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Review Article
Raynauds Phenomenon
FredrickM. Wigley, M.D., and NicholasA. Flavahan, Ph.D.
I
From the Division of Rheumatology n his 1862 thesis, Maurice Raynaud describes the condition af-
(F.M.W.) and the Department of Anes- flicting a 26-year-old female patient: Under the influence of a very moderate
thesiology and Critical Care Medicine
(N.A.F.), Johns Hopkins University School cold . . . she sees her fingers become ex-sanguine, completely insensible, and
of Medicine, Baltimore. Address reprint of a whitish yellow color. This phenomenon happens often without reason, lasts a
requests to Dr. Wigley at the Division of variable time, and terminates by a period of very painful reaction, during which
Rheumatology, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine, 5200 Eastern Ave., the circulation is re-established little by little and recurs to the normal state.1 The
Suite 4100, Mason F. Lord Bldg., Center term Raynauds disease was used to describe these vascular events until
Tower, Baltimore, MD 21224, or at f wig@ Hutchinson, who argued that multiple etiologic factors could be responsible, in-
jhmi.edu.
troduced the concept of Raynauds phenomenon.2 Although results vary accord-
N Engl J Med 2016;375:556-65. ing to sex, local environmental climate,3 and work exposures,4 most population-
DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1507638
Copyright 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society. based surveys estimate the prevalence of the disorder in the general population at
3 to 5%.5 We currently classify patients into two groups: those with primary
Raynauds phenomenon, which is diagnosed when no underlying disease is found;
and those with secondary Raynauds phenomenon, which is diagnosed when there
is associated disease. This review provides an update on new insights into the
mechanism and pathogenesis of Raynauds phenomenon and on current approaches
to the management of this disorder.6
Di agnosis a nd Cl inic a l Fe at ur e s
Although laboratory testing provides important information about the hemody-
namic and physiological features of Raynauds phenomenon, clinical assessment
by means of history or direct observation remains the best approach for diagnosis.
Most experts agree that at least biphasic (white [pallor] and blue [cyanosis]) change
in the skin color of the digits is needed (Fig.1).7,8 A major challenge in managing
this disorder is determining the cause (Fig.2) as well as the potential for serious
complications and deterioration in quality of life.
In primary Raynauds phenomenon, patients have a younger age at onset (usu-
ally between 15 and 30 years) than those with secondary Raynauds phenomenon,
the thumb is generally spared,9 and there is no evidence of a secondary cause,
peripheral vascular disease, digital ischemic injury, or abnormal nailfold capillaries
(Fig.1). In the past, proposed criteria required a normal erythrocyte sedimentation
rate in order to confirm a diagnosis of primary Raynauds phenomenon. An inter-
national panel has now recommended that a normal erythrocyte sedimentation
rate is no longer required in order to distinguish primary from secondary forms
of Raynauds phenomenon and noted that a negative or low-titer antinuclear anti-
body may also be present (1:40 by indirect immunofluorescence).8 Surveys show
that approximately 30 to 50% of patients with primary Raynauds phenomenon
have a first-degree relative with the condition, which suggests a yet-to-be-defined
genetic susceptibility.10
A B
Patients who initially present with Raynauds helpful in identifying early scleroderma.13 A sur-
phenomenon and then have progression to an vey that followed 299 patients with primary
underlying secondary disease generally have a Raynauds phenomenon for a median of 4 years
connective-tissue disease, commonly systemic showed that if capillaroscopy reveals normal nail-
sclerosis (scleroderma). One study showed that fold capillaries and if all tests for scleroderma-
37.2% of 3029 persons who were thought to have specific antibodies are negative, then the chance
primary Raynauds phenomenon subsequently that scleroderma will develop is less than 2%.14
had a connective-tissue disease.11 Scleroderma-type or nonspecific abnormalities
Raynauds phenomenon is included in the in nailfolds (i.e., nailfolds that are tortuous or
2013 American College of RheumatologyEuro- enlarged or that include hemorrhages or capil-
pean League against Rheumatism classification lary loss) can be seen in patients with other rheu-
criteria for scleroderma, which helps to identify matic diseases such as dermatomyositis, sys-
patients with subtle expressions of the disease.12 temic lupus erythematous, Sjgrens syndrome,
Recent studies have emphasized that factors mixed connective-tissue disease, or undifferenti-
such as the onset of Raynauds phenomenon ated connective-tissue disease. Capillaroscopy is
near the age of 40 years, severe frequent events, a useful addition to the clinical examination for
and the presence of abnormal nailfold capillar- distinguishing patients with a connective-tissue
ies (Fig. 1) can help predict whether a connective- disease from those with primary Raynauds phe-
tissue disease will develop11 and are especially nomenon.15
supply in patients with scleroderma, probably clothing, gloves, and head covering; avoiding
contributes to compromised nutritional blood rapidly shifting temperatures, such as rushing
flow in patients with this disease, leading to tis- into an air-conditioned area; and avoiding cold
sue injury and ulcerations.16 and breezy conditions. Local hand warming
The normal targeting of these specialized with gloves and rubbing the hands in warm
sites by the sympathetic system and the further water or with chemical warmers can help pre-
amplification that occurs in patients with Ray vent an attack or speed recovery. A typical attack
nauds phenomenon are mediated by the activa- lasts 15 to 20 minutes after rewarming.
tion of smooth-muscle 2-adrenoceptors.16,17 Vaso- Effective education and clear explanation of a
constriction that is mediated by 2-adrenoceptors planned approach reduce anxiety and provide re-
is markedly increased at reduced temperatures, assurance, which can help alleviate the severity
which enables local cold-induced potentiation of the disorder. A variety of factors can potentially
(amplification) of sympathetic vasoconstriction.16 aggravate the disorder and should be avoided,
The characteristic pallor that is observed in pa- including smoking and the use of sympathomi-
tients with attacks of Raynauds phenomenon metic drugs, agents for the treatment of attention
reflects the intense constriction of arterial in- deficithyperactivity disorder, and agents for the
flow and arteriovenous anastomoses, combined treatment of migraine headaches.6 Although es-
with the mobilization of venous blood, whereas trogen, caffeine, and nonselective beta-blockers
other color changes (bluing or reddening) can are often listed as aggravating factors, the evi-
reflect distinct vasomotor changes occurring in dence is not solid that they need to be avoided.6
arteries, veins, and arteriovenous anastomoses.16
Cur r en t A pproache s
Gener a l A pproache s t o Drug Ther a py
t o M a nagemen t
Evidence from clinical trials is still needed to
Many persons with Raynauds phenomenon do provide solid guidelines. There is little doubt that
not seek medical advice because the events are effective cold avoidance and stress reduction
not severe, have little effect on their quality of constitute the foundation of any treatment pro-
life, and can improve with time,18 which may gram for Raynauds phenomenon. This approach
reflect lifestyle modifications such as the avoid- alone treats the majority of patients who present
ance of cold19 and stress management. A survey with primary Raynauds phenomenon and is also
involving 443 persons with self-reported Ray a major factor in treating patients with second-
nauds phenomenon showed that 64% had poor ary Raynauds phenomenon.
ability to control their attacks and only 16% be- Drug therapy is initiated when nonpharmaco-
lieved that one current medication was effective.20 logic approaches are ineffective in reducing the
As expected, the survey showed that quality of severity of vasospastic attacks and improving
life was more affected in patients with second- quality of life. Reviews of agents that have been
ary Raynauds phenomenon than in those with used to treat primary Raynauds phenomenon22,23
primary Raynauds phenomenon. There is little point out that few high-quality clinical trials
evidence to support the use of various comple- have been conducted, in part owing to the vari-
mentary forms of therapy, including biofeed- ability of the events, a high placebo effect, and
back, acupuncture, laser therapy, and herbal the lack of a standard outcome measure.24 In
agents.21 patients with secondary Raynauds phenomenon,
The avoidance of cold remains the most effec- current evidence supports the use of a calcium-
tive therapy for any cause of Raynauds phenom- channel blocker or synthetic prostacyclin ana-
enon and is a key component in the successful logue (iloprost), but solid evidence is lacking for
management of the disorder in all patients. Cold other agents.25,26 Despite the lack of robust evi-
avoidance should not be considered to be a pas- dence from clinical trials, several agents are
sive approach. Systemic and local warming are used in practice. This practical approach to the
highly effective at increasing blood flow in the management of the disorder is based on pub-
skin.16,17 Systemic warming is best accomplished lished information, expert opinion, and current
by keeping the whole body warm with layered practices (Fig.3 and Table1).
1-Adrenoceptor Contraction
Phosphodiesterase-5
Prostacyclin inhibitors
analogues
Contraction
Contraction Contraction
ET-1 Statins
NO
VW Botulinum toxin ? VW NO
VW
Endothelial cell
ET-1
VW ET-1
VW
B L O O D -V E S S E L L U ME N
Figure 4. Cutaneous Blood-Vessel Wall and Site of Action of Current Treatment Approaches in Patients with Raynauds
Phenomenon.
Vasoconstriction is achieved by contraction of smooth-muscle cells, and the primary pathway for constriction is
increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Systemic or body cooling increases the activity of sympathet-
ic nerve fibers and the release of norepinephrine (NE), which causes constriction by predominantly stimulating
2-adrenergic receptors located on smooth-muscle cells. Local cooling amplifies 2-adrenergicreceptor constrictor
activity. Endothelial cells, which form a single cell layer lining the vascular lumen, are a primary mediator of vasodi-
latation by means of increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin. NO also acts on endothelial cells
to reduce the release of endothelial storage granules, which store von Willebrand factor (VW) and can store endo-
thelin-1 (ET-1) peptides. Endothelial dysfunction, which is present in secondary forms of Raynauds phenomenon
(e.g., scleroderma) but not in primary Raynauds phenomenon, is associated with diminished activity of NO and
increased expression and release of ET-1, a powerful vasoconstrictor.
higher scores indicating greater difficulty with tonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or angiotensin
the disorder),30 if they cannot be taken because IIreceptor blockers (ARBs).6 In an open-label
of side effects, or if there is persistence of a crossover study, the effects over a period of
secondary complication with digital ischemic 6 weeks of treatment with the SSRI fluoxetine (at
lesions, popular options include the use of a a dose of 20 mg daily) were compared with those
phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) inhibitor or of a calcium-channel blocker (nifedipine, at a
a topical nitrate, alone or in combination with dose of 40 mg per day); the findings suggested
the calcium-channel blocker. There is also some that fluoxetine was effective in both primary
evidence to support the use of selective sero- and secondary Raynauds phenomenon.31 In a
15-week study that compared the ARB losartan supports the use of intravenous prostacyclin ana-
(at a dose of 50 mg per day) with nifedipine (at logues in patients with severe secondary Ray
a dose of 40 mg per day), losartan was associ- nauds phenomenon, indicating that such drugs
ated with less severity and a lower frequency of reduce the severity of vasospastic attacks and
attacks among patients with primary Raynauds also heal and prevent digital ischemic ulcers.34
phenomenon and scleroderma-related Raynauds The use of such agents therefore shows that the
phenomenon.32 Additional agents that have been dual goal of inhibiting vasospastic attacks and
used for the treatment of Raynauds phenomenon preventing tissue injury is achievable. Although
are prazosin (an 1-adrenoceptor antagonist), orally administered prostacyclin analogues are
pentoxifylline (a xanthine derivative), cilostazol effective for the treatment of pulmonary hyper-
(a PDE-3 inhibitor), and N-acetylcysteine (an anti- tension, there is little current evidence of benefit
oxidant). Evidence suggests that angiotensin- in patients with Raynauds phenomenon.35,36
convertingenzyme inhibitors, which inhibit the When there is critical ischemia or resistant
generation of angiotensin II, are not helpful in digital ulcers and vasodilatory therapy (oral, intra-
the treatment of Raynauds phenomenon or its venous, or topical) does not quickly result in in-
complications in patients with scleroderma.6 creased blood flow, surgical intervention should
Currently, the most popular approach to be considered. Sympathectomy in the digits, and
manage resistant cases of Raynauds phenome- not proximal thoracic procedures, is recommend-
non is to amplify or mimic the vasodilator and ed when critical ischemia threatens a digit de-
protective activity of endothelium-derived nitric spite aggressive medical therapy.37,38 Although
oxide (Figs. 3 and 4). Topical nitric-oxide donors digital sympathectomy may be helpful in treat-
(transdermal nitrates), which include patches, ing primary Raynauds phenomenon, patients
creams, gels, and ointments, are reported to rarely require a surgical approach. The reported
reduce the frequency and severity of vasospastic degree and duration of abatement of severe sec-
attacks in patients with primary or secondary ondary Raynauds phenomenon are quite variable
Raynauds phenomenon. Unfortunately, no for- after sympathectomy without solid evidence from
mal study has characterized their long-term use clinical trials to provide guidance. Repair of
or potential benefit with regard to digital ische obstructive macrovascular disease is an uncom-
mic injury. Nitric oxide causes dilatation by mon option in selected cases of severe secondary
stimulating guanylate cyclase and increasing Raynauds phenomenon when there is macrovas-
cyclic guanosine monophosphate (GMP), which cular disease and critical digital ischemia.
is then degraded by PDE enzymes. Preliminary
results suggest that PDE-5 inhibitors may lessen
Ne w T r e atmen t Op t ions
the frequency and duration of vasospastic events
in patients with Raynauds phenomenon; a meta- Although the reduction of vasospastic attacks is
analysis of six randomized, controlled trials that an obvious goal in patients with Raynauds phe-
included 244 patients with secondary Raynauds nomenon, we should not overlook the impor-
phenomenon showed a moderate but significant tance of restoring nutritional blood flow and
benefit, as measured by the Raynauds Condition preventing ischemic tissue injury in patients with
Score as well as by the frequency and duration secondary Raynauds phenomenon. It is impor-
of attacks. There are minimal data regarding tant to consider the site of vasodilator activity
digital ischemic injury in patients with second- within the vascular network of the skin. For ex-
ary Raynauds phenomenon.33 Given these data, ample, vasodilatation in arteriovenous anastomo-
it is reasonable to add a PDE-5 inhibitor to a ses could alleviate attacks by facilitating upstream
calcium-channel blocker or to switch from a dilatation of digital arteries but might not increase
calcium-channel blocker to a PDE-5 inhibitor in nutritional blood flow.16 This is especially impor-
patients who do not have a response to a calcium- tant in patient with secondary forms of Raynauds
channel blocker alone. phenomenon, such as scleroderma, in whom
Prostacyclin inhibits vasoconstriction, throm- impairments in endothelial dysfunction and mi-
bosis, inflammation, and pathologic vascular re- crovascular structure severely limit nutritional
modeling and stimulates the release of endothe- blood flow especially during cold exposure, which
lium-derived nitric oxide.16 A systematic review precipitates tissue injury and ischemic ulceration.16
thrombosis have occurred. The benefit of anti- Although vasoactive agents can help alleviate
platelet therapy is not well studied, but such the effects of Raynauds phenomenon, the re-
therapy is often used in cases of secondary sponse of the thermosensitive vascular system to
Raynauds phenomenon when there is a risk of cold is intense and difficult to completely over-
thrombosis. Long-term anticoagulation in the come with any drug intervention. Maurice Ray
absence of a hypercoagulable state is not recom- nauds text1 reminds us of the importance of
mended. However, a small, placebo-controlled warmth in managing Raynauds phenomenon:
study that used low-molecular-weight heparin in different remedies produced no manifest im-
patients with severe Raynauds phenomenon provement but during their employment the ex-
showed a reduction in severity after 4 weeks and ternal temperature rising the cyanosis became
20 weeks of therapy.53 less and less marked, and no longer appeared
Inflammatory diseases such as vasculitis, when the atmosphere became warm.
which precipitate vascular injury, may cause vaso- Dr. Wigley reports receiving research support from CSL
Behring, Cytori Therapeutics, Corbus, Boehringer Ingelheim,
spasm and critical-tissue ischemia and mimic and Allergan; and Dr. Flavahan, holding a patent (U.S. patent
Raynauds phenomenon. Although treatment of no. 6,444,681) related to the use of 2C-adrenergic inhibitors for
the precipitating disease process with an appro- the treatment of Raynauds phenomenon and scleroderma. No
other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was
priate antiinflammatory or immunosuppressive reported.
agent is important, the role of antiinflammatory Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with
or immunosuppressive therapy is unknown in the full text of this article at NEJM.org.
We thank Kwas Huston, M.D., University of Missouri, Kansas
patients with autoimmune disease to treat associ- City, and Michael Berks, Ph.D., University of Manchester, United
ated typical Raynauds phenomenon. Kingdom, for providing images.
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