ELEMENTS OF

PETROLOGY - MAGMA
BSC II SEMESTER
PETROLOGY AND
PETROGRAPHY
Petrology -The branch of geology dealing with the
origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks

Petrography -The branch of geology dealing with

the description and systematic classification of rocks,
especially by microscopic examination of thin
sections. Petrography is a subfield of Petrology.
MAGMA
Magmais amoltenand semi-molten rock mixture
found under the surface of the Earth.
This mixture is usually made up of four parts:
a hotliquidbase, called themelt;
mineralscrystallized by the melt;
solidrocksincorporated into the melt from the
surroundingconfines;
anddissolved gases.
 Magma is not often a simple liquid but rather
a complex mixture of liquid, solid materials
(crystals and rocks), and dissolved vapor.
Magma can cool to form an igneous rock
either on the surface of the Earth - in which
case it produces a volcanic or extrusive
igneous rock, or beneath the surface of the
Earth, - in which case it produces a plutonic or
intrusive igneous rock
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
MAGMA
All magma contains gases and a mixture of simple
elements. Being that oxygen and silicon are the
most abundant elements in magma, geologists
define magma types in terms of their silica
content, expressed as SiO2. All magmas (except
rare carbonatites) are silicate magmas in which
the dominant component is silica (SiO2), which
generally comprises 45 % or more by weight.
Alumina (Al2O3), with its abundance in common
igneous rocks somewhere between 13 and 18 %,
is a distant second
SiO2, TiO2, Al
2O3, Fe 2O3,
CaO, MgO,
MnO, FeO,
Fe2O3, Na 2O,
and K2O are
often referred
to as major
oxides
because
together they
comprise 99 %
TRACE ELEMENTS

There are many other elements (e.g., V, Sr, Ni, La,

Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Yb, Hf, etc.) whose abundances
are generally much lower (parts per thousand or
parts per million levels) and are hence referred to
as trace elements. These elements are
nonetheless important because they provide
significant clues to the origin of igneous rocks
COMMON MAGMA TYPES
Magmas classified into four broad groups,
namely
ultramafic,
mafic,
intermediate, and
felsic types
based on relative abundances of SiO2, MgO
+ FeO + Fe2O3 (called the mafic
component), and total alkalis (Na2O + K2O).
The mafic component is minimal in felsic magmas and it increases toward ultramafic magmas.
Alkalis and silica exhibit the opposite behavior.
Mafic magma has relatively low silica content, roughly 50%, and higher contents in iron and
magnesium.
Intermediate magma has higher silica content (roughly 60%) than mafic magma.
Felsicmagma has the highest silica content of all magma types, between 65-70%.
Equivalent terms for the above types are as follows:
ultramafic magma = komatiite magma; mafic magma
= basaltic magma; intermediate magma = andesitic
magma; and felsic magma = rhyolitic magma.
 What minerals may form from a magma depend on the magmas chemical
composition:
for example, an ultramafic magma with its low SiO2and very high MgO +
FeO should be expected to crystallize minerals like olivine and pyroxenes,
which have high MgO + FeO. Quartz (SiO2) would not be expected to form
in such a magma because formation of olivine and pyroxene crystals would
use up all the available silica so that there will not remain any excess silica
needed to form quartz. On the other hand, in a felsic magma, which is very
high in silica and alkalis and poor in MgO + FeO, one should expect crystals
of alkali feldspars [(K, Na)AlSi3O8] and quartz to form.
 Rock names are not only based on chemical composition but also on
its grain size, which is determined by whether rock formed by
quenching of lava (i.e., volcanic), by extremely slow cooling and
solidification in a deep crustal pluton, or by relatively rapid
crystallization in a shallow (hypabyssal) crustal intrusion.

For example, basalt and gabbro have the same chemical composition,
but basalt is fine grained relative to gabbro, which is a coarse-grained
plutonic rock.
GASES IN MAGMAS

At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas dissolved in the liquid,
but the gas forms a separate vapor phase when pressure is decreased as
magma rises toward the surface. This is similar to carbonated beverages
which are bottled at high pressure. The high pressure keeps the gas in
solution in the liquid, but when pressure is decreased, like when you open
the can or bottle, the gas comes out of solution and forms a separate gas
phase that you see as bubbles. Gas gives magmas their explosive
character, because volume of gas expands as pressure is reduced. The
composition of the gases in magma are:
Mostly H2O (water vapor) with some CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Minor amounts of Sulfur, Chlorine, and Fluorine gases
TEMPERATURE OF MAGMA
Temperature of magmas is difficult to measure (due
to the danger involved), but laboratory
measurement and limited field observation indicate
that the eruption temperature of various magmas is
as follows:
Basaltic magma - 1000 to 1200 oC
Andesitic magma - 800 to 1000 oC
Rhyolitic magma - 650 to 800 oC.
 Magmas chemical composition and physical
properties, such as viscosity and density, are
all important factors that control magmas
overall behaviorhow fast or slow it will move,
how explosive it will be, what minerals will
form in it, and their grain sizes and physical
interrelationships (i.e., texture).
VISCOSITY

Viscosity () of a magma is simply defined as its

internal resistance to ow and is given as:

where and are applied shear stress and rate of

shear strain, respectively. A convenient way to
understand what viscosity means is to compare how
syrup and water ows: syrup is said to be more viscous
than water because it ows more slowly than the latter.
 Higher SiO2 (silica) content magmas have higher
viscosity than lower SiO2 content magmas
(viscosity increases with increasing SiO2
concentration in the magma).
Rhyolitic magmas exhibit pseudoplastic behavior
in that it shows a nonlinear relationship between
stress and strain rate. As should be expected, the
extent of polymerization (i.e., how many silicate
chains occur in themagma, which is directly
dependent on the abundance of SiO2)
 Lower temperature magmas have higher viscosity than
higher temperature magmas (viscosity decreases with
increasing temperature of the magma).
Temperature increase breaks down more silicate networks in
the magma and thus lowers its viscosity. On the other hand,
increase in crystal content in a cooling magma makes it
progressively more viscous. Increase of dissolved H2O, a
network modifier, greatly lowers the viscosity of magma
(Fig. 2.6).
 Thus, basaltic magmas tend to be fairly uid (low viscosity),
but their viscosity is still 10,000 to 100,0000 times more
viscous than water. Rhyolitic magmas tend to have even
higher viscosity, ranging between 1 million and 100 million
times more viscous than water. (Note that solids, even though
they appear solid have a viscosity, but it is very high,
measured as trillions time the viscosity of water). Viscosity is
an important property in determining the eruptive behavior of
magmas.
DENSITY

Densities of different magmas have been measured in the

laboratory, mostly at atmospheric pressure, and they vary
between 2.2 and 3.1 g/cm3. Density of magma is directly
related to the abundance of the mafic (i.e., Mg + Fe)
component in it. Thus, rhyolite magmas are less dense
than andesites, and andesites are less dense than basalts.
Magma rises from its point of origin by buoyancy, much
like a helium-filled balloon rises through the atmosphere.
This happens because the magma is lighter (i.e., less
dense) than the surrounding wall rock.
ORIGIN OF MAGMAS

Magmas do not form everywhere beneath

the surface, so special circumstances are
necessary.
 Temperature varies with depth or pressure in the Earth along the
geothermal gradient. The normal geothermal gradient is
somewhat higher beneath the oceans than beneath the
continents, at least at shallow levels. If we compare the normal
geothermal gradients with the experimentally determined phase
diagram for peridotite containing little water or carbon dioxide,
we find that the peridotite solidus temperature is everywhere
higher than the normal geothermal gradients. Thus, under
normal conditions the mantle is solid, as we would suspect from
the seismic evidence.
 Thus, in order to generate a melt, either we must find a way to
increase the geothermal gradient so that it is above the
peridotite solidus or reduce the temperature of the peridotite
solidus.
RAISING THE GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

Radioactive Heat - Elements like U, Th, K, and Rb have radioactive isotopes. During
radioactive decay, sub-atomic particles are released by the decaying isotope and
move outward until they collide with other atomic particles. Upon collision, the
kinetic energy of the moving particles is converted to heat. If this heat cannot be
conducted away, then the temperature will rise. Most of the heat within the Earth is
generated by radioactive decay, and this is the general reason why temperature
increases with depth in the Earth. But most the radioactive isotopes are
concentrated in the crust. Although there are areas in the continental crust where
high concentrations of radioactive elements have local raised the temperature, at
least high enough to cause metamorphism, this is a rare occurrence. It is even more
unlikely that areas of high concentration develop within the mantle. Thus,
concentrations of radioactive elements is not likely to cause melting.
 Frictional Heat - In areas where rocks slide past one
another, such as at the base of the lithosphere, on at
subduction zones, heat could be generated by friction. If
this heat cannot be conducted away fast enough, then it
may cause a localized rise in temperature within the zone
where the sliding or shearing is taking place. This could
cause a localized spike on the geothermal gradient that
could cause local temperatures to rise above the solidus
 Decompression due to Convection - Convection is a
form of heat transfer wherein the heat moves with the
material. Convection can be induced if the temperature
gradient is high enough that material at depth expands
so that its density is lower than the material above it.
This is an unstable situation and the hotter, lower
density material will rise to be replaced by descending
cooler material in a convection cell.
 Anywhere there is a rising convection current, hotter
material at depth will rise carrying its heat with it. As it
rises to lower pressure (decompression) it will cool
somewhat, but will still have a temperature higher than its
surroundings. Thus, decompression will result in raising the
local geothermal gradient. If this new geothermal gradient
reaches temperatures greater than the peridotite solidus,
partial melting and the generation of magma can occur.
This mechanism is referred to as decompression melting.
BOWEN REACTION SERIES

Magmas can vary considerably in chemical

composition and hence in their mineralogy.
What are the causes for such diversity? Is it
possible that all the major magma types are
somehow genetically related ??
 In the early 1900s, scientists began to explore the
questions listed above. Norman L. Bowen, the father
of modern igneous petrology, and some of his
notable colleagues at the Geophysical Laboratory of
Washington, DC, developed a unique experimental
approach to decipher magmas chemical evolution.

Bowen himself believed that basalt magma is

primary and rhyolitic and andesitic magmas are
derived from it by fractional crystallization. Hawaiian
lava lakes offer a natural laboratory to study how
basalt magmas (of the type that Bowen believed to
be the parent magma) can crystallize and evolve
through time
 Bowen proposed a unifying hypothesis, called
Bowens reaction principle, in which he proposed that
tholeiite (subalkaline) basalt magmas are primary
magmas, i.e., they are directly generated from the
mantle, and that intermediate (i.e., andesitic) and
felsic (i.e., rhyolitic) magmas are derived by fractional
crystallization of various ferromagnesian (i.e., Fe,Mg
containing) minerals and plagioclase from parent
basalt magma.
 Bowen recognized two reaction series: One of these
simply represents continuous crystallization of plagioclase
with progressive albite enrichment of the plagioclase with
crystallization of the magma. Bowen called this the
continuous series. He called his other series, formed by
ferromagnesian minerals, the discontinuous series,
because in his model individual mineral species
crystallizes for a while and then a new one takes over.
 Bowen ground up actual igneous rocks, along with mixtures of chemicals
that could make up igneous rocks and experimented with their melting
relationships. He would put the samples into what chemists call a "bomb,"
or a very strong enclosed sample holder, which can withstand very high
temperatures and pressures without exploding (although sometimes they
do). He would heat them up until they melted, 1600o C or more, then cool
them to a known temperature, for example 1400o C. He would hold them
at that temperature long enough to allow crystal formation (minutes, hours
or days) and then cool them immediately by throwing them into a bucket of
water, thus locking into the samples the minerals that had formed at the
chosen temperature. Nonmineralized material would be glass.
 To find out what minerals, if any, had formed, he
would analyze the samples with X-ray Diffraction.
If there are minerals in the sample, X-rays will be
diffracted, or bent, as they pass through the
mineral. Glass causes no refraction. The angles
to which the X-rays are bent are dependent upon
the crystal structure of the mineral. Because
every mineral has a different structure, every
mineral has a different X-ray diffraction pattern.
If there are no minerals are in the sample, Xrays
go straight through it without being diffracted.
WHEN BOWEN PERFORMED THESE
EXPERIMENTS, HE DISCOVERED..
 Bowen recognized two reaction series: One of these
simply represents continuous crystallization of
plagioclase with progressive albite enrichment of the
plagioclase with crystallization of the magma. Bowen
called this the continuous series. He called his other
series, formed by ferromagnesian minerals, the
discontinuous series, because in his model individual
mineral species crystallizes for a while and then a new
one takes over.
MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION

Processes which force a parent magma to evolve

chemically to a series of compositionally different
daughter magmas (One single magma of uniform
composition can give rise to different rocks). This
process is known as magmatic differentiation.
MECHANISMS OF MAGMA
DIFFERENTIATION
1. Fractional Crystallization
During formation of magma different minerals
crystallized according to temperature. Fractional
crystallization is a process in which tiny fractions of
crystals are mechanically separated from the
magma as soon as they form. The remaining bulk
composition have some what different composition
(more felsic).
GRAVITY SETTLING

If specific gravity of crystallized mineral is higher than

that of residual magma, then those crystals may sink
down at the oor of chamber.
Bowen demonstrated that fractional crystallization of
basalt magma might occur by settling of olivine crystals
through magma because olivine is denser (generally
higher than 3.3 g/cm3) than basalt magma (around 2.7
g/cm3). This process is called crystal settling (Fig. 6.3a).
 Crystal otation is the opposite of crystal settling (Fig. 6.3b).
The density of plagioclase (generally 2.682.73 g/cm3) is
very close to that of the basalt magma; and therefore,
plagioclase crystals can oat, sink, or remain neutrally
buoyant in basalt magma depending upon whether it is
lighter or heavier or has the same density as the basalt
magma. Plagioclase otation is particularly common in
relatively Fe-rich and therefore denser, differentiated basalt
magmas.
LIQUID IMMISCIBILITY

Liquid Immiscibility is where liquids do not mix with

each other. (Example is Oil and water). Liquid
Immiscibility is temperature dependent.
GASEOUS TRANSFER

Magma differentiation can occur in a conduit or magma

chamber via transfer of vapor bubbles from deeper to
shallow levels within a magma chamber, where the
vapor bubbles may concentrate in the highly
differentiated liquids near the roof of a magma chamber
(High pressure to low pressure). The removal of volatile
may carry some other magmatic constituents along with
them. This process is known as gaseous transfer
MAGMA MIXING

in magma mixing two magma batches are

sufficiently well mixed to yield a new mixed
magma in a conduit or magma chamber.
However, if one magma batch does not really
mix with the other and the two magmas more-
or-less preserve their physical identities, then
such a process is magma mingling.
FILTER PRESSING

This is a process of compaction that involves

squeezing out of melt from a crystalmelt mush.
Loading of crystals in a crystalliquid mush (and
hence, gravity), a stress regime, or ow through
constrictions may cause melts to be separated this
way. This process is likely to be very important in
separating a small melt fraction from its source rock
during partial melting.
ASSIMILATION
 How much wall rock assimilation can occur
depends on a number of factorsascent
velocity and temperature of the magma, the
enthalpy difference between magma and
wall rock, solidus of the wall rock, physical
nature of the contact between magma and
wall rock
FORM & STRUCTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Magma Emplacement in the Crust: Plutons and Hypabyssal
Intrusions
Tectonic uplift and erosional processes sometimes expose magmas
storage areas, called intrusions or intrusive bodies, in the crust.
Study of these intrusive bodies tells us that they can be of various
shapes and sizes. The term pluton is generally used to describe
moderately large to really large intrusions that occur at depths
greater than about 3 km
Hypabyssal Intrusions
Intrusions that intrude rocks at shallow levels of the crust are termed
hypabyssal intrusions
Plutons
Plutons are generally much larger intrusive bodies that have intruded
much deeper in the crust. Although they may show sharp contacts
with the surrounding rocks into which they intruded, at deeper levels
in the crust the contacts are often gradational.
 The terms concordant and discordant are used to
describe the nature of contact between the intrusion
and surrounding wall rocks.
An intrusion is said to be discordant when they cut
through the wall rocks and -
concordant when they are parallel to the structures,
such as the layers, in the country rock.
 CONCORDANT INTRUSIONS
Sill.
A sill is a tabular concordant
intrusion. They can be several
kilometers long and over a hundred
meter thick. One of the best-known
sills in the world is the Palisades sill
whose outcrops are best exposed
along New York. Sills usually are fed
by dikes, but these may not be
exposed in the field.
 Laccoliths
Laccoliths are dome-shaped
concordant plutonic intrusions.
They acquire this form by
pushing up the overlying rocks
during magma emplacement.
Laccoliths are somewhat large
intrusions that result in uplift
and folding of the preexisting
rocks above the intrusion.
They are also concordant types
of intrusions
 Lopoliths.
lopas, a basin or at earthen dish
Plutons of mafic
magmatic
composition tend to
have the form of a
lopolith, which is a
broad funnel or keel-
shaped intrusion
whose exposed
surface area could
be as much as
64,000 km2
 DISCORDANT BODIES

Dikes
Dikes are small (<20 m
wide) shallow tabular
intrusions that show a
discordant relationship to
the rocks in which they
intrude. Discordant
means that they cut
across preexisting
structures.
 Batholiths
Batholiths are very large
intrusive bodies, usually so
large that there bottoms
are rarely exposed.
Sometimes they are
composed of several
smaller intrusions.
Stocks are smaller bodies
that are likely fed from
deeper level batholiths.
 Cone sheet - inclined dyke-like masses with arcuate outcrops, the
members of which dip at angles of 30 to 40 towards common centres

A ring-dyke is a dyke of arcuate outcrop which, with 'full development,

would have a closed, ring-shaped outcrop.
 VOLCANIC NECKs-These are igneous masses
which seal up the vents of ancient volcanoes.
 Pyroclastics
Lava
flow

Volcanic
neck

Igneous
dike

Igneous
Sill

Batholith
V

BLOCK LAVA AND Ropy LAVA-Two very different appearances

may be presented by lava ows. Sometimes the
surface is covered with a mass of rough, jagged, angUlar
blocks of all dimensions, like a sea of clinkers, which, during
the ow of the lava, are bome along as a tumbling, jostling
mass
 On the other hand, very mobile
lavas solidify with much smoother
surfaces, often highly glazed,
which, in detail, exhibit wrinkled,
ropy, or corded forms, similar to
those displayed by owing pitch
 JOINTS are
divisional
planes which
are found in all
kinds of igneous
rock
 Stocks are smaller bodies that are likely fed from
deeper level batholiths.
Necks & Ig Dikes

Neck

Dike

igneous
Igneous sill
sill
Aphanit
ic
Phaneri
tic
EUHEDR
AL
SUBHEDRA
L
ANHED
RAL
VESICULAR
AMYGDALOID
AL
Pumice
GRAPHIC
Myrmekitic texture
OPHITIC
Perthitic texture
Fibrous
Holohyaline
Holocrystallin
e
MeroCrystalli
ne
CLASSIFICATIONS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS