Date: 06/01/17

Initials: OL
Candidate number: 003687-0057

ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN
HONG KONG

Research Question:
"To what extent are electric vehicles effective in reducing
the rates of carbon dioxide emissions in Hong Kong?"

World Studies Extended Essay

Environmental and/or economic sustainability

Subjects: Geography and Physics
Table of Contents
ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN HONG KONG .............................................................................................. 1
ABSTRACT:................................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION: .......................................................................................................................... 4
MAIN BODY: ................................................................................................................................ 5
THE GLOBAL EMISSION OF CO2 ................................................................................................................. 5
HONG KONG IS IDEAL FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES ............................................................................................. 5
Do EVs Produce Zero Roadside Emissions? .................................................................................... 6
Factors that Contribute to EV Overall CO2 Emissions ..................................................................... 7
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE CO2 EMISSION LEVELS OF CONVENTIONAL VEHICLES AND EVS ................................. 8
Tesla Model 3 ................................................................................................................................. 9
BMW 320i ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Comparison .................................................................................................................................. 13
WOULD EVS BE EFFECTIVE? ................................................................................................................... 14
The Extent of EVs Effectiveness ................................................................................................... 14
Increasing the Effectiveness of EVs .............................................................................................. 14
CONCLUSION: ............................................................................................................................ 16
BIBLIOGRAPHY:.......................................................................................................................... 17

2
Abstract:

Emissions from fossil fueled vehicles is a contributor to the increasing levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. This has become an important global issue and governments
struggle to decide a strategy to combat it. Electric vehicles have for the first time provided a
realistic solution and so this essay will analyse whether electric cars are a viable alternative.
To focus the essay, it is necessary to narrow the research into a local area and so the
research question is To what extent are electric vehicles effective in reducing the rates of
carbon dioxide emissions in Hong Kong?.

The first part of this essay analyses why Hong Kongs geography and demography make it
ideal for electric vehicles. This essay then examines the CO2 production of electric vehicles
at roadside level and at the power stations. Therefore, the Physics of vehicle emission
cannot on its own answer this question, the skills of Geography are central to the argument
because an understanding of the surrounding environment is crucial. To compare the
different levels of CO2 produced by electric and conventional vehicles, two different popular
models of cars within Hong Kong were chosen from each category and compared: The Tesla
Model S -- representing the electric vehicle, and the BMW 320i -- representing a
conventional petrol powered vehicle.

Through methods of calculations it was concluded that an electric vehicle produces

approximately 12% less CO2 emissions than its conventional petrol-powered counterparts.
These results suggest that an implementation of electric vehicles in Hong Kong would be
effective in reducing rates of CO2 emissions to some extent. However, the extent of their
success is closely dependable on the number of cars adopted, along with the fuel mix used
to produce the electricity to power them.

Word count: 289

3
 "To what extent are electric vehicles effective in reducing the rates of
carbon dioxide emissions in Hong Kong?"

Introduction:
Regardless of the range of views that exist surrounding the topic of climate change, the
warming of the climate over the last decade is unequivocal and is an issue of global
importance. As an attempt to reduce the quantity of CO2 produced through vehicle
emissions, a series of solutions and alternatives have been introduced, such as the
introduction of electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles, and hydrogen powered cars. For the
purpose of this analysis, the solution of battery powered EVs will be examined and will be
analysed specifically within Hong Kong. Unlike diesel and gasoline run vehicles, battery
powered EVs rely on motors powered by electricity. Their reliance on batteries allows for
the vehicle to run without emitting any roadside emissions, thus, in theory, reducing the
levels of CO2 emitted1.

The research question "To what extent are electric vehicles effective in reducing the rates
of carbon dioxide emissions in Hong Kong? will be dealt with using the subjects of
Geography and Physics, as knowledge and skills from both subjects are central to
understanding the Physics of vehicle emission and the complexities of the surrounding
environment. The obvious hypothesis that electric cars will greatly reduce CO2 emissions
should be resisted as there are many factors involved in the process that may mean that this
is not true. This essay will use an evidence and scientific approach to analysing the issue
stated.

To answer this research question this essay will first introduce the global issue of climate
change, and relate it to the local case study of Hong Kong. This essay will then examine the
CO2 production of EVs at roadside level and throughout the electricity production. Then, the
levels of CO2 produced by conventional and electric vehicles will be compared thus allowing
an evidence-based argument towards the conclusion to be constructed.

Where applicable, the local case study of Hong Kong can be compared and contrasted with
the effectiveness of EVs in reducing carbon dioxide emissions around the world. Hong
Kongs high population density, heavy reliance on vehicles, and consequently high levels of
CO2 emissions, make it a good focus for the Global issue, as exploring the effectiveness of
EVs in reducing the amount of CO2 emitted from heavily polluting regions will have a greater
impact on global emission rates. This topic was chosen for its two-fold significance, firstly,
due to increasing speculation about whether or not EVs are truly environmentally
advantageous, and secondly, due to the increasing importance of finding a solution to the
global problem of climate change, and thus reducing the impact that this bares on both my
own and future generations.

1
What is it? (2010), <https://www.clp.com.hk/ev/Pages/AboutEV_WhatIsIt.aspx> [accessed 20 July 2016].

4
Main Body:

The Global Emission of CO2

To some extent, the causes of climate change can be linked to human influences:
predominantly the increase in the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon
dioxide (CO2). These greenhouse gases modify the concentration of different atmospheric
constituents2 and lead to an enhanced greenhouse effect.

The enhanced greenhouse effect can be defined as the additional warming of the earth due
to the absorption of infrared radiation by greenhouse gasses, which is in turn partly re-
radiated towards the earths surface3. A rapid increase in the concentration of CO2 in the
earths atmosphere is thus detrimental to the environment and is fundamentally caused by
the burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, to produce energy for human consumption.

In 2010 approximately 49.5 billion tonnes of CO2 was emitted across the globe from energy
production, and roughly 23% of this CO2 was emitted through the exhaust pipes of vehicles4,
thus exemplifying the unprecedented role that vehicles have to play in climate change.

Hong Kong is Ideal for Electric Vehicles

Hong Kong is a highly urbanised region of China with a population of approximately 7.3
million people and a population density of 6,958 people per sq. km5. China produces
approximately 28% of the worlds total CO2 emissions per year6, making it the largest
producer of this greenhouse gas in the world. Due to its large population density, heavy
reliance on vehicles, and equivalently high CO2 emissions produced by these vehicles, the
implementation of electric vehicles, if proved to be environmentally advantageous, would
be an effective solution to reduce the levels of CO2 produced.

Hong Kongs compact geography makes it an ideal place for the implementation of electric
vehicles. Firstly, given that Hong Kong has a small area of only 1,000 km2, and thus has
relatively small distances for travel, the range achievable on a single charge for an electric
car will not be as much of a limitation as it would be in other countries. Secondly, the
majority of cars parked in Hong Kong are parked in high rise car parks attached to malls
which would make the implementation of charging points relatively easy due to the
accessibility to the malls electricity supplies. This would also make the charging points less
space occupying on roadsides.

2 Lelei Peau and others, Climate change 2001: Impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: Contribution of working group II to the Third
assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change: 2001, ed. by James J. McCarthy, Osvaldo F. Canziani, and Neil A.
Leary (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001).
3 K. A. Tsokos, Physics for the Ib diploma Coursebook with free online material (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2014) (pp.

335336).
4 Ottmar Edenhofer and others, 'Climate change 2014 mitigation of climate change working group III contribution to the fifth assessment

report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change edited by' 2014.

5 Team, W.B.D. (2016) World bank open data. Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/ (Accessed: 24 July 2016).
6 Boden, T.A., Marland, G., and Andres, R.J. (2015). National CO2 Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Burning, Cement Manufacture, and Gas Flaring:

1751-2011, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, doi
10.3334/CDIAC/00001_V2015.

5
Do EVs Produce Zero Roadside Emissions?

Unlike petroleum powered vehicles that produce CO2 through the burning of fuel within an
internal combustion engine, the primary drive unit of electric vehicles consists of electric
motors which use electricity instead of a combustible fuel.7

The power required to create the torque to propel the vehicle is produced through a system
of three main components: the battery, the controller, and the electric motor. The chemical
energy stored in the rechargeable batteries provides the controller with power, which is
transferred to the electric motor, converting the electrical energy into the mechanical
energy required to turn the wheels.

The propulsion of battery EVs is thus powered by the rechargeable battery pack consisting
of a number of cell modules. These batteries are charged by external grid sources consisting
of standard wall-socket household outlets, home charging systems, and power outlets
provided in car parks. The most common battery technology, adopted by electric car
manufacturers such as Nissan and Tesla, is the lithium- ion battery pack. Once the electric
motor is supplied with energy, its role is to convert the electrical energy supplied into
mechanical energy used to produce torque.

Unlike fuel powered cars, the burning of fossil fuels within the car is not required to propel
the vehicle. Therefore, it can be concluded that electric vehicles produce no roadside
emissions and thus the byproduct of CO2 is likewise not produced at the roadside level. In
addition to producing no roadside emissions, electric vehicles also possess the advantage of
regenerative breaking. This means that unlike fuel powered vehicles, the potential energy
produced is reconverted into useful energy used to recharge the battery, instead of turning
it into heat, resulting in a higher level of efficiency8.

7 What is it? (2010) Available at: https://www.clp.com.hk/ev/Pages/AboutEV_WhatIsIt.aspx (Accessed: 20 July 2016).

8 Denton, T. (2016) Alternative fuel, hybrid and EVs. United Kingdom: Routledge.

6
Factors that Contribute to EV Overall CO2 Emissions

CO2 Emitted through Electricity Production

Although electric vehicles produce no CO2 emissions at roadside level, their effectiveness in
reducing overall CO2 emissions varies due to a variety of factors. The effectiveness and
potential for electric vehicles to reduce CO2 emissions is vastly dependent on the fuel mix
and the method of electricity generation at the power plant or plants being used at the time
the vehicle is being charged. Therefore, when calculating the overall amount of CO 2 emitted,
it is not only important to consider how much CO2 is produced by the vehicle itself, but it is
also necessary to take into account the energy production emissions.

Where a countrys method of producing electricity is primarily dominated by burning coal,

the overall CO2 emissions of electric vehicles are somewhat similar to that of normal petrol
powered cars. This is due to the fact that burning coal in power stations is the largest
anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide pollution across the world, thus if used to generate
the electricity used to power electric vehicles, is detrimental to the effectiveness of these
electric vehicles in reducing carbon dioxide. It is a similar case for various other fossil fuels,
however burning coal produces approximately 50% more CO2 than natural gas. The amount
of CO2 produced by each fuel used to generate electricity is shown in Figure 39.

Fuel Type CO2 produced (kg CO2/kWh)

Nuclear 0
Renewables (solar, wind, hydro etc.) 0
Natural Gas 0.414
Coal 0.975
Figure 3: Table showing the amount of CO2 produced by burning each fuel type

However, if a country relies on renewable energy or nuclear power, the overall CO2
emissions will be negligible. This is because renewable energy such as solar, wind, and hydro
energy, relies on continually replenished natural resources to generate energy which can be
converted into electrical energy and used to power EVs. This form of energy production
produces zero CO2 emissions, and thus when combined with the zero road side emissions,
the only factor contributing to the production of CO2 is the emissions produced by
manufacturing the vehicle.

This analogy concerning the method of energy production demonstrates that the climatic
advantages of EVs may not be the same across the globe; electric cars are only truly
effective in countries that do not rely heavily on energy produced by coal.

9
Hong Kong (2016) Asset performance statistics cast le peak. Available at: https://www.clpgroup.com/en/Sustainability-
site/Facility%20Statistics/HK02_SR15_aps_castlepeak_en.pdf (Accessed: 6 September 2016).
Hong Kong (2016a) Asset performance statistics black point. Available at: https://www.clpgroup.com/en/Sustainability-
site/Facility%20Statistics/HK01_SR15_aps_blackpoint_en.pdf (Accessed: 6 September 2016).

7
Vehicle Manufacturing Emissions

Another factor to take into consideration when calculating the amount of CO2 produced by
EVs is the vehicle manufacturing emissions. Vehicle manufacturing emissions for any type of
vehicle vary considerably, depending on the type of vehicle (number of passengers, vehicle
size, and capacity) and the country of assembly and sourcing of the parts. EVs produce high
manufacturing emissions predominantly due to the materials and fabrication of its lithium
ion battery.10 EVs on average emit approximately one tonne of emissions from
manufacturing, which is roughly 15% more emissions than that of manufacturing a similar
sized conventional petrol vehicle11.

Other Factors that Affect the Amount of CO2 Produced by an EV

Another factor to consider is the efficiency of the electric motor in converting the stored
energy into useful energy for the propulsion of the vehicle.

In conventional petroleum powered vehicles, Between 70-86% of the fuels energy is lost in
the engine12, through friction, pumping air through the engine valves, and wasted heat
through the exhaust. Since EVs have a regenerative braking system and dont rely on an
internal combustion engine or use up energy whilst stationary or coasting, the efficiency of
EVs is approximately 80%, which is significantly higher than the 12-30% efficiency level of
petroleum powered vehicles.

Comparison between the CO2 emission levels of conventional vehicles and EVs

By comparing the levels of CO2 produced by both a petroleum powered vehicle and a
battery operated EV, a conclusion can be drawn regarding the effectiveness of EVs in
reducing CO2 emissions in Hong Kong.

For the purpose of this comparison, the conventional car will be the BMW 320i and the
electric car will be the Tesla Model 3. Both these cars were chosen due to their popularity
within Hong Kong, and the BMW 320i was also chosen for its efficient engine.

10 CHRIS CONNORS, 'Cleaner cars from cradle to grave how electric cars beat gasoline cars on lifetime global warming emissions' 2015.
11 Bernstein Energy Report April 13, 2016
12
Where the energy goes: Gasoline vehicles, <https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml> [accessed 6 September 2016].

8
Tesla Model 3

Since the amount of CO2 produced by EVs is heavily dependent on the method by which the
electricity within the country is produced, to estimate the quantity of CO2 emitted by the
Tesla Model 3, it is first important to consider how Hong Kong produces its electricity and
the carbon intensity of retail electricity consumed in Hong Kong.

Hong Kongs Electricity Production

Hong Kongs electricity is produced by two leading companies: Hong Kong Electric and China
Light and Power (CLP). Since approximately 80% of electricity consumption in Hong Kong is
supplied by CLP, data will be taken from this particular company.

CLP's Fuel Mix in Hong Kong (2015)

Others (oil,
interconnection)
5%

Nuclear Coal
30% 39%

Gas
26%

Figure 4: Graph showing CLPs fuel mix in Hong Kong in 2015

As demonstrated in Figure 4, approximately 70% of Hong Kongs electricity sold by CLP is

generated from CO2 emitting fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and 30% is produced
from non-CO2 emitting energy sources (nuclear). Although the majority of Hong Kongs
electricity is produced from fossil fuels, the amount of CO2 produced by each individual type
of fossil fuel varies as shown previously in Figure 3.

In 2015, CLP Powers total electricity sales was 34220 GWh13. Based on CLPs 2015 data
report, 14,797kT of CO2 was emitted from the Castle Peak Power Station, and 3,688 kT of
CO2 was emitted from the Black Point Power Station.

13 CLP Annual Report <https://www.clpgroup.com/en/Investors-Information-

site/Documents/Financial%20Report%20PDF/e_2015Annual%20Report.pdf> [accessed 6 September 2016].

9
The carbon intensity of CLP Power in HK in 2015 is calculated as follows:

2 2015 = 14,797 + 3,688

= 18,458

2
=

18,485 2
=
34,200

= 0.54 2 /

Thus, for every kWh of electricity used, approximately 0.54 kg of CO2 will be produced.

Total CO2 Emitted by the EV

To calculate the total CO2 emissions of EVs, the amount of CO2 emitted through electricity
production, battery production, and overall car body, parts, and motor construction must be
found.

Electricity Production

To find the quantity of CO2 emitted by the production of the electricity used to power the
EV over its lifetime, the approximate fuel efficiency of EVs, the carbon intensity of the
electricity used, and the estimation of the total mileage of a vehicle can be used.

Given the average fuel efficiency of EVs is approximately 0.18kWh per km travelled, the
amount of CO2 emitted per km can be calculated as follows:

2
2 ( )

2
= ( ) ( )

= 0.18 0.54

= 0.0972 2 /

10
Assuming that the average lifetime of a vehicle is about 150,000 km, the overall CO2
emissions can be calculated14.

2 ()
2
= 2 ( ) ()

= 0.0972 150000

= 14580

= 14.58 2

Battery Production

To calculate the amount of CO2 emitted through the battery production for the Tesla Model
3, the data from the Tesla Model S can be compared. Assuming that the batteries mass is
proportional to its capacity, given that the battery of the Tesla Model S has a capacity of
85kWh and a mass of 540kg and that lithium batteries produce approximately 12.5kg of CO2
per kg of the battery produced, the amount of CO2 produced by the battery production can
be calculated as follows:

2 ( )()
= 2 ()

= 540 12.5

= 6750

= 6.75 2

Assuming that the Tesla Model 3 has a battery capacity of roughly 65kWh, the amount of
CO2 produced through the battery production can be compared.

14Herb Weisbaum, Whats the life expectancy of my car? (msnbc.com, 2006), <http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12040753/ns/business-
consumer_news/t/whats-life-expectancy-my-car/#.WHuLgnecaTc> [accessed 15 January 2017].

11
 2 ( 3)()
= 2 ()

65
= 6.75
85

= 5.16

Car Body, Parts, and Motor Production

The carbon footprint from the production of the parts, and car body for the Tesla Model 3 is
assumed to be the same as the BMW 320i, and the carbon footprint of the manufacturing of
the motor in the Tesla is assumed to be the same as that of the BMWs engine. The
production of these parts produced roughly 0.6 tonnes of CO2.

Total CO2 Emitted

To calculate the total amount of CO2 produced by the Tesla Model 3, the CO2 emitted from
the electricity production, the battery production, and the car body and parts production
must be added together.

2 = 14.58 + 5.16 + 0.60

= 20.34

Thus, using the example of the Tesla Model 3, on average, an EV driven in Hong Kong
produces approximately 20.34 tonnes of CO2.

BMW 320i

The BMW 320i is considered one of the most fuel efficient cars on the market. It produces
between 1.28 and 1.38 g of CO2 per km, thus, using the same equation and average mileage
of 150,000km, the amount of CO2 produced from the internal combustion engine is
approximately 20 tonnes.

12
In addition to this, the amount of CO2 emitted through extracting, transporting and refining
crude oil into petrol must be considered. Given that over its lifetime, a BMW 320i consumes
approximately 10.75 tonnes of gasoline and that roughly 0.2 tonnes of CO2 is emitted per
tonne of crude oil produced and refined, the overall amount of CO2 produced from the
crude oil is calculated as follows:

2 = 0.2 10.75

= 2.15

Assuming that the CO2 emissions emitted through the manufacturing of the car body and
parts is the same as that of EVs, the total amount of CO2 produced by the BMW 320i is
shown below:

2 = 20 + 2.15 + 0.60

= 22.75

Thus, using the example of the BMW 320i, a conventional vehicle driven in Hong Kong
produces at least 22.75 tonnes of CO2 over its lifetime.

Comparison

Using the examples of the Tesla Model 3 and the BMW 320i, it can be concluded that even
one of the most fuel efficient vehicles on the market produces 2.41 tonnes more CO2 over
its life time than an average EV, which equates to approximately 12% higher CO2 emissions.
Despite this not offering a significant difference, the majority of conventional cars have
lower efficiency levels than the BMW 320i, and thus produce more CO2. Similarly, there are
many other EVs on the market that have a higher efficiency level in comparison to the Tesla,
which will produce less CO2 than that calculated from the Tesla. Importantly, this figure
must be multiplied by the number of cars on the roads, which results in roughly 1.5 million
more tonnes of CO2 emitted by conventional vehicles over their lifetimes.

13
Would EVs Be Effective?

Having calculated the average amount of CO2 that a battery powered EV produces in
comparison to a conventional vehicle in Hong Kong, the figures allow it to be concluded that
EVs produce less CO2. However, it is important to evaluate other factors that influence the
effectiveness of EVs in reducing CO2 emissions in Hong Kong.

According to the Transport Department, there were a total of 791,383 vehicles registered in
Hong Kong as of December 2015, all competing for limited road space15 and causing
extreme traffic congestion. Traffic congestion is an important factor to consider because it
introduces the concept of vehicle idling. conventional vehicles continue to produce CO2
whilst idle, however Electric cars do not use energy whilst idle. Thus this makes the overall
amount of CO2 produced by a conventional vehicle higher than previously calculated, and
proposes that EVs would be more effective at reducing CO2 emissions than previously
calculated.

The Extent of EVs Effectiveness

The extent of EVs success fundamentally depends upon the amount of CO2 that is capable
of being reduced, which can be directly linked to the number of electric cars driven within
Hong Kong. Aside from the alternative of public transport, the most successful result would
be obtained if every person in Hong Kong drove an electric car. Although this is an
unrealistic outcome in the short term, the more EVs adopted, the more dramatic the
reduction in CO2 levels will be.

Another factor that affects the effectiveness of EVs is the method of electricity production.
The most successful result would be achieved if the production of electricity within Hong
Kong were to become 100% reliant on non-co2 producing energy sources such as renewable
energy and nuclear power.

If these outcomes were achieved, then -- excluding vehicle manufacturing emissions -- the
transport industry in Hong Kong would essentially produce zero CO2 emissions and thus
Hong Kongs CO2 emission rates as a whole would be significantly reduced.

Increasing the Effectiveness of EVs

Essentially, to increase the effectiveness of EVs, both the number of EVs adopted and the
amount of Hong Kongs electricity produced by non-CO2 emitting energy sources would
have to be increased.

Increasing the number of EV users in Hong Kong fundamentally comes down to advertising,
the government, and improvements within the electric car industry. Educating and
advertising the public in Hong Kong about the different factors that contribute to their

15 (http://www.td.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_4708/table44.pdf [Accessed: 6 September 2016].

14
effectiveness could help reduce the stigma attached to these vehicles and result in a higher
rate of consumption and a higher confidence in their environmental advantages.

Since March 2011, the Hong Kong government has already introduced schemes to promote
the consumption and usage of EVs such as allocating $180 million to franchised bus
companies to purchase electric buses and taxis, and putting a first registration tax waiver on
EVs until March 201716. Since these schemes have been introduced the number of EVs used
in Hong Kong has increased. By continuing and potentially increasing the benefits of such
schemes, the percentage of electric car used in Hong Kong could increase.

In 2000 the Hong Kong government and Environmental Protection Department introduced
programs to decrease vehicle emissions which involved placing restrictions and bans on
heavily polluting vehicles, tightening already stringent fuel and vehicle emission standards,
and increasing the number of vehicle inspections17. If the government were to more heavily
inforce and tighten these regulations, or even intervene and introduce carbon taxes, then
more people would be incentivized to convert to EVs.

One of the complications that EV users in Hong Kong face is the lack of charging stations
located around the city, therefore if the government were to invest in an increased number
of charging stations in car parks, more people might be inclined to invest in EVs as a result.
Another reason why consumers refuse to convert to EVs is due to various restrictions and
disadvantages posed by EVs, such as their inability to travel at high speeds, travel long
distances, and their inability to hold large capacity of electrical charge. Technical
advancements within the EV industry could thus reduce these constraints and make EVs
more attractive for consumers.

Aside from increasing the number of electric cars used, the effectiveness of electric cars
heavily depends on the type of electricity used. In 2010, Donald Tsang, the chief executive
of Hong Kong at the time, set ambitious goals to decrease Hong Kongs reliance on coal: He
proposed that by 2020 natural gas should account for about 40% of [Hong Kongs] fuel mix
for power generation, coal no more than 10%, renewable energy about 3% to 4%, and the
balance of about 50% by imported nuclear energy18. If these goals are attained, then the
effectiveness of electric cars will increase considerably, and will continue to increase with a
continued desire for Hong Kong to increase their reliance on renewables.

16
Promotion of electric vehicles in Hong Kong (2015) Available at:
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/prob_solutions/promotion_ev.html (Accessed: 20 July 2016).
17 GovHK: Combating vehicle smoke & exhaust gas (2015) Available at: http://www.gov.hk/en/residents/environment/air/exhaustgas.htm

(Accessed: 20 July 2016).

18 Hong Kong strives to reduce carbon emission Xinhua News Agency 13 Oct. 2010. Student Edition. Web. 20 July 2016.

15
Conclusion:

The research question "To what extent are electric vehicles effective in reducing the rates of
carbon dioxide emissions in Hong Kong? can be answered most simply by comparing the
rates of CO2 produced by conventional and electric vehicles. Even with the incorporation of
the CO2 emissions caused by the production of the electricity required to drive the electric
motor and produce the battery, the EV produces on average 2.41 tonnes less CO2 emissions
than its petroleum powered counterpart, thus making EVs effective in reducing CO2
emission rates in Hong Kong. Other factors, such as traffic congestion caused by Hong
Kongs high population density and EVs ability to save energy whilst idle, further highlights
their effectiveness to reduce CO2 emissions. Although it has been proved that the rates of
CO2 emissions in Hong Kong would be reduced, the effect that this would have on the
country, and the Global rates of CO2 production remains unknown, and is an area that could
be interesting to explore.

Although an implementation of EVs in Hong Kong would be effective in reducing CO2

emissions, the extent of their success is closely dependable on the number of cars adopted,
along with the method by which the electricity used to power them is produced. With a
large implementation of EVs, potentially accompanied by government schemes, advertising,
improvements in EV technology, and an increased reliance on non-carbon polluting energy
sources, a widespread implementation of EVs could be exceptionally successful and
effective in reducing CO2 rates in Hong Kong.

Word count: 3924

16
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