [38] UL to maximize the sum-throughput of D2D pairs
and Lagrangian dual theory
Multiple cellular UEs [39] UL to minimize the overall D2D-to-cellular interference MINLP and Hungarian Algorithm
[40] UL and DL to minimize the transmission length of D2D link MIP and a column generation method
a list-coloring theory
[41] UL to increase the spectrum efficiency
graph theory
autonomous resource selection by D2D
[42] UL to avoid near-far cellular-to-D2D interference
with eNB assistance
MINLP and
[43] UL and DL to diminish D2D-to-cellular interference
an alternative greedy heuristic algorithm
sequential second price auction
[44] DL to optimize the system sum rate
game theory
reverse iterative combinatorial auction
[45] DL to optimize the system sum rate
game theory
[46] UL and DL to optimize the mode selection for utility maximization evolutionary game
Multiple D2D clusters
[47] UL to maximize the sum-throughput of D2D multicast groups convex optimizaiton
Multiple cellular UEs
or orthogonal resource allocation, as well as the traditional multiple cellular UEs and multiple D2D UEs, where each
cellular mode, showed that in average sense, the rate splitting cellular UE is assumed to have one UL and one DL flow
mode is able to achieve higher sum rate than all the other between itself and the eNB. The authors proposed a cognitive-
resource sharing modes. However, the effect of applying the based two-phase solution approach, which first conducts fair
proposed splitting based scheme for D2D communications subchannel and rate allocations for cellular DL and UL flows
reusing UL resources, which is much preferred and of more with max-min fairness, and then performs resource allocation
potential, still remains unknown. for D2D flows with rate protection for cellular flows. In [46],
Chien et al. [33] considered joint mode selection and re- the theory of evolutionary game was applied for a cognitive
source allocation for a more general scenario involving multi- cellular network employing D2D communication for secondary
ple D2D pairs and multiple cellular UEs, where the target is to users, and a distributed resource allocation and mode selection
optimally determine the operation mode, radio resources, and scheme was proposed for secondary users to converge to
transmit power for sum rate maximization. In [34], the target the evolutionary stable strategy. For a cognitive D2D system,
is to maximize the overall sum rate of all D2D and cellular Omotere et al. [48] studied the throughput a device in a D2D
UEs by jointly considering centralized power control, resource pair can achieve in the presence of another D2D pair and a
allocation and mode selection. Jung et al. [35] proposed a joint cellular user over Nakagami-m fading channel. In [49], the
mode selection and power allocation scheme to maximize the authors adopted zero-sum game to model the transmission
system energy efficiency, based on an exhaustive search of all between a legitimate D2D transmitter and a jammer in cogni-
possible mode combinations of all D2D and cellular devices. tive secondary network, where the jammer tries to minimize
Belleschi et al. [36] proposed a distributed suboptimal joint the throughput between D2D pair by impairing the D2D
mode selection and resource allocation scheme to minimize communication. In [32], two distributed admission and power
the overall network transmission power. Peng et al. [38] also control algorithms were proposed to maximize the capacity
explored the optimality of resource allocation in the multiple of D2D communications and the number of admitted D2D
D2D pairs underlaying OFDMA-based networks, where the links respectively, where D2D pairs share the UL frequency by
target is to reach maximum sum-throughput of D2D pairs with employing cognitive radio techniques [50]. Another example
the constraint of limiting the rate loss of cellular UEs by a of reusing UL resources for peer-to-peer communication in
specific lower-bound parameter. 802.22 OFDMA system can be found in [51].
For cognition enabled D2D communication, Le et al. [37] Different from previous works where a D2D pair reuses
investigated the problem of fair resource allocation among the resource of only one cellular user [39], Wang et al.
proposed a resource allocation method in which a D2D pair eNodeB is lower during the UL phase.
can reuse the frequency resources of more than one cellular Game theory has also been adopted in the resource alloca-
user [31]. Phunchongharn et al. [40] also explored the problem tion for D2D underlaying cellular networks [52], [53], such as
of resource allocation for D2D communication underlaying sequential second price auction based allocation mechanism
LTE-A networks, by allowing multiple D2D transmissions in [44], reverse iterative combinatorial auction based allocation
the same PRB of a cellular user. The optimization target is mechanism [45], where the target is to optimize the system
to minimize the transmission length of D2D links (i.e., the sum rate over the DL resource sharing of both D2D and
number of time slots used for D2D communications), subject cellular modes.
to the maximum interference constraints of cellular links, Summary: Depending on the complexity, constraint and
the minimum SINR constraints of D2D links, the maximum target in the optimization problem of allocating frequency
transmit power constraints of D2D links, and also the minimum resources to D2D pairs, the most cost-efficient allocation
traffic demand of D2D links. After formulating the problem algorithm can be either distributed or centralized which may
as a mixed integer programming (MIP) problem, the authors be also suboptimal. The communication cost and overhead, no
proposed a column generation method to iteratively find the matter in the simple scenario of single cellular UE and one
near-optimal solutions, by decomposing the original problem D2D pair or in the complicated scenario of multiple cellular
into a restricted master problem and a pricing problem. The UEs and D2D pairs, have been neglected in literature and need
resource allocation for D2D multicasting has also been ex- be well addressed. Furthermore, it remains unknown whether
plored in [47], where a two-step joint subcarrier assignment the algorithm optimality proved for the simple scenario still
and power allocation scheme was proposed to optimize the hold for the general cellular network. As the eNB is able to
sum-throughput of D2D multicast groups with QoS guarantee compute and schedule based on the network state information
of cellular users. collected from UEs, the proposed centralized algorithms have
For a LTE time-division duplex (TDD) system where D2D the potential to achieve network-wide optimal performance,
communications reuse the cellular UL resources, Tsolkas et for which the main challenges are the necessary amount of
al. proposed a list-coloring theory based resource alloca- network information and the time required for computing
tion scheme to increase the spectrum efficiency [41]. In the the optimal solution. Therefore, it is desirable to carefully
proposed scheme, extra functions were assumed for D2D evaluate the centralized resource allocation algorithms together
transmitters to report their preferred UL subframes (selected with a setting of dynamically varying network topologies,
individually after monitoring the adjacent cellular transmis- as suggested by 3GPP in Section IV. Compared with the
sions) to eNBs. The eNB builds a node contention graph centralized algorithms, distributed algorithms in which D2D
(NCG) for all D2D transmitters according to their preferred pairs select frequency resource autonomously have a lot of
UL subframes, and then performs an interference-free resource advantages, such as low complexity, high adaptability and
allocation. The authors showed that the proposed scheme can flexibility, despite the difficulty to achieve global optimality.
not only efficiently support all intra-cell D2D communications
but also increase the data rate of inter-cell traffic. Furthermore,
performance comparisons in terms of spectrum efficiency and C. Performance Evaluation
fraction of feasible D2D links, were also provided for different This topic is related to the wide areas of experimentally
coloring algorithms, such as greedy, random sequential, and and analytically studying various performance metrics of D2D
repeat random sequential. Similarly, for a LTE frequency- communications in a variety of network scenarios, including
division duplex (FDD) system, it is also possible for D2D the methodologies and simulators, demos and testbeds, exper-
pairs to autonomously determine the UL radio resources iments and simulations, models and theories, etc. The main
given that the eNB broadcasts in the coverage cell the UL challenge for experimental study is to properly simulate D2D
resources allocated for cellular UEs and carrier sense multiple communications in a cellular network, given the fact that none
access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) type MAC is assumed of the popular network simulators (e.g., NS3, OPNET) provide
for D2D transmission [42]. the module of D2D communications. Also, the mathematical
Zulhasnine et al. [43] focused on diminishing the D2D- models for characterizing D2D pairs in cellular networks are
to-cellular interference by means of eNB allocating radio missing in literature. Some initial efforts have been taken
resources intelligently. For both UL phase and DL phase, the towards this end, and we introduce them as follows.
problem of radio resource allocation to the D2D communica- Simulator for D2D Communication: A system-level sim-
tions was formulated, respectively, as a mixed integer nonlinear ulator was developed in [19] for performance evaluation of
programming (MINLP). Considering the LTE-A network has D2D communication underlaying LTE-A networks. The main
very short scheduling period which is far from sufficient module consists of the following five sub-modules: 1) Packet
for solving MINLP, an alternative greedy heuristic algorithm scheduler module, which allocates frequency resources for
was proposed to mitigate the D2D-to-cellular interference by packet transmission according to three scheduling algorithms,
utilizing channel gain information. In particular, the algorithm i.e., round robin, proportional fair, and maximum carrier-to-
shares with D2D transmitter appropriate radio resource of interference ratio; 2) Call admission control module, determin-
which the channel gain between the D2D transmitter and ing whether the eNB should accept/reject new service request
cellular UE is lower during the DL phase, and radio resource and handover request based on the maximum allowed packet
of which the channel gain between the D2D transmitter and delays or the estimation of wireless resources; 3) Channel
modeling module including WINNER II C1 NLOS path loss

model, 8 dB log-normal shadow fading, as well as Rayleigh
fading; 4) Traffic generator module in which VoIP and video
streaming are defined for real time services, and FTP and web
browsing are defined for non-real time services; 5) Mobility
management module with a 2-D random walk model where
a cellular UE or D2D UE determines its next destination by
randomly selecting direction, velocity, and flight time. Besides,
GUI function has also been developed by using the Microsoft
foundation class libraries. Considering the importance of sim-
ulator for experimental evaluation of D2D communication, Fig. 3. Illustration of multi-hop routing paths between source-destination
much more efforts are required. pairs in hybrid wireless networks, where the dotted line denotes the D2D
link, the dot-dashed line denotes the cellular link, and the solid line denotes
Multiple Antennas for D2D Communication: Osseiran et al. the wired connection.
evaluated the necessity of mutliple antennas for D2D com-
munications in [54]. They considered a TDD LTE-Advanced
network with 100 MHz band divided into 5 sub-bands of 20
MHz, and assigned each sub-band to one cellular UE and operate in ad hoc mode and cellular mode. Therefore, the
one D2D link. It was shown that when reusing the cellu- routing path between a source-destination pair may consist of
lar DL resources in an interference-limited multicell indoor ad hoc links, cellular links (ULs and DLs), as well as wired
environment, D2D communications suffered severe interfere links, as illustrated in Fig. 3. It is noticed that one common
from the eNB transmission. Specifically, almost 60% of single- assumption of available scaling law studies is that the D2D (ad
antenna D2D receivers cannot achieve the necessary SINR for hoc) communications will not interfere with ongoing cellular
reasonable data rates, and even with advanced multi-antenna transmissions. That is, ad hoc communications use dedicated
not all D2D receivers can achieve the minimum required frequency band (i.e., overlay mode), ISM band, or other unused
SINR. A TDD single cell multiple-user MIMO scenario was band. Another assumption is regarding the coverage area by
considered in [55]. In particular, the D2D pair and cellular a basestation, which is usually assumed as square [58][60],
UEs are assumed to be equipped with single antenna, while hexagon [61], Voronoi tessellation [62], etc., so as to facilitate
the eNB has multiple antennas. An incremental relay mode the analysis of scaling laws. It was shown in [61] that there
was considered for the case of D2D pair reusing UL resources, exists a threshold for the scaling speed of the number of
where the eNB receives and decodes the signal broadcasted by base stations, above which the adding of base stations to ad
the D2D transmitter in the UL frame, instead of treating it as hoc networks could achieve non-negligible throughput capacity
interference. If the signal reception at the D2D receiver was gains (i.e., a linearly increasing throughput capacity (M )
in outage, the eNB conveys the decoded signal to the D2D with the number of base stations M ). Later, a similar threshold
receiver in the DL frame. It was shown that the incremental was obtained in [58], [63]. The authors in [62] proved that
relay mode could achieve higher spectral efficiency than both the linear capacity in [61] is not attainable in a random
underlay mode and cellular mode when the minimum rate network scenario with Voronoi tessellations of the coverage
requirement for D2D pair is relatively moderate. A similar area by base stations, in which the throughput capacity is only
outage analysis can be found in [56], where the eNB is also (N/ log N ), N is the number of mobile nodes. Agarwal and
equipped with multiple antennas and is able to operate as in in- Kumar [64] further explored the random network scenario and
cremental relay mode. Janis et al. [57] investigated the problem showed that the (M ) throughput capacity can be achieved
of applying MIMO techniques to avoid generating interference if both base stations and mobile nodes are allowed to perform
to intra-cell D2D receivers for the DL of a cellular network, power control. Recently, the authors in [59] showed that
where the eNB, the cellular UEs, the D2D transmitters, and by employing the approach of each source node connecting
the D2D receivers are assumed to have multiple antennas. to the nearest base stations via multi-hopptransmissions, the
A precoding based approach was proposed in [57], and the throughput capacity scales as = ( M N/ log N ) if
basic idea is to constrain the signal transmitted by the eNB to M = O(n/ log n), and as = (M ) if M = (n/ log n);

lie in an interference-free subspace, and then enable the eNB and the average delay scales as ( M ). By utilizing the node
to perform open or closed loop MIMO transmissions. For an mobility constrained in each cell, it is possible to achieve
indoor single cell scenario, a 9% overall cell capacity gain over (M ) capacity, resulting in an average delay of ( N log M
N
) if
cellular eigenbeamforming DL transmissions was reported. M = O(N ) and (1) if M = (N ) [60]. Researchers have
Throughput and Delay Analysis for D2D Communication: also studied the throughput capacity from the perspectives of
There is another group of research works which focused on network topology and traffic pattern [65], multiple antennas
exploring the throughput and delay scaling laws of hybrid [66], directional antenna [67], fading channels [68], mobility
wireless networks, i.e., ad hoc wireless networks with in- patterns [69], [70].
frastructure support. In such hybrid wireless networks there Summary: Besides the D2D simulator developed in [19],
exists two types of network elements: base stations which much more efforts are required to provide a specific D2D
are assumed to have infinite-bandwidth wireline connections module to integrate with the open-source network simulator
between each other, and mobile nodes which are able to NS3, or other simulators like OPNET and QualNet. Since
the technique of massive MIMO has been regarded as one solve the problem, the authors proposed a centralized three-
of the important feature of coming 5G system and it is highly step greedy iterative algorithm, in which the eNB iteratively
possible for a UE to have several antennas, the performance conduct the three steps until convergence.
evaluation of MIMO enabled D2D communications may attract D2D for Group Communication: Zhou et al. [76] explored
more attention. Also, the order sense scaling laws reported for the problem of using D2D communications for intra-cluster
the throughput and delay of D2D communication, although data multicasting, where D2D UEs act as relays to retransmit
able to illustrate the varying tendency, are far from enough in the received data among multicast recipients within a cluster. In
instructing the cellular network design. Fine-grained analytical particular, mobile UEs located within vicinity form a cluster,
models and studies are required to evaluate in details the D2D where the UEs are able to communicate directly with each
communication performances, including the throughput and other in dedicated licensed band, in addition to being served
delay, the spectrum and energy efficiency, the reliability, as by the eNB. Every time the eNB multicasts a data block
well as the relationship with network settings. For such kind to a D2D cluster, not all devices in the cluster can decode
of performance analysis, the theory of stochastic geometry [71] the data correctly due to the diversity channel properties of
may be a helpful tool to characterize the spatial distribution of cellular downlinks. Instead of resorting to the traditional eNB
UEs and eNBs in a large scale cellular networks. retransmissions, the mobile UEs which successfully receive
the multicast data from the eNB, retransmit the data by
D2D communications within the cluster. By analyzing how
D. Applications and Services the minimum time-frequency resource cost varies with the
This topic addresses the potential applications and services number of D2D relays within a cluster and the D2D channel
of D2D communication, given its irreplaceable advantages due condition, a closed-form PDF for the optimal number of
to the short range feature between mobile UEs within prox- D2D relays were derived. Furthermore, the authors proposed
imity. The advantages include high spectrum efficiency, low an optimal intra-cluster D2D retransmission scheme, which
power consumption, high transmission rate, reduced hops in adaptively selects the number of D2D relays performing single
traffic routing, low latency, etc. It is relatively easier to develop or multiple one-to-many D2D retransmissions by adopting
D2D communication based applications and services for the an iterative subcluster partition algorithm. It was shown that
case of D2D reusing ISM radio resources, such as the AirDrop the D2D retransmission based scheme can achieve significant
from Apple Inc., which utilizes WiFi and Bluetooth for content gains in resource utilization efficiency compared to the case
sharing. For the case of D2D reusing the licensed cellular of fixing the number of retransmitters. The authors in [77]
band, one has to address the issues of interference and radio studied the clustering strategy in D2D multicast, i.e., how to
resource allocation before developing D2D based applications. form multicast clusters and distribute data effectively in D2D
Available works gives several examples of utilizing D2D multicast mode. The concept of employing network controlled
communication for distributed storage, network connectivity, reliable D2D multicasting for file transfer and even streaming
group communication, and cellular traffic offloading. services was explored in [78], where the network controls the
D2D for Distributed Storage: Golrezaei et al. proposed resource allocation and transmission power of D2D devices.
to adopt local D2D communication for video distribution by D2D for Cellular Data Offloading: One promising ap-
allowing mobile UEs to store popular content [72]. It is showed plication of D2D communications is to offload traffic and
that the scaling behavior of the average number of D2D mitigate congestion for LTE-A HetNets [79][81]. In order
links which can coexist without interfering with each other, to achieve efficient load balancing according to the real-time
depends on both the content request statistics and content cache distributions of cellular traffic in LTE-A networks, Liu et al.
statistics modeled by Zipf distributions with parameters r and [79] proposed a D2D communication based traffic offloading
c , respectively. Specifically, for the practical case of r < 1 algorithm which utilizes D2D communications as bridges to
and c > 1, a closed form expression was derived through the flexibly detour traffic among different tier cells. In addition to
Chen-Stein method for the scaling behavior of the number of the direct traffic offloading via one-hop D2D communications,
D2D links that coexist without interference [73]. the proposed algorithm is able to take advantage of two-
D2D for Network Connectivity: Li et al. investigated the hop D2D communications to efficiently detour traffic from
issue of exploiting D2D communications for maximizing net- congested macrocells, picocells or femtocells to neighboring
work connectivity in a two-tier LTE-A HetNet with femtocells uncongested cells. Specifically, consider a congested macro
[74]. In particular, femtocells are configured as open access eNB (pico eNB or femto eNB) to which an attached mobile
and will be turned on only when it is necessary to maximize UE is requesting for Internet access. The congested macro eNB
the network connectivity. D2D UEs are able to have multihop operates as follows:
connections besides the connection to the macro eNB or a Step 1: it tries to offload the requesting UE to an
femto eNB. The network connectivity is calculated with the uncongested cell adjacent to the UE via a D2D relay,
minimum cut tree method [75], in which the network is as shown in Fig. 4(a). If the macro eNB failed in Step
partitioned into two parts by removing the links of minimum 1 due to reasons such as all neighboring eNBs are fully
cut costs. By utilizing the Laplacian matrix and normalized cut loaded, or there is no eligible D2D relay, or there is no
(Ncut) which identifies the network bottleneck, the network other eNBs around the requesting UE, etc., it proceeds
connectivity optimization problem is formalized into a graph to Step 2.
cut problem, where the target is to maximize the Ncut. To Step 2: the macro eNB tries to first offload a currently
(a) Step 1 (b) Step 2
(c) Step 3 (d) Step 4
Fig. 4. Illustration of the D2D communications based traffic offloading algorithm [79].
being served macro-tier UE to an adjacent uncongested works exploring the D2D based applications and services was
cell via a D2D relay, and then reallocates for the request- actually very limited in literature, and much more research
ing UE the PRBs occupied previously by the offloaded efforts are encouraged towards this topic. Before the standards
UE. An example of Step 2 is illustrated in Fig. 4(b). If bodies finalizes the schemes of allocating cellular band for
the macro eNB failed in Step 2, it proceeds to Step 3. D2D communication, a variety of demo systems are welcome
Step 3: the macro eNB tries to offload the requesting UE to comprehensively and quantitively illustrate the benefits as
to an adjacent congested eNB, which is able to release well as the possible cost of conducting D2D communications
some PRBs by offloading a currently being served UE in licensed band. On the other hand, note that the D2D based
(like the UE 3 in Fig. 4(c)) to its nearby uncongested application is still rare in Android market, and thus there will
cell. Similarly, the macro eNB proceeds to Step 4 if be a large space for developing D2D applications using the
failed in Step 3. ISM band.
Step 4: the macro eNB tries to allocate for the requesting
UE the PRBs newly released by offloading a currently III. I MPLEMENTATION OF D2D C OMMUNICATIONS
being served macro-tier UE to a nearby congested eNB,
Generally speaking, in a cellular network, D2D commu-
which succeeds to offload a being served UE to an ad-
nication can be implemented with or without the assis-
jacent uncongested cell. Fig. 4(d) illustrates an example
tance/involvement of cellular infrastructure. For the latter case,
of Step 4.
the communication procedure between a D2D peer is identical
Summary: As an important feature introduced by LTE- to that in traditional mobile ad hoc networks [16], [82]. For
A network, D2D communication is of great potential to sig- the case of operator assisted/controlled D2D communication,
nificantly improve our communication experiences, especially it can be further divided into two categories: fully controlled
in the coming HetNets with lots of small cells. Available D2D mode where the operator has full control over D2D
10
links including control plane functions (e.g., connection setup coverage area, based on which the D2D transmitter and D2D
and maintenance), and data plane functions (e.g., resource receiver can readily find each other; or take a more active
allocations); and loosely controlled D2D mode where the role in the discovery process, where the eNB first accepts
operator performs access authentication for D2D UEs leaving the registration of D2D transmitter and also the request of
D2D devices setup D2D links and start D2D communications D2D receiver, then requests D2D transmitter to generate the
autonomously with little or no involvement [83]. beacon. In a-posteriori case, the eNB can recognize two
ongoing communicating devices as a D2D pair candidate, as
A. System Architecture Design soon as it receives the request to register a token which is
established by the two devices and unique to their ongoing
In 2009, a special cellular communication architecture,
communication session. Again, the eNB can detect intra-cell
namely cellular controlled short-range communications (CC-
D2D communication by analyzing IP addresses of the source
SRC), was proposed in [84] to combine features such as
and the destination.
licensed and license-exempt spectrum usage, high power/wide The authors in [86] discussed the procedures, LTE-based
area/low data rate as well as low power/short-range/high data signals, as well as the use cases and requirements for D2D peer
rate, etc. By dynamically exploiting both the inter-network discovery, in which the discovery procedures are categorized
cooperation and intra-network cooperation, the CCSRC ar- as beacon-based or request-based, discovery with or without
chitecture is able to achieve manifold benefits in terms of network assistance. A beacon-based and network-assisted D2D
mobile device capability, link and network capacity, spectrum device and service discovery scheme was proposed in [87],
efficiency, energy efficiency, security, and network services. in which the D2D UEs transmit their beacons in parallel
Besides the commercial multi-mode platforms and air interface using OFDMA resources. Besides experimentally evaluating
required for realization of CCSRC, the designing requirements the impact of scanning period on the network size formed
for short-range link (D2D link), and cooperation incentives and by the proposed scheme, the authors also suggested a beacon
rules are also discussed [84]. frame structure to enable quick and light-weight setup signal-
Regarding the LTE network, the authors in [85] first dis-
ing among D2D peers. The energy consumption, the discovery
cussed the critical issues and functional blocks to enable
delay, as well as their tradeoff have been experimentally
D2D communication as an add-on functionality to the LTE
studied for a D2D discovery and link setup procedure proposed
system architecture evolution (SAE). Recently, Yang et al.
in [88]. Although the experiment was based on two real LTE
[80] proposed a network architecture for LTE-A based D2D
smartphones, the procedure performance in the presence of
communications. In particular, a new reference point (i.e., Di
other cellular UEs and D2D pairs still remains unknown.
interface) between D2D-enabled UEs is defined, which uses
enhanced radio protocols and procedures as a UE connecting C. Prototypes and Experiments
to an eNB. Besides providing several D2D-specific functional
features, including proximity measurement, D2D channel state Prototype 1: FlashLinQ
measurement, D2D data transmission, and proximity service A synchronous P2P wireless PHY/MAC network architec-
control, the authors in [80] also introduced a D2D-based data ture named FlashLinQ [89], [90], was pioneered by Qual-
offloading service model, as well as a detailed example to illus- Comm, aiming at finding a maximal channel-state-aware sub-
trate the call flow of providing D2D-based data offloading from set of links which can coexist at the data transmission slot,
the perspectives of peer discovery, D2D bearer establishment, given the channel and traffic conditions at each link. FlashLinQ
and data-offloading. is a synchronous TDD OFDM system designed over dedicated
licensed band (at 2.586 GHz carrier frequency and in band-
width of 5 MHz), to enable mobile UEs to discover each other
B. Peer Discovery automatically and continuously and communicate directly with
For the case of D2D communication with cellular infras- other mobile users at broadband speeds.
tructure assistance, there may exist two distinct peer discovery As a time-slotted OFDM-based system, one attractive fea-
techniques: a-priori case and a-posteriori case [18]. Both a- ture of FlashLinQ is that with the time synchronization in-
priori case and a-posteriori case belong to the network assisted herited from cellular infrastructure, it enables peer discovery,
D2D peer discovery, in which the network can mediate in the rate scheduling, and link management in a distributed and
discovery process by recognizing D2D candidates and coordi- autonomous manner. The key technical innovation is to build
nating the time and frequency allocations for sending/scanning the presence of a signal and the signal strength within each
for beacons. The main difference between a-priori case and tone and thus develop an OFDM tone-matrix based signaling
a-posteriori case is with the time point when the network scheme, by utilizing the OFDM propagation physics and
identifies two devices as D2D candidates. Specifically, in a- parallel signaling. With the help of OFDM tone-matrix, both
priori case, the network detects D2D candidates prior to com- the transmitter and receiver of a link can sample surrounding
mencing a communication session between two UEs; while in interfering links, and estimate the signal-to-interference ratio
a-posteriori case, the network realizes that two communicating (SIR). Then, the system could be able to schedule a maximal
devices are D2D candidates when the communication session feasible set of links each of which may have sufficient SIR to
is already ongoing between the two UEs. ensure successful decoding.
In a-priori scheme, the eNB can either directly broadcasts In the architecture of FlashLinQ, different priorities are
beacon resource assignment to all D2D nodes within the assigned to links so as to facilitate link scheduling. For a
11
link of priority level L , it will be scheduled if and only if mobile UE Bob (or a WiFi access point), which caches the
both its transmitter and receiver agree to transmit data. The requested content, in Alices vicinity. If so, the operator assigns
transmitter (or receiver) will decide to do data transmission if temporary IP addresses to Alice and Bob, and instructs Bob to
and only if the following two conditions are simultaneously deliver the content to Alice via WiFi ad-hoc mode.
satisfied: 1) the data transmission over link L will not cause Several underpinning measurements have been conducted
too much interference to any already scheduled link, i.e., the to examine the system feasibility and expected performance
link of priority {1, 2, . . . , L 1}; 2) the link L itself will gains. In Manhattan area, a measurement was conducted with
have sufficient SIR if scheduled. By randomizing the priority Bluetooth scanning and GPS logging to record the number of
assignment among all links at each time-slot, FlashLinQ is devices around a biking user at any time, and also the contact
able to achieve a basic level of fairness in link scheduling. duration. Their results show that after filtering out the dumb
Based on the operator assisted synchronization and the inherent Bluetooth devices, there are at least 30 devices around the user
OFDM orthogonality, dedicated small time-slots are reserved for most of the time, and the user can have stable connection
for peer discovery and each peer discovery slot is further of 30 seconds with many devices. Another measurement at two
partitioned into orthogonal resources in FlashLinQ. In the link waiting areas in NY Penn Station, indicates that the number
management, a specific channel, called connection ID (CID) of surrounding devices is large and stable, and the average
channel, is provided to allocate the same CID to those links contact duration is 80 seconds.
that can transmit simultaneously with each other. The Dataspotting prototype system has also been imple-
A prototype modem of FlashLinQ has been implemented mented on Android Nexus One platform. An initial experiment
on TI DSP chipset TMS-C6482 and XiLinX Virtex-4 FPGA. of five devices shows that the actual D2D data rate (for both
An initial experiment of four devices showed that it can inside pocket and out of pocket) can range from 300 KB/S to
achieve significant throughput gains over CSMA/CA system 2.5 MB/S, and the total amount of transmitted data through
using RTS/CTS. It was reported to support high discovery D2D link can be around 10 MB, even under running speed.
range of up to 1 km and discover up to thousands of nearby Such P2P content sharing is expected to be applied during
devices [90]. It is expected to complement traditional cellular- high-density events, such as peak hours, train stations, sports
based services and serve as a scalable platform for new types stadiums, etc., to efficiently offload cellular traffic via D2D
of applications, such as advertising, content sharing, secure communication.
mobile payments, person-to-person communications, and any Prototype 3: Relay-by-Smartphone
other application that would benefit from D2D communication. Different from FlashLinQ and DataSpotting which fo-
Prototype 2: DataSpotting cus on one-hop D2D communication, researchers from Tohoku
Researchers from Duke University, KAIST, and Alcatel- University developed a D2D system Relay-by-Smartphone
Lucent, designed a system DataSpotting to explore the fea- to realize multihop D2D communications [92] for disaster
sibility of offloading cellular traffic via D2D communications relief applications. The major idea is to provide in each
[91]. The key idea is to provide P2P style content sharing smartphone the fusion of two types of routing technologies,
among naturally clustered mobile devices. For each data spot, namely MANET-type and DTN-type. In particular, according
i.e., an area with high density of mobile UEs, the cellular to the concrete situation in terms of neighbor node density,
operator needs to record the locations of all UEs inside, and mobility pattern, and remaining battery power, a smartphone
keep a digest of available content cached in each UE. The could change its operation mode (MANET mode or DTN
system adopted a hybrid mode of spectrum utilization. In mode) in the message delivery process, so as to improve
particular, 3G connection is used as control channel for all the the overall message delivery performance from an isolated
setup procedures until activating both the content requester and disaster area to unaffected areas. A summary of the three D2D
provider into WiFi ad-hoc mode; while WiFi interface is used prototype systems are summarized in Table II.
for data transfer between content requester and provider. Such As an infrastructureless system envisioned to transmit a
operator-assisted neighborhood discovery is energy-efficient small package of information such as voice, photo, SMS, etc.,
since each mobile UE does not need to constantly scan for out of disaster area where the communication infrastructure
adjacent UEs. Besides, as each UE only reports its cached is either physically damaged or energy lacked, Relay-by-
content list to the operator and does not spread the list among Smartphone uses ISM band and WiFi ad-hoc mode for D2D
other UEs, there is no concern of privacy leakage. discovery and D2D communications. For such long-distance
The Dataspotting system works as follows. First, cellular and multihop D2D systems, several factors need to be well
operator activates the Dataspotting service mode during peak addressed. The first one is to select appropriate radio access
hours. At appropriate intervals, the operator collects the lo- technology such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, WiFi, WiGig, etc.,
cations of all covered mobile UEs and also the lists of their each of which has different transmission range and different
cached content. Based on the collected UE locations and con- maximum transmission rate. Since the ability to inter-connect
tent lists, the operator estimates the size/radii of each data spot with other kinds of networking techniques, e.g., unmanned
and also establishes (or updates) the content profile for each aircraft systems (UASs), movable and deployable resource
data spot. Suppose a user Alice enters a data spot, reports its units (MDRUs), is also important for disaster relief communi-
location, and requests for some content. The operator performs cations, a gateway module should be indispensible. Besides,
a matching-making in the content profile after receiving Alices security module is also necessary to guarantee information
location and request, and determines whether there exists a confidentiality and integrity in the message delivery process.
12
TABLE II. C OMPARISONS OF THREE D2D PROTOTYPE SYSTEMS : F LASH L IN Q, DATA S POTTING , AND R ELAY- BY-S MARTPHONE .
FlashLinQ DataSpotting Relay-by-Smartphone
Autonomous but
D2D discovery Operator assisted Infrastructureless
with operator assistance
Peer discovery range 1 km around 100 m around 100 m
Autonomous but
D2D communication Operator controlled Autonomous
with operator assistance
Control channel: 3G spectrum
Spectrum band Dedicated cellular band ISM band
Data channel: ISM band
Radio access for
OFDMA WiFi ad-hoc WiFi ad-hoc
data transmission
Number of hops 1 hop 1 hop multi-hop
Data rate 1.5 Mb/s 300 KB/s 2.5 MB/s around 5KB/s
Implementation TI DSP chipset TMS-C6482
Android Nexus One Android smartphones
platform XiLinx Virtex-4 FPGA
to enable emergency information
to schedule maximal feasible to offload cellular traffic
Design purpose transmission and exchange
set of links in PHY/MAC in peak hours
in disaster
Finally, considering the smartphone terminals may have dif- IV. R ADIO T ECHNOLOGIES AND S TANDARDS ACTIVITIES
ferent kinds of operating systems (Android, iOS, Windows, A. Radio Technologies for D2D
TIZEN, etc.,), the system should provide the basic emergency
operation mode (for multihop D2D communications) while 1) IEEE 802.11 Ad-Hoc Mode: IEEE 802.11 standard pro-
being simultaneously compatible with available smartphone vides two operation modes: infrastructure mode which has
operating systems. been widely utilized as one of the most common ways to access
the Internet, and ad-hoc mode which has the great potential
In Relay-by-Smartphone, each smartphone terminal is of enabling D2D communications among the large number of
equipped with two operation modes, i.e., DTN mode and wireless communication devices. Under the ad-hoc mode, the
MANET mode. In the message delivery process, each smart- radio network interface card (NIC) operates in the independent
phone decides its operation mode based on adjacent neigh- basic service set (IBSS) network configuration, and thus user
bor density, accelerometer, and remaining battery power. In devices communicate directly with each other in a peer-to-
particular, a threshold is set for the number of neighboring peer manner. It may be the simplest solution, and one of its
terminals. If the number of smartphone terminals in vicinity big advantages is that the modules of 802.11 protocols have
is smaller than the threshold, the terminal selects the DTN been installed on almost all of the prevalent smart phones.
mode; otherwise the MANET mode is selected. As mobility 2) IEEE 802.15.4g - SUN: 802.15.4g (SUN) was released
pattern could also affect the data reception, a specific threshold in April 2012, as a PHY layer amendment to the low-rate
value is defined for terminals acceleration to identify the high WPAN. Different from 802.15.4 (ZigBee), 802.15.4g supports
mobility scenario. If the time duration that the terminal remains three modulation techniques, i.e., FSK, DSSS, and OFDM,
in high mobility exceeds some previously defined value, DTN a maximum communication range of around 2 3 km,
mode is selected; otherwise, the terminal remains in MANET and a communication rate of up to 200 kbps in real-world
mode. Since operating in MANET mode usually consumes environment. Another attractive feature of SUN is the energy
more power energy, the MANET mode is preferred only when efficiency, the energy consumption of SUN is around 10% that
the remaining battery power of the terminal is relatively high. of ZigBee. Currently, LTE-A, Qualcomm and IEEE 802.15.4g
are addressing the standardizing of D2D communication over
Several initial experiments of the first generation protype licensed band.
system of Relay-by-Smartphone have been conducted in
Sendai city which was indeed severely affected in the Great
East Japan earthquake and tsunami. An experiment consisting B. 3GPP Activities
of 20 smartphone terminals which were distributed along the In the recent activities of 3GPP, some Work Items have
streets with mutual distance of around 50-200 m, was con- been working to specify the use cases and requirements for
ducted to test the message delivery in urban area. By leveraging what are generally called Proximity-based Services (ProSe)
the human mobility and multihop relay, the prototype system [93], [94] and Group Communication System Enablers for LTE
successfully delivered a message from a park designated as (GCSE LTE) [95], which cover the D2D communications with
refuge area to a railway station, which has a total route length and without infrastructure. In particular, D2D ProSe includes
of around 2.5 km. Another experiment has also been conducted functionalities of one-to-one, one-to-many, and one-hop relay,
to test the interconnection function of the gateway module as well as considerations for access priorities and operation
in Relay-by-Smartphone with UAS. The results showed that mode switch between D2D mode and cellular mode. An
data package of 100 KB can be efficiently delivered from overview on 3GPP D2D ProSe was given in [96], from the
Aobayama campus of Tohoku University to Katahira campus design aspects of ProSe management, synchronization, device
via a UAS (PUMA-AE manufactured by Aero-Vironment) discovery and direct communication.
flying in the air, resulting in a delivery delay of less than 20 According to the technical specification in [95], GCSE LTE
seconds. is referred to as a 3GPP architecture based content distribution
13
TABLE III. C ANDIDATE D2D CHANNEL MODELS FOR PATH LOSS , TABLE IV. S UMMARY OF GENERAL DEPLOYMENT SCENARIOS FOR
LOS PROBABILITY, SHADOWING , AND FAST FADING . D2D PROXIMITY SERVICES .
Outdoor to Outdoor Outdoor to Indoor Indoor to Indoor Parameter General Scenario
ITU-1411-6 Dual strip or Dual strip or Network coverage (%) 100% UEs in-coverage
Path loss LOS and NLOS Winner+ B4 or InH or Carrier Frequency (GHz) 2
or p = 50% Winner II A2 Winner II A1 System Bandwidth (MHz) 10 (FDD), 20 (TDD)
ITU-R IMT UMi System Synchronization Synchronized
LOS
ITU-R IMT Umi ITU-R IMT Umi or IMT InH UE Drop Non-clustered
probability
or Winner II A1 UE speed 3 km/hr
3 dB log-normal No. of legacy UEs per macro cell 100
7 dB log-normal or for LOS Frac. of legacy UEs indoor {0.35, 0.80}
Shadowing 7 dB log-normal
10 dB log-normal 4dB log-normal No. of discovery UEs per sector {50, 100, 500}
for NLOS Frac. of discovery UEs indoor {0.35, 0.80}
ITU-R IMT UMi ITU-R IMT ITU-R IMT InH
Fast fading
LOS and NLOS UMi O2I LOS and NLOS
partial NW coverage cases can also be found in [100].

mechanism, which is expected to support fast and efficient 3) D2D Evaluation Methodologies: For the case of in NW
voice, video or, more general, data communication from one coverage, the hexagonal grid of 19 cell sites (3 sectors per
user to several groups at the same time in parallel, e.g. voice site, wrap around) is assumed for the evaluation of urban
to one group, different streams of video or data to several macro scenario; the dual-strip model containing two buildings
other groups. Goup communications are extensively used in with 2 floors (20 rooms of 10 m x 10 m each floor in each
the operation of classical Land Mobile Radio (LMR) systems, building) is assumed for the evaluation of indoor scenario;
e.g., for Public Safety organizations, where the primary use is the performance metrics for ProSe discovery include discovery
to provide Push to Talk (PTT) functionality. Group commu- range, power consumption and spectral efficiency, number of
nications, together with Direct communications, are deemed as discoverable UEs, and link reliability; while the performance
the two critical essential features required for LTE to support metrics for ProSe direct communications include throughput
Public Safety [97]. and VoIP system capacity [101]. Besides, the following specific
3GPP TSG RAN WG1 has been organizing intensive issues are also suggested to be considered in D2D evaluation:
research activities and meetings on D2D communications. UE dropping, indoor dropping, network synchronization and
Although there are still continuing debates in 3GPP, much inter-cell operation, required D2D resources, impact of D2D
progress has already been made. In order to facilitate initial data to non-D2D data, impact of non-D2D data to D2D data,
D2D experiments or simulations (system level or link level), number of Tx/Rx antennas at the UE, etc.
here we would like to give a brief introduction to the lat- For the case of out of and partial NW coverage, two-tier
est 3GPP results that have been either agreed or noted at hexagonal grid (with 19 cell sites and wrap around structure)
recent WG1 meetings, from the aspects of channel models, is assumed for out of coverage; hexagonal grid with 2 cell sites
deployment scenarios, evaluation methodologies, dropping and is assumed for partial coverage; The performance metrics for
association, performance metrics, interference modeling, etc. ProSe discovery include reliability, number of UEs discovered,
1) D2D Channel Models: Up to now, 3GPP has not specified and power consumption; the performance metrics for ProSe
the channel models for D2D communication. According to direct communications include throughput, fairness index, and
[98], some existing channel models have been proposed for VoIP capacity [102].
D2D channel modeling. For the communication scenarios of 4) Dropping and Association of D2D UEs: According to
outdoor to outdoor, outdoor to indoor, and indoor to indoor, we [103], the hexagonal grid (3 sectors per site with 19 or 7 Macro
summarize in Table III the candidate channel models for path sites) was chosen for both general and public safety scenarios,
loss, LOS probability, shadowing, and fast fading, respectively. and 6 layout options have been approved at the 3GPP meeting.
2) D2D Deployment Scenarios: Here we focus on the gen- Specifically, Option 1 (Urban macro with 500 m ISD, and 1
eral deployment scenarios for in traditional cellular network RRH/Indoor Hotzone per cell) and Option 5 (Urban macro
(NW) coverage, which are applicable for both public safety with 1732 m ISD) are mandatory for general scenario and
and non-public safety. Specifically, 3GPP Case 5.3 HetNet public safety scenario, respectively. For Option 1, 2, and 4, it
(Macro + Indoor Remote Radio Head (RRH)/Hotzone) is is advised to randomly and uniformly drop 2/3 UEs within the
assumed as the deployment layout, where 4 indoor hotspots clusters of small cell(s) and remaining 1/3 UEs throughout the
are uniformly distributed in each macro-cell area, the macro macro geographical area, and to keep 20% UEs outdoor and
setting is specified as 3GPP Case 1, and the indoor hotspot 80% UEs indoor. For Option 3, 5, and 6, it is advised to adopt
setting is as per Section A.2.1.1.5 in [99]. FTP and VoIP with the uniform drop, or the hotspot drop which means to first
full buffer are assumed as the traffic model; both unicast and randomly select an area within each macro geographical area,
broadcast traffic are assumed as unidirectional, while groupcast then randomly and uniformly drop 2/3 UEs within 40 m of the
traffic is assumed as multidirectional. Some parameter settings selected area, and finally drop remaining 1/3 UEs throughout
are summarized in Table IV, and please refer to [100] for the the entire macro geographical area.
settings of the number of unicast, groupcast, and broadcast Regarding the D2D UE association for unicast, group cast,
transmitters (and links) per sector and indoor. The additional multicast, and one hop relay, it is advised to adopt the random
specific public safety scenario for out of NW coverage and pairing. Specifically, it means to randomly select the first
14
UE from all UEs within entire 19 or 7 macro sites and techniques and multiple antennas at a mobile terminal, it is
then randomly select the UE receiver(s) from the remaining also meaningful to explore the multi-hop D2D together with
UEs. Note that for one hop relay, the first UE should be multiple frequency band access and MIMO.
selected from UEs without eNB coverage. Furthermore, the Cognitive D2D: Cognitive communication has been proved
UE receiver(s) will be re-selected if the RSRP (reference signal to be a very effective technique for improving spectrum
receiving power) between two UEs is less than some threshold efficiency, enabling secondary users to utilize vacant band
when transmitting at the maximum power. The minimum resources without affecting the communications of adjacent
distance between UE and eNB is decided as 35 m, and the primary users. The combination of cognition together with
minimum distance between UEs is 3 m. D2D, basically an ad-hoc style, gives D2D communications
5) D2D Performance Metrics: In [104], different perfor- more diversity in reusing frequency resources. In particular,
mance metrics, in terms of range & reliability, impact on WAN, cognitive D2D can release the operator from the heavy burden
and power consumption, have been advised for D2D discovery of allocating frequency resources to D2D pairs, thus leaving
and D2D communication, as summarized in Table V. As the the operator more computation ability to discover and establish
performance metrics listed in Table V are of special interest more single hop or multi-hop D2D links among different
to 3GPP, they may attract more attention in the initial D2D tier LTE-A cells. On the other hand, cognitive D2D could
simulations, experiments, or theoretical modeling and analysis. even sense and reuse the ISM band resources, as long as it
6) In-Band Interference Modeling for D2D: It is noticed will not degrade the QoS of surrounding communications in
that for the case of in-band D2D communication (i.e., D2D ISM band. Given such great potentials, much more research
communication operating in the same radio spectrum as ordi- efforts in terms of demos, simulations, and analytical mod-
nary cellular network communication), one option of particular els, are encouraged towards designing optimal radio resource
interest is to exploit the UL resources, e.g., UL spectrum in allocation schemes for D2D communication. Whats more, it
FDD or UL subframes in TDD. In [105], Erisson studied the is also desirable to evaluate in details the performances of
interference on D2D from nearby UL device transmissions cognitive D2D communications, according to the evaluation
within the same sub frame, for both the inter-device interfer- methodologies and metrics as suggested by 3GPP.
ence and intra-device interference. Their results showed that D2D Measurements and Modeling with Mobility: Support-
the potential effects of in-band emissions of ordinary cellular ing mobile communication, even at a relatively high speed, is
communications on D2D are non-negligible. Specifically, they a key feature of cellular communication techniques. However,
recommended that for D2D system level simulations and available D2D related works, no matter the case of single D2D
selected link simulations exploiting UL spectrum, the LTE in- pair or the case of multiple D2D pairs, mainly considered
band emissions should be modeled according to Table VI, network scenarios with static nodes. In other words, the issue
where LCRB is the transmission bandwidth, NRB is the of mobility has been largely neglected in literature. Although
transmission bandwidth configuration, EV M is the limit spec- current researches are meaningful for studying a specific case
ified for the modulation format used in the allocated RBs, or a snapshot of D2D communications in real-world cellular
RB = 1 or 1 is the limit specified for the modulation networks, they cannot unveil the impact of node mobility on
format used in the allocated RBs, PRB is the transmitted power achievable performances in D2D links, e.g., for the regimes
(measured in dBm) per 180 kHz in allocated RBs. A detailed of constrained and global mobility, slow and high speed, etc.
introduction to Table VI can be found in Section 6.5.2.3 of Node mobility may not only cause the dynamic change of
[106]. network topologies, but also result in the frequent change
of D2D pairs. Given that 3GPP has recommended several
mobility models for performance evaluation, it is meaningful
V. O PEN R ESEARCH I SSUES
to simulate, measure and model the D2D performance under
Here we discuss some open research issues ranging from the suggested mobility models.
D2D discovery to D2D applications, which may deserve fur- D2D Measurements and Modeling in LTE-A Multi-Tier
ther exploration. Cells: Available works mainly focused on the case of single
Cooperative Multi-hop D2D: By utilizing more short-range cell including one or multiple D2D pair(s), in which the major
low-power transmissions, cooperative and multi-hop D2D research interests are how to allocate frequency resources
communication has greater potential to further extend network between D2D pairs and cellular UEs, and how to manage
coverage, to offload cellular traffic, to increase energy and the interference there. For the LTE-Advanced networks, there
spectrum efficiency, etc. Up to now, most of available D2D are usually multi-tier cells heterogeneously distributed among
related works focused on single hop D2D communication, the network area, in terms of geographical location, transmit
leaving the pros and cons of multi-hop D2D communication power, coverage area, backhaul bandwidth, operable frequency
largely unknown. Besides the per link (hop) interference band, computation ability, etc. In light of the fact that D2D
management and radio resource management, it is desirable communications may stretch across two or more adjacent
to experimentally and analytically explore the criteria for cells, it is rather limited to consider D2D communications
establishing a multi-hop route between a source-destination only within a disjoint cell. Instead, one may focus on the
pair, for which the end-to-end throughput, delay, route stability, measurement and modeling of a typical D2D link in a typical
and overhead need to be well addressed. Furthermore, consid- cell, with a joint consideration of not only the random spatial
ering the general trend of supporting multiple radio access locations but also the accumulated interference from a global
15
TABLE V. P ERFORMANCE M ETRICS FOR D2D DISCOVERY AND D2D COMMUNICATION .

Aspect D2D Discovery Metrics D2D Communication Metrics
Number of UEs discovered as
No. of UEs and latency
a function of time (system), and the CDF
User throughput (mean, 5%, CDF) for full buffer (system)
Throughput/spectral efficiency Perceived user throughput (mean, 5%, CDF) for FTP (system)
VoIP capacity (system) with VoIP delay requirement
Prob. of discovery vs pathloss or distance Throughput, perceived throughput, prob. of satisfied VOIP user
Range & reliability
(link and system) vs pathloss or distance (link and system)
Phy. layer latency for call setup for out of coverage
Prob. of false alarm (link and system)
(link and system)
Throughput loss (system)
Impact on WAN Change in cell throughput/cell spectral efficiency (system)
Fraction of resources used (system)
Power consumption modeled through ON time Power consumption modeled through ON time
or equivalent power consumed, or equivalent power consumed,
Power consumption
transmit power should be captured transmit power should be captured
differently than received power differently than received power
TABLE VI. M INIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR IN - BAND EMISSIONS RECOMMENDED FOR D2D SYSTEM LEVEL SIMULATIONS AND SELECTED LINK
SIMULATIONS .
Parameter description Unit Limit (Note 1)

max{ 25 10 log10 (NRB /LCRB ),
General dB 20 log10 EV M 3 5 (|RB | 1)/LCRB ,
57dBm/180kHz PRB }
-28 Image frequencies when carrier center frequency < 1 GHz and Output power > 10 dBm
IQ Image dB -25 Image frequencies when carrier center frequency < 1 GHz and Output power 10 dBm
-25 Image frequencies when carrier center frequency 1 GHz
-28 Output power > 10 dBm and carrier center frequency < 1 GHz
-25 Output power > 10 dBm and carrier center frequency 1 GHz
Carrier Leakage dBc -25 0 dBm Output power 10 dBm
-20 -30 dBm Output power 0 dBm
-10 -40 dBm Output power < -30 dBm
perspective [71], [107]. Towards this end, stochastic geometry enable secure communications. Specifically, incentive stim-
can be a helpful mathematical tool for modeling the spatial ulation refers to how to encourage mobile UEs to actively
distributions of macro eNBs, pico eNBs, femto eNBs, and join in D2D communications, e.g., sharing videos or files as
mobile UEs [108], [109], and analyzing the transmission rate a source, forwarding data traffic as a relay, where one core
[110], [111], outage probability [112], etc. issue is to properly compensate for the power consumption
D2D with Network Coding: As a revolutionary technique, of mobile UEs providing services. For example, the operator
network coding is expected to further enhance the performance may reward a mobile UE according to its actual contributed
gains of D2D communications, in terms of reducing power data traffic, for which correct auditing and non-repudiable
consumption, diminishing interference, increasing end-to-end logging are prerequisite. Furthermore, since in multi-hop D2D
throughput, etc. Since the operator can have full or partial communications, especially for the case of multiple D2D
control in the procedures from establishing D2D links to relays between the eNB and a mobile UE, the end UE receives
conducting D2D communications, it has significant potential (or sends) its data from (or to) a D2D relay rather than directly
to create the necessary common links which are required for from (or to) the source. One intermediate D2D relay may be
achieving coding benefits, by choosing appropriate D2D relays malicious and attempt various attacks in lots of ways, such
when routing multiple traffic flows to the destinations. It is as stealing the private information, injecting falsified data,
expected to have more research works exploring the benefits, tampering with the packets, or simply dropping some incoming
the cost as well as the challenges of applying network coding, packets. Effective mechanisms for recognizing and avoiding
symbol level or packet level, to D2D communications. Besides such malicious behaviors in D2D communications are still
the above basic performance evaluation of network coding missing in literature, and deserve further studies.
enhanced D2D communication, to combine it together with New D2D Applications and Services: D2D communication,
multiple antenna technique is also a very promising research which basically represents the combination of centralized and
direction. ad-hoc communications, has the incomparable advantages of
Incentive, Privacy, and Security for D2D: Different from both communication modes. On one hand, mobile UEs can
cellular transmissions between the operator and mobile UEs flexibly establish D2D links and even form clusters as long
which have a complete architecture from user-side subscrib- as the spatial distance allows, for which the achievements
ing to operator-side auditing and logging, D2D communica- in traditional mobile ad hoc networks and mesh networks
tions mainly rely on the cooperation of mobile UEs, which are readily applicable; on the other hand, mobile UEs can
may be spontaneous, altruistic, motivated, or even malicious. have direct access to base stations and thus jump to the
Therefore, it is necessary to accordingly design mechanisms backhaul connection, together with the assistance from the
to stimulate cooperation incentive, protect user privacy, and operator in terms of centralized optimizations over a single
16
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19
Jiajia Liu (S11-M12) received the Ph.D. degree in Jianfeng Ma received the B.S. degree in computer
information sciences from Tohoku University, Japan, science from Shaanxi Normal University in 1982,
in 2012. He was a Japan Society for the Promotion and M. S. degree in computer science from Xid-
of Science (JSPS) special research fellow in Tohoku ian University in 1992, and the Ph. D. degree in
University from Apr. 2012 to Mar. 2014. He is computer science from Xidian University in 1995.
currently a Full Professor at the School of Com- Currently he is a Professor at School of Computer
puter Science and Technology, Xidian University. Science and Technology, Xidian University. He has
His research interests include wireless and mobile ad published over 150 journal and conference papers.
hoc networks, performance modeling and evaluation, His research interests include information security,
stochastic network optimization, LTE-A and 5G net- cryptography, and network security.
works. He received the Yasujiro Niwa Outstanding
Paper Award in 2012, and the Best Paper Awards of IEEE WCNC in 2012
and 2014. He was also a recipient of the Chinese Government Award for
Outstanding Ph.D. Students Abroad in 2011, the Tohoku University RIEC
Student Award, and the Tohoku University Professor Genkuro Fujino Award in
2012, as well as the prestigious Dean Award and President Award of Tohoku
University in 2013. He has been serving as technical program committees
of numerous international conferences, including WCNC 2013-2015, WCSP
2013-2014, etc. He is a member of IEEE.
Nei Kato (A03-M04-SM05-F13) received his

Bachelor Degree from Polytechnic University, Japan
in 1986, M.S. and Ph.D. Degrees in information
engineering from Tohoku University, Japan, in 1988
and 1991, respectively. He joined Computer Cen-
ter of Tohoku University at 1991, and has been a
Naoto Kadowaki received B.S. in communications
full professor with the Graduate School of Infor-
engineering, Masters degree in information engineer-
mation Sciences since 2003. He has been engaged
ing, and Ph. D. from the University of Tohoku,
in research on satellite communications, computer
Sendai, Japan in 1982, 1984 and 2010 respectively.
networking, wireless mobile communications, smart
From April 1984 to March 1986, he was with
grid, image processing, and pattern recognition. He
Mitsubishi Electric Corporation. He joined Com-
has published more than 300 papers in peer-reviewed journals and conference
munications Research Laboratory (CRL), currently
proceedings. He currently serves as the Vice Chair of IEEE Ad Hoc &
renamed as National Institute of Information and
Sensor Networks Technical Committee, the Chair of IEEE ComSoc Sendai
Communications Technology (NICT) in 1986. He
Chapter, the steering committee member of WCNC and voting member of
has involved in research and development of high
GITC, an editor of IEEE Wireless Communications (2006-), IEEE Network
data rate satellite communication systems, mobile
Magazine (2012-), IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications (2008-),
and personal satellite communications, computer networks, and communica-
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology (2010-), IEEE Trans. on Parallel
tion protocols in NICT. From July 1990 to June 1991, he was a visiting re-
and Distributed Systems. He has served as the Chair of IEEE Satellite and
searcher to AUSSAT that was reformed as OPTUS Communications, Sydney,
Space Communications Technical Committee (2010-2012), a co-guest-editor
Australia. After he was with Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute
of several Special Issues of IEEE Wireless Communications Magazine, a
International (ATR) as the Head of Department of Autonomous Systems and
symposium co-chair of GLOBECOM07, ICC10, ICC11, ICC12, Vice Chair
the Head of Department of Smart Networks from July 2004 to December 2006,
of IEEE WCNC10, WCNC11, ChinaCom08, ChinaCom09, Symposia co-
he was the Managing Director of Strategic Planning Department in NICT
chair of GLOBECOM12, ICC14, and workshop co-chair of VTC2010. His
from January 2007 to June 2008, and Director General of Wireless Network
awards include Minoru Ishida Foundation Research Encouragement Prize
Research Institute in NICT from July 2008 to June 2013. He is currently Senior
(2003), Distinguished Contributions to Satellite Communications Award from
Executive Director and Executive Director of Strategic Planning Department
the IEEE Communications Society, Satellite and Space Communications
in NICT. He is a member of the IEEE, AIAA and IEICE of Japan.
Technical Committee (2005), the FUNAI information Science Award (2007),
the TELCOM System Technology Award from Foundation for Electrical Com-
munications Diffusion (2008), the IEICE Network System Research Award
(2009), the IEICE Satellite Communications Research Award (2011), the
KDDI Foundation Excellent Research Award (2012), IEICE Communications
Society Distinguished Service Award (2012), IEEE GLOBECOM Best Paper
Award (twice), IEEE WCNC Best Paper Award, and IEICE Communications
Society Best Paper Award (2012). Besides his academic activities, he also
serves on the expert committee of Telecommunications Council, Ministry
of Internal Affairs and Communications, and as the chairperson of ITU-
R SG4 and SG7, Japan. Nei Kato is a Distinguished Lecturer of IEEE
Communications Society (2012-2013) and the co-PI of A3 Foresight Program
(2011-2014) funded by Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences(JSPS),
NSFC of China, and NRF of Korea. He is a fellow of IEEE and IEICE.

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

Device-to-Device Communication in LTE-Advanced

AbstractAmong the LTE-A communication techniques,

D2D link is no bigger than a specified threshold. In [13],

TABLE I. S UMMARY OF AVAILABLE RESOURCE ALLOCATION RELATED WORKS .

modeling module including WINNER II C1 NLOS path loss

(a) Step 1 (b) Step 2

(c) Step 3 (d) Step 4

partial NW coverage cases can also be found in [100].

TABLE V. P ERFORMANCE M ETRICS FOR D2D DISCOVERY AND D2D COMMUNICATION .

Parameter description Unit Limit (Note 1)

Nei Kato (A03-M04-SM05-F13) received his

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