Software Engineering

Software Characteristics -
Software ;k software engineering dks le>us ds fy;s lcls igys mlds
charactristics dks le>uk vko';d gksrk gSA tks fd vyx&vyx rjhds ls human
being activity dks produce djrs gS tc hardware dks rS;kj fd;k x;k rk mldh
physical form rS;kj gqbZA ftldks human vklkuh ls analysis design, construct
rFkk test dj ldrk gSA Hardware dk mi;ksx djds ;fn u;k computer rS;kj fd;k
tkrk gS rks mlesa physical product tSls fd chips, circuit baord rFkk power
supply gSA
Computer System dh software ,d logical element gksrk gSA ftlds }kjk
hardware dks operate fd;k tkrk gSA Software dks develop ;k engineering fd;k
tkrk gSA bldh manufacturing ugh gksrh gSA tcfd software development rFkk
hardware manufacturing esa Hkh dqN simultaneous gksrh gSA ;s nksuks
activities different gksrh gSA vkSj bu nksuksa dh high quality produce dh tk
ldrh gSa ysfdu hardware dks manufacture djrs le; quality problems dk lkeu
djuk iM+rk gSA ftudks vklkuh ls correct ugh fd;k tk ldrkA ;s nksuks activities
user ij depend jgrh gSA vkSj bu nksuksa ds fy;s construction of product dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA ysfdu approach vyx&vyx mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA Computer
based product dh designing dks control djus ds fy;s lkW¶Vos;j eq[; Hkwfedk
fuHkkrk gSA blds fy;s digital circuit board rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSA vkSj mudh
proper functioning dks check fd;k tkrk gSA izR;sd intrigrated circuit (ic and
chpe) ds ikl ,d iksVZ uEcj gksrk gS tks fd standrad ingrigrated guid lines dks
set djrk gSA izR;sd component dks selected djus ds ckn board ds circuit dks
electrical signals ds }kjk check fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ,d D;k system design gksrk
gSA
,d software component vko';drkuqlkj design rFkk environment fd;k tkrk
gSA ftlls cgqr lkjs vyx&vyx programs dks include fd;k tkrk gS ;s programs
permanent gksrs gSA engineering rFkk scientific application dks litraries
dks ,d well defined algorithm dh lgk;rk ls effective manner ds }kjk reuse fd;k
tkrk gSA Software engineering cgqr lkjh ubZ&ubZ application create dj jgs
gSA tks fd reusable form esa gksrh gSA tSls fd graphical user interface (GUI)
ds lHkh components reusable gksrs gSA ftudksa vko';drkuqlkj ckj&ckj
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa pull down menus, tools rFkk interactive windows
include jgrh gSA

Software Application :-
Software vyx&vyx situation ds vk/kkj ij apply fd;k tkrk gSA blds fy;s
igys ls gh procedure step specify djus dh vko';drk gksrh gS ftls ge algorithm
Hkh dgrs gSA bldk mi;ksx export system software or network software fd;k
tkrk gSA ;gk ij information ds contents software application ds nature ds fy;s
dkQh important gksrs gSA D;ksfd controls incoming rFkk outgoing
information dh definition crkrs gSA tSlk fd cgqr lkjh ,slh business application
gS tks structured input data (database) dks mi;ksx djds formatted reports
produce djrh gSA Software automated machine dks control djrk gSA
Software engineering es program analysis ds fy;s predefined order set djus dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA tks fcuk fdlh :dkoV ds algorithm dks execute djsA vkSj
data ds result dks report ;k graphical formet esa produce djs multi-user
operating system fofHkUu izdkj ds contants ;k commands dks execute djrk gS
vkSj ;s commands external condition ds vk/kkj ij gh accept gksrh gSA
Software application dks meaningful design djuk FkksM+k dfBu gksrk gSA
ysfdu blds fy;s cgqr lkjs component use fd;s tkrs gSA ftudk mi;ksx djds
application dks design djuk vklku cuk;k tk ldrk gSA

1. System software :-
System software dqN ,sls programs dk collection gksrk gS ftudk mís';
nwljs program dks service provide djuk gksrk gSA dqN system software
utilities bl izdkj gSA tSls fd companies editors, file manager, drivers, tele
communication, processor etc bl izdkj dh system utilities large information dh
processing dks handle dj ldrh gS nwljh rjQ system software computer
hardware dks Hkh control djrs gSA tks fd multiple user ds }kjk mi;ksx fd;k tk
jgk gksrk gSA

2. Real Time Software :-

,sls software tks fd real words events dks monitor/analysis ;k control
djrs gSA Real-time Software dgykrs gSA Real-time software ds element esa
data gathering components include jgrs gSA tks fd vko';drkuqlkj external
environment ls information dks collect djrs gS vkSj mls analysis djds ,d lgh
output produce djrs gSA rFkk lHkh components real-time response (typically
ranging from 1 millisecond to 1 second ) maintain djrs gSA

3. Business Software :-
Business information processing esa ,d large single software use fd;k
tkrk gSA tks business dh cgqr lkjh fields dks cover djrk gSA ;s software bl
izdkj ls gks ldrs gS &
1. Payroll Management
2. Account Receivable/Payable
3. Inventory Control System
bl izdkj ds lHkh software management information system (MIS) esa
involve jgrs gSA vkSj business information ds fy;s ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd large
databases dks inter relate djrs gSA bl izdkj dh application esa business
operation ds fy;s cgqr lkjh lqfo/kk iznku dh tk ldrh gSA

4. Engineering and Scientific Software :-

;s software engineering and scientific calculation dks perform djus ds
mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gSA bl izdkj dh application esa space technology ;k weather
for costing etc. dh calculation vklkuh ls dh tk ldrh gSA modern application es
engineering and scientific application areas dks cover fd;k x;k gSA tks fd
numerical algorithm dks vklkuh ls handle dj ldrh gS blesa computer aided
design (CAD) system simulation rFkk nwljh interactive application involve
jgrh gSA ;s lHkh application real time application gksrh gSA

5. Embedded Software :-
izR;sd customer ;k industrial market eas vktdy intelligent porduct use
fd;s tk jgs gSA ftudk mi;ksx djds business esa viuk dkQh le; cpk ysrs gSA
vkSj fast calculation Hkh perform gks tkrh gS dqN ,sls software dks customer
rFkk industrial market ds product control djus ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gSA
Embedded software dgykrs gSA ;s software dkQh NksVs software gksrs gS
vkSj read only memory esa jgrs gSA rFkk bldk dk;Z products dks control
djuk vkSj le;≤ ij mudh information provide djuk gksrk gSA blesa
fuEufyf[kr software involve jgrs gSA tSls fd & digital function in an
automobiles such as fuel control, dash board displays and etc.

6. Personal Computer Software :-

Personal computer software dk market vkt dkQh powerful gks x;k gSA
blesa manipulation, calculation rFkk business etc ds fy;s gtkjks software use
fd;s tk jgs gSA tSls fd word processing, spread sheet, computer graphics,
multi media, entertainment, database management, personal and business
financial application external network and database access application.

7. Web Based Software :-

Web pages ,sls software ds }kjk retrieve fd;s tkrs gSA ftUgs browser
dgk tkrk gSA tks fd instructions dks execute djus es l{ke gksrs gS web pasges
dh instructions, CGI, HTML, Perl or java etc. languages esa fy[ks tkrs gSA
vkSj MkVk dks fofHkUu izdkj ds hyper text rFkk visual formets esa
represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA Internet dh fdlh Hkh information dks web dh lgk;rk
ls access djuk vklku gks x;k gSA vkSj blds fy;s modem eq[; Hkwfedk
fuHkkrk gSA

8. Artificial Intelligence Software :-

Artificial Intelligence (AI) software ,sls software gksrs gS tks non
numerical algorithm dks complex problem dks vklkuh ls solve dj ldrs gSA
blesa expert system, pattern reorganization (Image & Voice), Artificial neural
network and games planing etc.

Software Engineering a Layered Approach :-

Software Engineering ds fyls lSdM+sk author us fofHkUu izdkj dh
defination provide dh gSA ysfdu ftl subject ds ckjs esa discussion ;k
confrenence perform dh tkrh gS vkSj lgh principal rFkk rule regulation
provide fd;s tkrs gS ogh actual esa software engineering dh defination gksrh
gSA blesa software quality rFkk timally product delaviry, software ds merits
rFkk demerits, important of the software rFkk software dh basic outline
provide dh tkrh gSA ,d business software rS;kj djus ds fy;s ,d computer
program create djus dh vko';drk gksrh gS vkSj bls cgqr lkjh vyx&vxy e'khu ij
VsLV fd;k tkrk gSA ;g testing Hkh software engineering dk gh steps gksrh
gSA

Process, Methods and tools :-

Software engineering ,d layered technology gksrh gS ftlesa quality dks
improve fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj tc quality improve gksrh gS rks development dh
izfØ;k vkSj next step ij perform dh tkrh gS tks fd software engineering dh
further quality dks support ;k focus djrh gSA Software engineering dh process
layer esa lHkh layers dks combine fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj le; ds vuqlkj ,d
computer software rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA blesa ,d key process area gksrk gSA
tks software projects dks manage rFkk control djrk gSA bl izdkj ds technical
methods work products esa apply fd;s tkrs gS tSls fd models, documents,
data, reports, forms etc software engineering methods ,d ,slh technique gksrh
gS ftlesa software dSls rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSA bl technique dks le>k;k tkrk gSA
bleas vko';drkuqlkj analysis, design, program, construction testing support etc
steps include jgrs gSA software engineering tools bu process rFkk methods
esa automation provide djrs gSA tc tools intergraded gksrs gS rks mUgs
dksbZ Hkh nwljk user use dj ldrk gSA ,d ,slk system tks software
development esa lgk;rk djrk gSA "Computer Aided Software Engineering"
dgykrk gSA CASE esa software hardware rFkk database dk combination
gksrk gSA rFkk blesa Hkh software engineering environment esa analysis,
design, program construction and testing etc. steps include jgrs gSA
Key pad analysis (KPA) esa process maturity ds fuEufyf[kr steps
include jgrs gSA

LEVEL 1
A. Software Configuration Management
B. Software Quality Assurance
C. Software Sub-Contract Management
D. Software Project Tracking and Over right
E. Software Project Planning
F. Requirement Management

LEVEL 2
 A. Peer Revises
B. Inter Group and Coordination
C. Software Products Engineering

LEVEL 3
A. Integrated Software Management
B. Training Program
C. Organization Process Definition
D. Organization Process Focus

LEVEL 4
A. Software Quality Management
B. Quantitative Process Management

LEVEL 5
A. Process Change Management
B. Technology Change Management
C. Defect Prevention

Software Process Models :-

fdlh Hkh industry esa actual problem dks solve djus ds fy;s ,d software
engineering dh team xfBr dh tkrh gSA tks fd process method rFkk tools layers
dk use djds iwjh problem dks specify djrh gSA blh izfØ;k dks process modes
;k software engineering esa process model ;k software engineering
paradigones dgk tkrk gSA software engineering esa process model project
rFkk application dh nature ds vuqlkj gh choose fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj blds ckn
gh method rFkk tools use fd;s tkrs gSA vkSj vko';drkuqlkj software dh
controlling dh tkrh gSA
lHkh izdkj ds software development esa problem solving loop dks
characterized fd;k tkrk gSA ftlesa pkj fofHkUu izdkj dh stages dh testing
gksrh gS & status, quo, problem, definition, technical development and
solution intigration.
 Status quo fdlh Hkh problem ds current status dks represent djrk gSA
vkSj problem definition fdlh particular problem dks identify djrk gSA ftls
solve fd;k tkuk gks] technical development esa application dh lgk;rk ls
problems dks solve fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj solution integration es result produce
fd;s tkrs gSA tSl fd document, programs, data, new business function and new
product etc.
Problem solving bl loop dks software engineering fofHkUu izdkj dh
problem dks solve djus ds fy;s vyx&vyx rjhds ls mi;ksx djrs gSA rFkk bls
large product esa ,d ls vf/kd ckj vyx&vyx izdkj dh problem ds fy;s mi;ksx
fd;k tk ldrk gSA

The Linear Sequential Model :-

bl model dks dHkh&dHkh ge clasic life cycle ;k waterfull model Hkh
dgrs gSA Linear sequential model software development esa ,d systematic
rFkk sequential approach sugest provide djrk gSA tks fd system level ds 'kq:
gksrk gSA vkSj analysis, design, coding, testing rFkk support dh izfØ;k dks
complete djrk gSA
` Linear sequential model fuEufyf[kr activities perform djrk gSA

1. System/Information engineering and modeling :-

` D;ksfd software ges'kk gh ,d cM+s system ;k business dk part gksrk
gSA tks fd lHkh izdkj ds system element dh requirement dh vko';drkuqlkj
dk;Z djrk gSA vkSj bldk interaction nqljs element ds lkFk vo'; gksuk pkfg;sA
tSls fd hardware, people and database.

2. Software requirement analysis :-

ftl rjg dh process gksrh gSA mlh rjg ls software dks vko';drkuqlkj
choose fd;k tkrk gSA Program dks rS;kj djus ds fy;s mlds nature dks le>uk
vko';d gksrk gSA blfy;s analyst (software engineer) software ds fy;s complete
information dks igys ls le> ysrk gSA tSls fd & requirement funtions,
behavior, performance and interface etc. system rFkk software dh requirement
bu documentaion software dks rS;kj djus ls igys gh rS;kj dj fy;k tkrk gSA

3. Design :-
 Actually Software design ,d step process gksrh gSA tks program ds
attribute dks focus djrh gSA Data structure, software architecture, interface,
representation and procedural (Algorithmic) detail designing process
vko';drkuqlkj software dh lHkh requirements dks translate djrh gSA Coding
start djus ls igys analysis software ds designing documents dks complete dj
ysrk gSA

4. Code Generation :-
Designing dks ges'kk gh readable form esa translate djus dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA bl dk;Z dks code generation step complete djrk gSA ;fn designing
vko';drkuqlkj detailed manner esa gksxh rks code generation esa fdlh Hkh rjg
dh problem ugh vkrh gSA

5. Testing :-
;fn ,d ckj code generate dj fy;k tkrk gSA rks program testing dh process
'kq: gksrh gSA Testing process software dh logical values dks test djrh gSA
vkSj ftlesa ;s irk fd;k tkrk gS fd software dh lHkh statements lgh :i ls execute
gks jgh gS ;k ughA System es rjg&rjg ds inputs provide fd;s tkrs gSA ;fn
output esa fdlh izdkj dh leL;k vkrh gS rks mls debug dj fy;k tkrk gSA vkSj ;fn
vko';drkuqlkj result izkIr gks tk;s rks software testing dh process complete
gks tkrh gSA

5. Support :-
Software complete gksus ds ckn customer dks handover dj fn;k tkrk
gSA mlds ckn customer viuk dk;Z 'kq: dj nsrk gSA vkSj customer viuh
vko';drkuqlkj data input djrk gSA ,sls le; esa software dk environment change
gks tkrk gSA bl le; u;k operating system ;k peripheral devices Hkh change
fd;s tk ldrs gSA ,sls le; ea customer dh vko';drkuqlkj software ;fn lgh :i ls
functioning ugh djrk gS rks bl le; software support ;k maintenance dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA ftlesa software engineer iqjkus system dks u;s rjhds ls test djrk gS
vkSj iqu% analysis, design coding, testing, rFkk support dh process dks
reapply djrk gSA

The Prototyping Model :-

 Customer software ds fy;s general objective dks define djrk gS ysfdu
og input processing ;k output ds requirement dks identify ugh djrk gSA vkSj
nwljs causes esa dHkh&dHkh development algorithm dh izfØ;k dks complete
ugh djrs gSA bl leL;k dks gy djus ds fy;s dqN steps provide fd;s tkrs gS ftuesa
prototyping approach include jgrh gSA cgqr lkjh ,slh situation gksrh gS tgk¡ ij
prototyping prodigious development dh lgk;rk djrs gSA blfy;s bls ,d vPNh
approach ekuk x;k gSA
Prototyping paradigms dh lgk;rk ls vko';drkuqlkj information dks
bdV~Bk fd;k tk ldrk gSA blesa customer rFkk development nksuks gh vkil
esa communication dj ldrs gSA vkSj software ds fy;s overall objective define
dj ldrs gS blls software tYnh fMtkbu fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj software ds output
formats design fd;s tk ldrs gSA ;gh function prototyping dk part gksrs gSA
Prototype customer rFkk user vkSj software developr ds }kjk evaluate dh tkrh
gSA vkSj rc rd ;s process pyrh jgrh gS tc rd fd customer satisfy u gks tk;sA
Prototyping process ,slh technique gS tks software requirement dks indentify
djrh gSA Working prototype esa developments igys ls gh cus program dk
mi;ksx dj ysrs gSA tSls fd & report generations rFkk windows managers etc.
ysfdu fdlh particular purpose ds fy;s development dks u;s programs generate
djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA Prototype first system dh rjg mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA
vkSj ;s customer rFkk development nksuks esa gh ,d actual system dh rjg
lqfo/kk iznku djrh gSA Customer tc software use djrk gSA rks og prototyping
dks working ds :i es eglwl djrh gSA development tc software dks implement
djrs gS rks mudk dk;Z prototype dk mi;ksx djds de le; esa complete gks tkrk
gA bl fy;s prototyping software engineering dk effective prardigon gSA

The Incremental Model :-

Environmental model es linear sequential model ds elements dks
combine fd;k x;k gSA Incremental Model es software processing ds fy;s
linear sequential dks produce fd;k tkrk gSA tSls fd izR;sd word processing
software incremental paradigm dk mi;ksx djds gh rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSA ftlds
vuqlkj basic file management, editing rFkk document production facilities
first incremental esa editing rFkk document production ds fy;s vko';d
command provide dh tkrh gSA Third incremental esa spelling rFkk grammar
checking dh lqfo/kk iznku dh tkrh gSA vkSj advance page layout capabilities
forth incremental esa iznku dh tkrh gSA blls ges ;g irk pyrk gS fd fdlh Hkh
izdkj ds incremental eas prototyping paradigms dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA
tc incremental model use fd;k tkrk gsA lcls igys first increment use
gksrk gSA ftls ges software dk core product Hkh dgrs gS tks fd software dh
basic requirement dks provide djrk gSA vkSj fQj planning ds vuqlkj core dh
lgk;rk ls vko';drkuqlkj nwljs incremental model vyx&vyx lqfo/kk ds fy;s
mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gS vkSj ;s process rc rd repeat gksrh jgrh gSA tc rd fd izR;sd
incremental ,d complete product produce u dj nsA

The Spiral Model :-

Spiral Model Program ds }kjk design fd;k x;k rFkk ftlesa prototyping
ds incrementative ds nature dks control fd;k x;k] blds }kjk software
development esa incremental version dks vklkuh ls tksM+k tk ldrk gSA Spiral
model dk mi;ksx djds incremental software vklkuh ls develop fd;s tkrs gSA
vkSj mUgs vko';drkuqlkj combine fd;k tk ldrk gSA blls igys design dsoy isij
ij fMtkbZu fd;s tkrs gSA ftls paper model dgk tkrk gSA vkSj ckn esa bu paper
model dks system esa add djds ,d ,d combine version rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA ;s
dk;Z vc spiral model ds }kjk dkQh spiral cgqr lkjh frame work activities esa
devide fd;k x;k gSA ftUgsa tast version spiral dgk tkrk gSA ;gk ij yxHkx sin
task resign spiral model esa mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gSA

1. Customer Communication :- Task required to established

effective communication between developr and customer
2. Planning :- Task required to define resource costively ness and
other project related information.
3. Risk Analysis :- Takes required to access both technical and
management race.
4. Engineering :- Takes required to build one or more
representation on the application.
5. Constriction and Release :- Task required to construct, text
install and user support. (for example :- documentation and
training)
 6. Customer Evaluation :- Task required to obtain customer
required base on evaluation of the software representation create
designing the engineering stages and implemental during the
installation stages.

4. Product maintenance projects.

3. Product enhancement projects.
2. New product development projects.
1. Concept development projects.

Spiral model dk izR;sd persion team work task ds fy;s set fd;k x;k
gksrk gSA ftls ge task set Hkh dgrs gSA tks fd iwjs project ds charactristics
provide djrk gSA vkSj project esa work task de gksrs gSA blfy;s mudk dk;Z
Je Hkh lhfer gksrk gSA tcfd cM+s projects es izR;sd task resion vf/kd ls vf/kd
work task contain djrk gSA blfy;s mlds }kjk high level dh formetings dks
izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA lHkh causes esa ftruh Hkh activities gksrh gSA os lHkh
,d perticular project esa apply dh tkrh gSA (Ex. - Software contrigration
management and software quality assurance etc.) blfy;s bu activities ds
umbralla activities Hkh dgk tkrk gSA tSls gh bldh evaluationnory process 'kq:
gksrh gSA rks software engineering dh team sprial model ds vuqlkj clock
wise direction esa move djrh gSA vkSj spiral model ds contrest ls gh 'kq:
gksrh gSA vkSj spiral model ds igys sereit esa fdlh Hkh product ds result dks
development fd;k tkrk gSA ftles gj izdkj dh prototype dk mi;ksx djds software
dk complete version rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA Spiral model esa izR;sd resion esa
vko';drkuqlkj ftl rjg ls planing dh tkrh gSA bldh cost feed back ds vk/kkj ij set
fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj project manager softwere dks complete djus ds fy;s
planing ds vuqlkj vko';d number of ideration set djuk gS tc ;s process
complete gksrh gSA rks ,d complete software rS;kj gksrk gS vkSj mls
customer dks provide fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj customer mldh viuh vko';drkuqlkj
lHkh izdkj ds inputs provide djrk gS vkSj ,d result izkIr djrk gSA

Project Management Concepts :-

tc Hkh dksbZ computer based system ;k products rS;kj fd;s tkrs gS rks
management ,d cgqr gh vko';d activiy gksrh gSA project management esa
planings, control of the people, process rFkk software dks increment djus ds
lHkh operation include jgrs gSA software dks rS;kj djus ds fy;s ,d vPNh
understanding gksuk vko';d gksrh gSA ftlds vk/kkj ij iwjs projects dks
manage fd;k tkrk gSA software engineers dealy to dealy activities dsk
analysis djrs gSA mls design djrs gSA vkSj mlds Åij technical control
provide djrs gSA
bldks pkj stages esa le>uk vko';d gksrk gSA
1. People
2. Product
3. Process
4. Project

1. People :-
fdlh Hkh software project dks lgh :i ls complete djus ds fy;s people
communication cgqr gh important gksrk gSA D;ksfd tks Hkh software project
create djrs gSA og fdlh perticular organizationd ds fy;s gksrk gSA vkSj bl
organisation ds employees Hkh organization dsx ckjs es iwjh tkudkjh ns ldrs
gSA muds communication ds fcuk ge software environment vklkuh ls
complete ugh dj ldrs gSA blfy;s software engineering process esa peoples dk
rool dkQh egRoiw.kZ gksrk gSA blesa senior engineer ls ysdj NksVs ls
NksVk employee Hkh prjects ds complete gksus esa lgk;rk djrk gSA blesa tks
yksx invovle gksrs gS os bl izdkj gS &

a. The Players :-
Software process es tks yksx lgk;rk djrs gS mUgs 5 Js.kh eas ck¡Vk x;k
gS &

i. Senior Mangers :- Senior Managers iwjh rjg organization dh

information provide djrs gSSA vkSj ;s crkrs gS fd bl organization
esa fdl employee dk D;k dk;Z gSA
ii. Project (Technical) Managers :- Project Managers iwjs project
dh planning djrs gSA vkSj tks users bl projects esa dk;Z dj jgs gksrs
gS mudks motivate and organize djuk rFkk daVªksy djuk Hkh
project managers dk gh dk;Z gksrk gSA
 iii. Practitionens :- Practitiones fdlh Hkh product ;k application ds
fy;s vko';d technical skills provide djrs gSA
iv. Customers :- Customers viuh vko';drkuqlkj iwjs software dh
tkudkjh provide djrs gsA fd bl software es fdl izdkj ds dk;Z perform
gksus pkfg;sA
v. End user :- End user de ls de ,d ckj software ds lkFk intract djrk
gSA tc software (project) release gksrk gSA mlds ckn ogh end user
software ij dk;Z djrk gSA

2. Team leaders :-
izR;sd software projects esa tks yksx Hkh involve gksrs gS os lHkh
viuh&viuh availability rFkk skills ds vuqlkj dk;Z djrs gSA ;fn os lHkh yksx ,d
nwljs ls vPNh rjg communication ugh dj ik jgs gS rks project dks complete
djus es ijs'kkuh dk lkeuk djuk iM+ ldrk gSA bl leL;k dks gy djus ds fy;s
project managers eq[; Hkwfedk fuHkkrk gSA tks fd iwjh project team dk
yhMj gksrk gSA Leader ship ds dqN charactristics bl izdkj gS &

i. Motivation :- The availability to encoverage ¼lkgl c<+kuk½

technical pepls to produce to there best activity.
ii. Organisation :- fdlh Hkh proces esa ;fn u;s events produce gks]
rks mudks organize djus dh rFk final product dks translate djus dh
ability Hkh project leader eas gksuk vko';d gksrh gSA
iii. Ideas or Innovations :- fdlh Hkh perticular software product ;k
application ds fy;s yksxks dks mRlkfgr djuk] vkSj u;s&u;s ideas
provide djuk] ftuls software project dks complete djus esa lgk;rk
feysA ,slh ability Hkh team leader esa gksuk vko';d gksrh gSA
iv. Problem Solving :- Software projects dks complete djus esa ;fn
fdlh izdkj dh problem dk lkeuk djuk iM+s rks mlds fy;s ,d effective
software projects managers dh vko';drk gksrh gSA tks fd technical
rFkk organiszational problems dks systemetic <ax ls solve dj ldsA
v. Managerial Identity :- ,d vPNs project managers dks project dk
charge ysuk vko';d gksrk gSA vkSj mlds ikl yskxks ds
communication djus dk project, dks lgh :i ls complete djus dk rFkk
 iwjh project team dks control djus dk confidence gksuk vko';d
gksrk gSA
vi. Achivement :- Project team dh productivity dks le;&le; ij
analysis djus ds fy;s project manager dks le;&le; ij team ds izR;sd
member ls report ysuk vko';d gksrk gSA vkSj ;fn fdlh dkj.ko'k dgh
ij dksbZ leL;k vkrh gS rks mls contol djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA bl
izdkj ds NksVs&NksVs risk project leader dks ysus gh iM+rs gS
blesa fdlh dks punish ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA
vii. Influence and team building :- ,d effective team manager
yksxks dks understand djus esa ;ksX; gksuk pkfg;sA vkSj mls
ges'kk gh under control esa jgus dh vko';drk gksrh gsA og nwljs
yksxks dks read dj lds] vkSj mudh problems dks le> lds] ,slh
;ksX;rk projects managers esa vo'; gksuh pkfg;s rHkh ,d vPNh team
rS;kj dh tk ldrh gSA

3. The Software Team :-

yxHkx lHkh organization esa tks software rS;kj djrs gS mues software
rS;kj djus ds fy;s ,d team design dh tkrh gSA tks fdlh Hkh orgnization
structure dk vklkuh ls computerized dj ldrh gSA bldh iwjh responsibility
software project manager dh gskrh gSA tks direct team ds members ds lkFk
communicate djrk gSA izR;sd member dks vko';drkuqlkj ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd
funtional task provide fd;s tkrs gSA tks fd software project ds gh part gksrs
gS vkSj mUgs ,d fuf'pr le; es complete fd;k tkrk gSA software team fdlh
organization dh problem dks vko';drkuqlkj le>rh gS vkSj mls gy djrh gS blds
fy;s software team technical rFkk physical nksuksa izdkj dh lqfo/kk iznku
djrh gSA ;gk¡ ij rhu izdkj dh software team rS;kj dh xbZ gS ftudk
vko';drkuqlkj organisation es mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA &

a. Democratied Decentralized (DD) :- bl engineering team dks

dksbZ permanent leader ugh gksrk gSA blesa izR;sd dk;Z ds fy;s
dqN le; rd coordinates appoint fd;s tkrs gSA rFkk mlds ckn mls
nwljs coordinates ls replace dj fn;k tkrk gSA fdlh Hkh izdkj dh
problemds ds fy;s decision rFkk approch iwjs group ds }kjk
 perform dh tkrh gSA vkSj team members ds communication
horizontal provide fd;k tkrk gSA
b. Controled Decentralized (CD) :- bl software engineering
team ds ikl ,d leader gksrk gS tks fdlh perticular dk;Z dks
coordinate djrk gS vkSj nwljs NksV&NksVs dk;ksZ dh
reponsibility Hkh mlh ds Åij gksrh gS fdlh Hkh izdkj dh problem
dks iwjh team solve djrh gS ysfdu ml problem dks solve djus ds fy;s
team leader izR;sd member dks ,d specific dk;Z provide djrk gSA
;gk¡ ij team members esa communication horizental rFkk vertical
nksuks gh :i es provide dh tk ldrh gSA
c. Controled Centralized (CC) :- bl izdkj dh software
engineering team esa top level problem solving rFkk internal team
coordination team leader ds }kjk gh manage fd;k tkrk gSA Leader
rFkk team members ds chp communication vertical gksrk gSA

Software engineering teams ds structure dks create djrs le; 7 project

factor directive fd;s x;s gSA tks bl izdkj gS &
i. The difficulty of the problem to be solved.
ii. The size of the resultand programs is line of code or function
point.
iii. The time that the team will stay to gather (team life time)
iv. The degree to which the problem can to modularized.
v. The ruquired quality and reliability of the system to be built.
vi. The rigidity of the delivery date.
vii. The degree of socialbility (communication required for the
project)
Centralized Structure dk;Z dks tYnh iwjk djrk gSA vkSj simple
problem dks gy djus ds fy;s ;s lcls vf/kd mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Decntralized
team indivisuals ds fy;s vPNk solution provide djrh gSA vkSj difficult
problems dks solve djus es l{ke gksrh gSA

Product :-
 Software porject management dks lcls igys fo'ys"k.k djrs gS vkSj ,d
example cukrs gS rFkk mls vko';drkuqlkj organise djrs gS ysfdu muds fy;s ;s
information solid information ugh gksrh gSA Important information dk
detailed anaylsis djds gh izkIr fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj ;s analysis complete gksus
es lIrkg ;k eghus rd dk le; Hkh ys ldrh gSA tc project 'kq: gksrk gS rks
vko';drkuqlkj plans rFkk requirements Hkh le;&le; ij cnyrh jgrh gSA blfy;s
project dk 'kq: ls gh vPNh rjg ls analysis djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA rkfd
dksbZ ,d le; esa ,d complete product rS;kj fd;k tk ldsA bldh dqN activities
fuEu izdkj gSA

i. Software Scope :-
Software Project management es lcls igy activity software scope
dks determine djuk gksrk gSA fdlh Hkh software porject dk scope
fuEufyf[kr questions answer djds define fd;k tkrk gSA
a. Contect :- How does the software to be built fit in a large
ssytem, product or business contects & what considrate are impored
as a result of a control.
b. Information Objectives :- What customer visible data objects
are producted as output form the software whate data objects case
required for input.
c. Function & Performance :- What function does the software
perform to has for input data into outputs are many special
performnance charactristics to the addressed.
Software project are store management and technical level ij vklku
rFkk easy to understand gksuk gSA vko';d gksrk gSA software dh statement
ftldh provide dh tkuh pkfg;sA ftuds data (nmber of similertation, size of
mailing list, maximum allowable response time etc.) include jgrk gSA blds
lkFk&lkFk software dh limitation tSls fd product cost restrict memory size
etc. dh information Hkh provide dh tkrh vko';d gksrh gSA blds fy;s
vko';drkuqlkj tks Hkh algorithm provide fd;k tk;s] og ell understand esa
miyC/k gksuk pkfg;sA

Problem Decompogirion :-
 PD dks lHkh portitioning a problem elatroration Hkh dgrs gS ;g ,d
gksrh activity gS tks fd vko';drkuqlkj software analysit ds }kjk perform dh
tkrh gSA ,d activities ds nkSjku problem dks fully decompase fd;ktkrk gSA
vkSj bl decompositon dks eq[; nks area es apply fd;k tkrk gSA
i. The Functionally that must be delivence.
ii. The process that will be uses delivere it.
tc Hkh dksbZ ;wtj fdlh complex problem dks gy djrk gSA rks og blesa
devide and conquer method use djrk gSA bldh lgk;rk ls complex problem dks
NksVs&NksVs programs esa devide dj fn;k tkrk gSA ftldks vklkuh ls manage
fd;k tk ldsA ;s method project manning ds 'kq: es gh apply dj fn;k tkrk gSA
vkSj software functions esa software dks mldk use rFkk total arithmetic Hkh
decompostition dks gh part gksrk gSA

The Process :-
Software develpment esa lcls main step mldh processing dk gksrk gSA
vkSj bldsa designing esa tks process use dh tkrh gSA mlesa defination
development rFkk support eq[; Hkkx gksrs gSA vkSj ;s parts lHkh izdj das
software esa apply fd;s tk ldrs gSA fdlh Hkh izdkj dh problem dks porcess
module ds vk/kkj ij projcect team ds }kjk choose df;k tkrk gSA vkSj ;s
process model software engineering paradigoms ds varxZr vkrs gSA tSls fd &

i. The linear sequential model.

ii. The prototyping model.
iii. The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model.
iv. The incrimental model.
v. The sprial model.
vi. The win_win sprial model.
vii. The component based developmetn.
viii.The concurrent development model.
xi. The formal methods model.
x. The technical generation model.
 Project manager ;s deside djrk gS fd perticular problem ds fy;s dkSu lk
process model use fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA ftlesa customer dh request, product
detail, user work product charactristics rFkk project environment dks vklkuh
ls handle fd;k tk lds rFkk dkSu lh software team bl project ij dk;Z djsxhA ;s
Hkh project manager gh decide djrk gSA ;fn ,d ckj process model select dj
fy;k tk;s rks izR;sd team dks mlds ckn proecess decompostition dh izfØ;k 'kq:
gksrh gSA ftlesa complete plan required project activity rFkk brief discription
include jgrh gSA Process esa fuEufyf[kr activities apply dh tkrh gS %&

i. Melding the Porduct and the process :-

Project Planning product rFkk mldh process dks understand djus ds ckn
gh 'kq: dh tkrh gSA vkSj izR;sd function software team ds }kjk design fd;k
tkuk vko';d gksrk gSA ftlesa customer communication, planning, risk
analysis, engineering, construction and release rFkk customer evaluation etc.
dk;Z include jgrs gSA

ii. Process Decomposition :-

Software team project ds fy;s best suited choose djrh gS ;fn ,d ckj
process model choose dj fy;k tk;s rks mlds ckn project dh designging start gks
tkrh gSA NksVs project ds fy;s linear sequential apporach lcls vf/kd mi;ksx
dh tkrh gSA Project start gksus ds ckn project manager le;&le; ij izR;sd
designing team ls activity report check djrk jgrk gSA cM+s project esa
fuEufyf[kr communication activities include jgrh gS &

a. Review the customer request

b. Plan and schedule a formel, facilities meeting with the
customer.
c. Conduct research to specify the prepaired solution and existing
approach.
d. Prepare a working document and an agenda for the formal
meeting.
e. Conduct the meeting.
f. Design the reflect data, functions, and behaviral features fo the
software.
 g. Review correcterness consistency and each steps of the
problem.
h. Assemble scopping documents.
i. Review the scopping documents with all concered.
j. MOdify the scopping documents as required.

c. The project :-
fdlh Hkh software project dks sucessfully manage djus ds fy;s ges lcls
igys bldh problem dks vo'; le>uk pkfg;sA rFkk ;s understand djuk Hkh vko';d
gS fd mls lgh dSls fd;k tk;sA Information system project ds fy;s tks steps
define fd;s x;s gS og bl izdkj gSA

i. Software people don't understand their customer needs.

ii. The product scope is poorly define.
iii. Charges are managed poorly.
iv. The coosent technology changes.
v. Business need change.
vi. Died lines are unreakustuc,
vii. User are resintande.
viii. Sponsorship is lort.
xi. The project team lacks peopel with appropriate & skills .
x. Managers and prectisnner avoid best practices and lessons
learned.

fdlh Hkh deficult software project dks rS;kj djus ds fy;s projectional
yxHkx 90 & 100 rules discuss djrs gSA buesa ls 90% system ds affort rFkk
le; ds fy;s rFkk 10% mldh working ds fy;s discuss fd;s tkrs gSA software
project dks complete djus ds fy;s manager dh eq[; Hkwfedk gksrh gsA ftlds
fy;s ikap part suggest fd;s x;s gS &

i. Start on the foot.

ii. Maintain momentum.
iii. Track Progress.
 iv. Makes smart decision.
v. Conduct a mortem analysis.

Software process and Project Materials :-

Software process and project materials esa iwjs izkstsDV dh quantatum
measurment dh tkrh gSA ftlesa project dh basic quality productvitiy rFkk data
dh information collect dh tkrh gSA blds ckn bl MkVk dks analysis fd;k tkrk
gSA vkSj mls productivity esa add dj fn;k tkrk gSA bl izfØ;k dks ge
implimention Hkh dgrs gSA fdlh Hkh problem dks gy dus ds fy;s tks point
dicuss fd;s tkrs gSA mUgs metrices dgk tkrk gSA software metrics dks
software manager ds }kjk analysis rFkk access fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj bldh
measurment software engineers ds }kjk dh tkrh gSA
;fn vki fdlh project dks vko';drkuqlkj measure ;k judge ugh djrs gS rks
vkidk project fail gks ldrk gSA vkSj le; jgrs mlesa dksbZ improvement ugh
dh tk ldrh gSA

Metrics in the process & project domain :-

Engineering world esa measurement ,d common part gksrk gSA ftlesa
ge power consumption wait, physical structure, tempracture voltage etc dks
measure dgrs gSA ;s fyLV yxHkx endless gS tc Hkh ge fdlh izkstsDV ij dk;Z
djrs gSA rks ges ml le; ;g le>us dh vko';drk gksrh gSA fd fdl part dk measure
fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds process dks metrics ds }kjk vklkuh ls handle fd;k tk
ldrk gSA ftls ge process indicators dgrs gSA bleas fdlh Hkh process dsa
paradigoms, software engineering task, work, products rFkk milestones etc
includes jgrs gS ;fn lHkh izdkj ds process time ds vuqlkj laiw.kZ gks tkrs gSA
rks mleas managers rFkk practioners vius&vius dke esa busy gks tkrs gSA
ftlls software process es improvement gksrk gSA dqN cares ea same software
metrics project rFkk process indicators dks determine djus ess mi;ksx dh tkrh
gSA measurement project team ds }kjk perform dh tkrh gSA vkSj mls metrics
ds :i esa convert dj fy;k tkrk gS A blh dkj.k ls ;s metrics process rFkk project
domain nksuks ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gSA

1. Process metrick & software process improvement :-

 fdlh Hkh project es ;fn improvement djuk gks rks mlls related
gj izdkj ds attributes dks measure djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ysfdu mlls igys
software dh quality rFkk organizational performence dh process dks indirectly
measure dj ldrs gSA tSls fd & outcomes dks handle djrk vkSj le;&le; ij
enduser ls report team ds }kjk design fd;s x;s gksrs gSA mudh confirmation
ysuk etc.
Process metrics dk mi;ksx djds laLFkk vklkuh ls MkVk collect dj ldrh
gSA bl izfØ;k dks ge SSPI (Stafirtical Software Process Imporvement) dgrs
gSA ftlesa software analysis dks Hkh handle fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk lHkh errors
rFkk deffect ds ckjs esa information collect dh tkrh gS A Failure analysis bl
izdkj dk;Z djrs gSA

i. All errors on deffects area catagoried by origin, (for ex - flow in

specification, how in logic and non confermence to standrads)
ii. The cost coreect each other and defect is recordered.
iii. The no. of errors and defects in each catagories and countered and
ranked in descending order.
iv. The over all cost of errors and defects and each catagories is
computers.
v. Resultant data are analysis to uncover the cataogries that result in
highest cost to the organization.
vi. Plans are developd to modify the process because the class of errors
and defects is most costly.
Oritin of errors defects
a. Specification / requirement
b. Design
c. Code

2. Project Metrics :-
Software project metrics strategic purpose ds fy;s mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA
ysfdu software project esa tactical analysis fd;s tkrs gSA ;s project metrics
project managers rFkk software team ds }kjk mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA bles project
work flow rFkk technical acitivities include jgrh gSA Project metrics dh igyh
application bl le; mi;ksx dh tkrh gS ftl le; project astimate yxkbZ tkrh gSA ;s
estimate iwjkus project ea ls Hkh collect dh tk ldrh gS tks fd current project es
dkQh mi;ksxh gksrh gSA tSls gh project 'kq: gksrk gS rks mldk time ,d
schedule ds vuqlkj mldk estimate ls compose fd;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj dh lHkh
metrics dks project manager miners ds fy;s provide djrk gS rFkk iwjs project
dh controlling djrk gSA blesa documentaion, time review, function point rFkk
deleverd scarce line measure dh tkrh gSA blesa ;fn fdlh izdkj dh error vk;s rsk
mls delete dj fy;k tkrk gSA ftlls project dh performence vkSj c<+ tkrh gSA
Project metrics dks project ds fy;s Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA fd blesa
development schedule vklkuh ls design fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj bldh lgk;rk ls
product dh quality dks improve fd;k tkrk gSA tSls gh quality improve gksrh
gSA mlesa ftrus Hkh defect gksrs gSA ;s lHkh improve gksrs tkrs gS rFkk
user dh vko';drkuqlkj implimentation gskrk gSA softare project metrics dk ,d
vkSj model yxHkx izR;sd project esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gS &

a. Input :- Measures the resources ( Ex. - People, Environment)

Required to the work)
b. Output :- Measures of the deliverables or work products during
th software engineering process.
c. Results :- Means that indicate the effectiveness of the
deliverables.

Acutally ;s model process rFkk project nksuks ds fy;s gh mi;ksx fd;k tk

ldrk gSA Design fd;s x;s project esa ;s model izR;sd activity esa apply fd;k tk
ldrk gSA

Software measurment : -
Measurment dks nks Hkkxksa esa ckaVk x;k gSA &
1. Direct Measurement
2. Indirect Measurement
blh ds vk/kkj ij software metrics dks apply fd;k tkrk gSA
Sofware engineering process esa direct measurment esa cost rFkk affoord
(apply) include jgrk gSA rFkk blesa line of code (LOC) produced, excution
speed, memory size rFkk deffects etc. Hkh include jgrs gSA
 Indirect measurement es functionalty, quality, complexlity,
efficiencey, reliability, maintainility, rFkk cgqr lkjh acitivities include jgrh
gSA

1. Size Oriented Metrics :-

Size Oriented Software metrics quality rFkk productivity ls yh xbZ
gSA bles software organization similler domain dks maintain djrh gSA rks
Vscy dk size ls measure fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk table dh list ds izR;sd item dks
vklkuh ls compile fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj bldh list dks ,d NksVs ls program ds }
kjk handle fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;fn bl project esa word 12000 lines ds vklikl gS
rks bls pkj O;fDr N% eghus ds vanj design dj ldrs gSA rFkk bldh cost
1,50000 $ rd gks ldrh gSA software engineering activities analysis designcode
rFkk test activity include gjrh gSA

2. Function Oriented Metrics :-

Function Oriented metric s apllication dh normalisation value dks
measure djrh gS blesa application ds lHkh izdkj ds function measure fd;s tkrs
gSA bl stage dks ge function point Hkh dg ldrs gSA Function point dk mi;ksx
djds software dh information dks vklkuh ls interrelate djds measure fd;k tk
ldrk gSA Information to main values bl izdkj define dh tk ldrh gSA
i. Number of users Input.
ii. Number of users Output.
ii. Number of users Inqueries.
iv. Number of Files.
v. Number of external interfaces.
;fn ,d ckj data collect dj fy;k tkrk gS rks mldh values dks count fd;k
tkrk gS vkSj organization function point methods dk mi;ksx djds ;g irk yxkrh
gSA fd perticular entry simple gS ;k average gS ;k complex gSA ftlesa
fuEufyf[kr questions dk answer find fd;k tkrk gS &
i. Does the system require reliable backup and recovery?
ii. Are data communication require ?
iii. Are there distributed processing function ?
iv. Is performance ctritical?
 v. Does the system require online data entry?
vi. Are the masterfile updated online ?
vii. Is the internal processing complex ?
viii. Is the code designed reusable ?
xi. Are conversion and installation included in the design ?
x. Is the application designed to facilities change and eare of use by
the user ?
;fn ,d ckj function point calculate dj fy;s tkrs gS rks mlds ckn software
dh productvity, quality rFkk nwljk attribute measures fd;s tkrs gS tSls fd &
errors per FP (Function Point), defects per FP (Function Point),

$ per FP (Function Point),

Pages of Documentation per FP (Function Point),
FP (Function Point) per person month.

External Function Point metrics :-

tks Hkh Function point measure fd;s tkrs gSA mUgs system application
;k business information ds fy;s apply fd;k tkrk gSA ftlls iwjh application ds
behaviour rFkk functions dks control fd;k tk ldrk gSA blh dkj.k bu functions
points dks engineering rFkk nwljs system ess Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ,slh
satisfaction esa cgqr lkjs basic funcion points dks measure djus dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA bl process dks function point extenstion dgk tkrk gSA ;k
dHkh&dHkh ge feature point Hkh dg nsrs gSA ftUgs fdlh perticular system ;k
engineering software application esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Feature points esa
realtime process control, software application trends rFkk algorithm dks
handle fd;k tk ldrk gSA Algorithm dh lgk;rk ls iwjs program ds functions dks
specify fd;k tkrk gSA bleas coding, decoding rFkk handling and inturrepts ;s
lHkh algorithm ds gh mnkgj.k gSA blds }kjk 3D function points dks Hkh
handle fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Metrics for Software Quality :-

Software engineering dk main aim high quality system application ;k
product dk maintainance djuk gksrk gsA bl mís'; dks iwjk djus ds fy;s
software process esa software engineers dks effectives methods apply djus dh
vko';drk requirements ;k problems dks gy dj ldsA rFkk gj izdkj dh problem
dks vklkuh ls handle fd;k tk ldsA Engineers ds }kjk blds fy;s analysis, design
models, source code rFkk cost condition dh quality dks improve djus dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA ,d vPNh quality ds fy;s technical measurment dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA blesa project managers le;&le; ij projects process dh reports ysrk
jgrk gSA vkSj project metrics dh help ls information select djrk jgrk gSA ftlds
}kjk software dh quality rFkk effectiveness dks improve fd;k tk ldrk gSA
izR;sd activity ds fy;s vko';drk vyx&vyx izdkj dh metrics dk mi;ksx fd;k tk
ldrk gSA ;fn projects esa fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ error vkrh gS rks mls lekIr djus
fy;s DRE (Defect Removable Efficiency) work activity dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA

1. An overview of factor that effect quality :-

Software quality esa quality dk lcls igyk factor gksrk gSA software
esa ;g factor rhu izdkj ls access fd;k tk ldrk gSA
i. Product Operation (Using it)
ii. Product Revision (Change it)
iii. Product Translation (Modify it) to work a different
envrionment.

2. Measuring Quality :-
Project measurment esa software quality dks improve djus ds fy;s bl
izdkj ds measurement dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls Project team
project dh quality dks improve djus ds fy;s gj izdkj ds measurement dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA ftldh enn ls project team project dh ,d quality dks improve
djrh gSA
a. Currentness b. Maintainablity (PIC maintain)
c. Intrigrity d. Useability (User Friendly)

Defect Removable Efficiency (DRE) :-

 fdlh Hkh project dh lcls cM+h quality process level ij DRE gksrh gSA
bls ge filtering ability ;k control activity Hkh dg ldrs gSA tc iwjs project dks
analysis fd;k tkrk gS rks DRE bl izdkj define fd tk ldrh gS &
DRE = E/(E+D)
;gk ij E numbers of errors ds fy;s define fd;k x;k gS ;s errors ml le;
count dh tkrh gSA tc software end user dks diliver fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk D,
numbers of defect ds fy;s define fd;k x;k gSA ;s defective end user ds fy;s
deliver gks pqdk gksrk gSA
DRE dhs value tc 1 gksrh gSA rks bldk eryc ;g gS fd software esa
dskbZ defect ugh gSA ;fn 1 dh value increase gskrh gSA rks ml le; errors
filter gskrh gS blfy;s project dh delivery ds igys ls gh ;s error project team
ds }kjk gy dj yh tkrh gSA

Intrigrity Metrics with in the software process :-

tSlk fd ge tkurs gSA fd software dks dHkh&dHkh vklkuh ls measure
ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s dkQh hard work djuk iM+rk gSA D;ksfd
software ls related fdlh Hkh izdkj dh information dks project managers ds }
kjk le;&le; ij collect fd;k tkrk gSA software dks rS;kj djus ds fy;s cgqr lkjs
programs dk collection vko';d gksrk gSA ftudh lgk;rk ls project dks complete
djuk vklku gks tkrk gSA blds fy;s eq[; requirement bl izdkj gksrh gS &
i. Arguments for software metrics.
ii. Stablishing a base line.
iii. Metrics collection, computation & evaluation.

Unit II
Software Project Planing :-
Software Project Planing esa iwjs project dh activities involve jgrh gSA
tSl fd How much money? How much effort? How many resources and how
much time it will lake to build a software product? Software managers
selected information dks mi;ksx djds dk;Z 'kq: dj nsrs gSA ;s information
buds ikl customers, software egineers rFkk software metrics ls izkIr gksrh
gSA vkSj tc project rS;kj gks tkrk gS rks mldh iwjh cost rS;kj dh tkrh gSA
rFkk resources ds lkFk customer dks lkSai fn;k tkrk gS rFkk blesa ,sls
functions provide fd;s tkrs gS ftudks le;&le; ij vklkuh ls impliment fd;k tk
ldrk gSA tc rd project complete ugh gks tkrk rc rd project manager bldh
surity ugh nsrk gS bl project ds lkFk&lkFk ,d complete mannual rS;kj fd;k
tkrk gSA ftls project ds lkFk customer dks provide fd;k tkrk gSA ftlesa
project ls related gj izdkj dh information store jgrh gSA User bl mannual dk
mi;ksx djds vklkuh ls project dks handle dj ldrs gSA

Project Planing Objectives :-

Software Project planing dk mís'; ,d complete project cukuk gksrk gSA
ftlesa managers project dh vko;drkuqlkj resources rFkk cost dk estimate yx;k
tkrk gS vkSj budh lgh :i ls scheduling djrk gS vkSj ;s estimate project dh
'kq:vkr ds le; time limit dks /;ku esa j[krs gq;s create fd;s tkrs gSA blds
vfrfjDr estimate esa software metrics rFkk project outcomes Hkh include jgrh
gSA tc ,d responsible project rS;kj gks tkrk gS rkS software project planing
esa fuEufyf[kr activities discuss dh tkrh gS &
i. Software Scope
ii. Rsources
iii. Software Project Estimate
iv. Decompostion Technique.

i. Software Scope :-
Software project planing esa lcls igyh activity software scope gksrh
gSA ftlesa software ds functions rFkk mldh performance dks measure fd;k
tkrk gSA Software scope esa data dks describe fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk function,
performance, constraints, interfaces rFkk reliability etc. dks control fd;k tkrk
gSA blfy;s estimate rS;kj djus ls igys lHkh izdkj dh detail gkfly djuk vko';d
gksrh gSA D;ksfd mUgh ds vk/kkj ij iwjh cost dk estimate yxk;k tkrk gSA
vkSj vko';drkuqlkj project dh scheduling dh tkrh gSA Performance esa
processing rFkk responce time dh vko';drk gksrh gSA Constaints esa
hardware dh limit dks identify fd;k tkrk gSA blesa fuEufyf[kr steps include
jgrs gS &
 a. Obtaining information necessory for scope.
b. Feasiblity.

ii. Resources :-
Software planing dk ;s nwljk step gksrk gS tks fd software development
esa dkQh egRoiw.kZ step gSA bleas development environment dks study fd;k
tkrk gsA ftlesa hardware rFkk software tools include jgrs gSA

a. Humen Resources :-
Complete development ds fy;s managers dks skill dh vko';drk gksrh
gSA blesa organizational possition (Manager, Senior, Software engineer)
rFkk specility (telecommunication, databases, client server) nksuks gh specify
fd;s tkrs gSA NksVs projects esa ,d vkneh N% eghus ds vanj fdlh ,d NksVs
project dks complete dj ysrk gS vkSj og Lo;a gh project dh vko';d information
izkIr djrk gS fdlh cM+s project esa tc rd development dk estimate ugh yxk;k
tk;s rc rd fdrus yksxksa dh vko';drk gS ;g dgk ugh tk ldrk] ;fn ,d ckj estimate
yxk fy;k tkrk gS rks person rFkk required months nksuks dk gh irk djuk vklku
gks tkrk gSA

b. Reusable Software Resources :-

tks software component based software gksrs gS ;s software T;knk
reliable and reusble gksrs gSA blesa izR;sd component ds fy;s ,d
programming block cuk;k tkrk gSA bUgh blocks dks ge component project
dks handle djus ds fy;s dkQh lgk;rk gSA ftrus Hkh standard application gksrh
gS os ges'kk gh blocks dh lgk;rk ls gh complete dh tkrh gSA blesa dqN
fuEufyf[kr points gS &

a. Off the self component :-

u;s software degign djus ds fy;s dHkh&dHkh igys ls gh cus project ds
component dks mi;ksx dj fy;k tkrk gSA ;k bUgs current project ds fy;s third
party ls [kjhn fy;k tkrk gS

b. Full Experience Component :-

 Current Project ds fy;s igys ls gh cuh application design rFkk mldh
coding dks access dj fy;k tkrk gSA tks fd development es dkQh lgk;rk djrh
gSA Current software team ds members ds ikl full experince gksrk gS fd os
mu components dks current project easa represent dj ldsa ;k vko';drkuqlkj
mlesa modification dj ldsA

c. Partial Experience Components :-

Current project ds fy;s ge igys ls mifLFkr application design, code rFkk
tested data dks izkIr rks dj ysrs gSA ysfdu mlesa dqN modification dh
vko';drk gksrh gsA current software team ds members ds ikl mUgsa represent
djus ds fy;s limited experiance gksrk gSA blfy;s bu application esa ;k
component esa partial experance dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

d. New Component :-
Current project dh vko';drkuqlkj software team dks u;s software
component design djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA rkfd vius project dks
interactive user friendly rFkk reusable cuk;k tk ldsA

3. Environmental Resources :-
,slk environment tks software project dks support djrk gks] mls ge
Software Engineering Environment (SEE) dgrs gsA blesa hardware rFkk
software nksuks component include jgrs gSA Hardware, Software ds fy;s ,d
plateform provide djrk gSA ftlesa vko';drkuqlkj dk;Z fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds
fy;s Hkh hardware rFkk software dh vko';drk dks spcify fd;k tkuk vko';d
gksrk gSA tc ,d computer based system rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA rks software team
dks hardware element dks access djus dh vko';drk Hkh gksrh gSA izR;sd
hardware software project ds vuqlkj izkIr djuk vko';d gksrk gSA

Software Project Estimation :-

Software dh cost igys dh vis{kk dkQh expensive gks xbZ gS vkt dy
lHkh computer base system izR;sd organization esa mi;ksx dh tk jgs gSA
Software dh cost developr ds }kjk rS;kj dh tkrh gSA blesa profit rFkk loss
nksuks dh gh laHkkouk;s gks ldrh gSA ;s dHkh exact ugh gksrk gS D;ksfd
blesa cgqr lkjs yksx ;k variable include jgrs gSA tSls fd humen, technial,
environmental rFkk political etc. bu lHkh dh cost software esa effect djrh gSA
software dh cost dks rFkk estimate dks vklkuh ls izkIr djus ds fy;s fuEufyf[kr
option arise gksrs gS &
1. Delay estimation until late in the project. (We can active 100%
accurate estimate ofter the project is complete.)
2. Base estimates on similer project that have allready been
completed.
3. Case relalivialy simple decomposition techniques to generate
project cost and estimate.
4. Case one or more models for software cost and estimation.

Decomposition technique :-
Software project estimation ,d problem solving techniqes gS vkSj cgqr
lkjs cases esa problem dks solve djuk] dkQh dfBu gks tkrk gS blh dkj.k ls ge
problem dks decompose dj ldrs gSA decomposition ,d ,slh process gksrh gSA
ftldh lgk;rk ls iwjs project dks NksVs&NksVs meaningfull sets esa devide dj
fn;k tkrk gSA vkSj izR;sd set dh cost rFkk estimate create djus ls igys project
planner dks software dk scope rFkk blds size ds ckjs es iwjk knowledge gkfly
dj ysuk pkfg;sA vU;Fkk estimate xyr Hkh gks ldrk gSA
a. software Sizing :- Software project dk lgh estimate cgqr lkjh
phtksa ij fuHkZj djuk gSA

i. Porject fdl izdkj dk gS rFkk mldk lkbt D;k gSA vkSj bl project dk
dk;Z D;k gksxkA
ii. blesa ,d le; esa fdrus vkneh dk;Z djsxsA Calander time D;k
gksxk vkSj bldh dher fdruh gksxhA
iii. Project paln software team dh ;ksX;rk ds vuqlkj gS ;k ugh A
iv. tks project rS;kj fd;k tk jgk gSA og user dh vko';drkuqlkj gS ;k
ugh A rFkk mldk environment software dks support dj jgk gSA ;k
ugh A

tc bl izdkj dh lkjh tkudkjh project programmer dks gks tkrh gSA rks og
software dh sizing problem dks vklkuh ls vkSj vPNs rjhds ls decopose dj ldrk
gSA vkSj ;gh ,d project estimation dk eq[; dk;Z gksrk gSA sizing problem esa
fofHkUu izdkj dh pkj approach dks suggest fd;k x;k gS &

i. Fuzzy Logic Sizing :-

bl technique dh lgk;rk ls programm application dh type dks mldh
quality dks identify djds original range rS;kj djrk gSA ;gk ij planner viuk
personal experiance use djrk gSA

ii. Function Point Sizing :-

ftl izdkj dh information planner ds ikl miyC/k gksrh gS bl techinque d
use djds og mlh information ds vuqlkj estimate rS;kj dj ysrk gSA

iii. Standrad Component Sizing :-

Software cgqr lkjs vyx&vyx standrad component ij vk/kkfjr gksrk gSA
tks fd ,d perticular application dks execute djrs gSA mnkgj.k ds fy;s
information system ds standrad components sub system, models, screens,
reports, intractive programsm, betch programs, files, LOC(Lines Of Code),
rFkk object lable instructions etc gSA bl izdkj project planner estimate ds fy;s
yxHkx 18 estimate reports generate djrk gSA vkSj izR;sd reports esa cobol
language ds vuqlkj yxHkx 967 lines gks ldrh gSA vkSj bu lHkh reports dks
feykdj project dh size value dk irk fd;k tk ldrk gSA

iv. Cnage Sizing :-

tc fdlh project dks modify fd;k tkrk gS rks mls le; bl technique dks
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ij planner fofHkUu izdkj ds estimate create djrk
gSA tSls fd reuse, adding corse, changing corse, and deleteing corse etc.

b. Problem based estimated :-

fdlh Hkh project dks execute djus ls igys Lines Of Codes (LOC) and
function point (FP) dks describe fd;k tkuk vko';d gksrk gSA Software data
dks nks rjg ls mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
i. Software ds izR;sd estimate dks variable ds size ds :i esa A
 ii. igys ls gh cus gq;s project dks base line ds :i esa mi;ksx
djdsA
LOC And FP estimation ,d direct estimation technique gS bu nksuksa
ds ikl cgqr lkjs common features gksrs gSA ftuds project manager le;&le; ij
viuh vko';drkuqlkj mi;ksx djrk gSA bleas ;fn fdlh izdkj dh changing dh tkrh
gSA rks bldk effect iwj project ij iM+rk gSA

c. An Example of LOC based estimation :-

LOC and FP problem based estimation technique ds fy;s fdlh software
package dks ,d example ds :i easa choose fd;k tk ldrk gSA ftlds fy;s dqN
system specification guide ds :i esa mi;ksx dh tk ldrh gSA
CAD software two and Three dimensional esa data accept djrk gSA
vkSj engineers ml MkVk dks user information dh vko';drkuqlkj vPNs
designing djrs gSA lHkh izdkj dk MkVk rFkk information ,d CAD Database
esa maintain fd;s tkrs gSA tks Hkh desingning gksrh gS mldk vko';drkuqlkj
output produce fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ij izR;sd statement ds fy;s detailed
information dh vko';drk gksrh gSA blds fy;s dqN eq[; software functions bl
izdkj define fd;s tk ldrs gS &

1. User interface and control facility (UICF)

2. Two Dimensional Geometric Analysis (2DGA)
3. Three Dimensional Geometric Analysis (3DGA)
4. Database Management (DBM)
5. Computer Graphics Display Facility (CGDF)
6. Pripheral Control Function (PCF)
7. Design Analysis Module (DAM)

CAD software esa ;fn bu lHkh function ds fy;s LOC dks estimate
yxk;k tk;s rks og bl range esa gks ldrk gSA
Function Estimated LOC
UICF 2,300
2DGA 5,300
3DGA 6,800
 DBM 3,350
CGDA 4,950
PCF 2,100
DAM 8,400
Estimated Line Of Code 33,200

d. An Example of FP based estimation :-

FP based Estimation ds fy;s function dh vis{kk information value ij
/;ku fn;k tkrk gSA ftlesa estimated input, output, inqueries, files and external
interfaces CAD software ds fy;s include jgrs gS ftudk estimate bl izdkj
describe fd;k tkrk gSA

Infor.Domation Value OPT Likely Fees Esti. Coutn Weight

FP Count
No. of inputs 20 24 30 24 4
97
No. of Outputs 12 15 22 16 5
78
No. of Inqueries 16 22 28 22 5
88
No. of Files 4 4 5 4 10
42
No. of External 2 2 3 2 7
15
Count Total 320

Empirical Estimation Models :-

;s ,d ,slk model gS ftldksa LOC and FP functions dh rjg computer
software ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa izR;sd problem dks gy djus ds
fy;s values dk estimate yxk;k tkrk gSA Empirical data cgqr lkjs estimated
models dks support djrk gSA blfy;s ;s model lHkh development environment
esa mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s cgqr lkjs approach use fd;s tkrs gSA
1. The Sturcture of Estimation Models :-
dksbZ Hkh estimation model fdlh iqjkus software project ds data dks
collect djds ;k mlds Åij analysis djds rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA bldk overall
structure bl izdkj gks ldrk gSA
example E = A + B * (ev)c
;gk¡ ij A, B and C emprical constant gS E person month ds fy;s mi;ksx
fd;k x;k gS rFkk ev, estimation variable gS ;s variable LOC or FP gks ldrk
gSA fdlh project ds izR;sd components dks blh structure ij define fd;k tk ldrk
gSA blesa problem complexity, stafe experiance rFkk development
environment include jgrs gSA LOC oriented estimation model dqN bl
izdkj gSA &
E = 5.2 & (KLOC)0.91
Walston Felix Model
E = 5.5 + 0.73 * (KLOC)1.16
Bailey Basily Model
FP Oriented model dqN bl izdkj gS &
E = -13.39 + 0.0545 FP
Albrechet And Gaffney Model
E = 60.62 * 7.720 * 10-8 FP3
Kemere model
bl model dh lgk;rk ls ,d quick estimate cuk;k tk ldrk gSA fd izR;sd
model same LOC or FP dh value ds fy;s fofHkUu izdkj ds result provide djrk
gSA ftlls requirment clear gks tkrh gSA vkSj estimation model ges'kk gh
local need ds vuqlkj create djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
The Common Model :- bl model dk iwjk uke Constructive cost model gS bls
software estimation ds fy;s lcls vf/kd mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bles iwjs project
dh cost dj Hkh estimate yxk;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj ds models dks fuEufyf[kr
fØ;kvksa eas mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS &
1. Application Compostition Model :- Use Guring the stages of
software engineering.
2. Early Desing Stage Model :- Used ones requirments have ban
stablized and basic software architecture has been established.
 3. Port Architecture Stages Model :- Use during the construction of
the software.
lHkh estimation models dh rjg capemo model Hkh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA ftlesa rhu vyx&vyx izdkj ds model use fd;s tkrs gSA rFkk blesa object
point, function point and lines of source code include jgrs gSA

Software Quality Assurance :-

izR;sd software engineer tc software project rS;kj djrk gSA rks og mldh
quality ds fy;s reponsible gksrk gSA bleas software dks ckj&ckj psd djus dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA ;fn software team software dh lHkh activities dh qualities
dks successful izkIr dj ysrh gSA rks ml le; ,d complete software project rS;kj
gksrk gSA Project dks rS;kj djrs le; ;fn vkidksa ;g irk py tk;s fd fdl izdkj dh
quality gesa user dks nsuh gS rks software dh izR;sd activites dks identify
djuk gksxkA mlds ckn gh software team ,d lgh functional project rS;kj djus es
l{ke gksrh gSA

Quality Concept :-
izR;sd software dk viuk ,d unique structure gksrk gS vkSj og
requirment ds vuqlkj vyx&vyx izdkj ls dk;Z djrk gS lHkh engineers and
manufactures user dh vko';drkuqlkj project dks analysis djrs gSA rFkk mlh ds
vuqlkj software rS;kj djds user dks provide djrs gSA ml software dh quality
eq[; mís'; ls gksrh gSA ;fn engineers mldh quality ugh nss ikrs gS rks cgqr
lkjs project bl stage esa vkdj fail Hkh gks ldrs gSA Software quality esa
software protection Hkh include jgrk gSA Customer problem ds vuqlkj
fuEufyf[kr points software project esa specify djuk vko';d gksrs gSA
1. Quality
2. Quality Control
3. Quality Assurance
4. Cost of Quality

1. Quality Movements :-
vktdy fdlh company ;k organization ds senior manager product quality
dks improve djrs gSA vkSj vf/kd ls vf/kd le; rFkk cost nksuksa gh cpkrs gSA
Quality movement ds vklikl 'kq: gksrh FkhA W. Adverd ds }kjk tkiku esa test
dh xbZ] mlds idea dks use djds fdlh Hkh product ds effect dks lgh fd;k tk ldrk
gSA 1980 esa quality movement iwjs world esa QSy pqdh Fkh A Project dks
mi;ksx djus okys lcls igys quality dh gh ckr djrs gSA ml le; quality movment
dks TQM (Total Quality Movement) uke fn;k x;k A ;s quality vyx&vyx
companies and organization ds fy;s vyx&vyx izdkj ls maintain dh xbZ gSA ,d
vPNs rFkk TQM program ds fy;s eq[; four step provide tk ldrs gSA
igys step kds Kezon dgk¡ tkrk gSA blesa iwjs system dh processing dks
implementaion fd;k tkrk gSA nqljs step dks Apasimace Linstitru dgk tkrk
gSA ;s stpe Kezon ds ckn 'kq: gksrk gS rFkk ;s processing ds Åij control djrk
gSA ftlesa structure quality rFkk managment bR;kfn process include jgrh
gSA blesa need changing Hkh dh tk ldrh gSA rhljk step Kansei dgykrk gSA
tc igys nks step complete gks tkrs gSA rks ;s stpe user ds product dks improve
djrk gSA rFkk mlesa user friendly interface rS;kj djrk gSA vkSj last stpe
Business oreinted step gksrk gSA ftls Miryokateki Hinstuitsy dgykrk gSA bl
step dh lgk;rk ls product market place esa mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj ;gh
step customer based system ls portable products rFkk application rS;kj djrk
gSA ftlesa software engineers dks profit gksrk gSA

SQA (Software Quality Assurance) Activities :-

cgqr lkjs software developrs high quality software ds fy;s rS;kj gksrk
gS rFkk bls eq[; object ekurs gSA vyx&vyx izdkj dh ifjfLFkfr;ksa esa
software quality assurance dks Hkh vyx&vyx izdkj ls compose fd;k tk ldrk
gSA Software engineers tks fd technical dk;Z djrs gSA os bldk fo'ks"k /;ku
j[krs gSA vkSj SQA dk iwjk group quality assurance planning oversite record
keeping, analysis and reporting ds fy;s responssible gksrk gSA Software dh
testing ds fy;s igys ls gh ,d maintain plan gksuk pkfg;sA SQA group ds }kjk
tks activities perform dh tkrh gSA muesa fuEufyf[kr step Hkh include jgrs
gSA

1. Prepairs and SQA plan for a project.

2. Participate in the development of the project software process
decription.
 3. Reviews software engineering activities to varify with the
defined software porcess.
4. Qualities design software work prducts to varified with part of
the software products.
5. Ensures that software work and software products are
documented.
6. Records and reprots and report to senior management.

Statical Software Quality Assurance :-

Statical quality assurance iwjs software dh growing dks reflect djrh
gSA blesa quality vkSj improve gks tkrh gSA bleas fuEufyf[kr step include
jgrs gS &
i. tks software rS;kj fd;k x;k gSA ;fn mlesa fdlh izdkj ds effect vkrs
gS rks mUgs collect djuk vkSj vyx&vyx catageries esa ckaVuk
rFkk muds ckjs esa information collect djuk Hkh statical software
quality assurance ds varxZr gh vkrk gSA
ii. tks Hkh deffect create gksrs gS mUgs izR;sd deffect ds ckjs es
irk yxkuk ds ;s deffect dgk¡ ls vk;s gSSA
iii. ftrus Hkh deffect gksrs gS mUgsa yxHkx 80% solve fd;k tkuk
vko';d gksrk gSSA
iv. ;fn ,d ckj deffect dks gy dj fy;k tkrk gSA rks software dh quality
vklkuh ls improve dh tk ldrh gSA

Software Reliability :-
;gk¡ ij dksbZ 'kd ugh gS fd overall quality esa compter program dh
reliability ,d cgqr lh vko';d element gksrh gSA ;fn dksbZ program lgh
performance ugh nsrk gS rks software dh quality decrease gks tkrh gSA nwljh
quality dh rjg gh software reliabiltiy dks direct measure fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;s
,d ,slh term gS tks fd software dh processing ds le; check dh tkrh gSA ;fn
software ,d ckj esa fdlh perticular data ds fy;s lgh result nsrk gS rks pkgs mls
100 ckj process fd;k tk;s vkSj result ogh gks rks blls ges ;s irk pyrk gS fd
software Hkfo"; ds fy;s reliable gS vkSj ;fn fdlh perticular process esa
ckj&ckj execution ij result vyx&vyx vkrk gSA rks iwjk project fail gks ldrk
gSA
Software dks mi;ksx djus ls igys mldh specify vko';d gS ftls mechnical
and electric devices ds }kjk control fd;k tk ldrk gSA rkfd user fdlh Hkh izdkj
dk data enter djs rks mlesa dsoy result gh vkuk pkfg;sA Softwaer fail u gks
blfy;s gj input step esa checks yxkus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA Software Safety
Hkh ,d software quality assurace activity gS ;fn vius project dks safe u fd;k
tk;s rks iwjk software fail gks ldrk gSA

SQA Plan :-
SQA plan software quality assurance es ,d read map dh rjg dk;Z djrk
gSA tks fd SQA group ds }kjk rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ;s ,d ,slk plan gksrk gS
tks software project esa SQA activity dks control dj ldrk gSA SQA plan ds
fy;s standrad IEEE ds }kjk provide fd;k x;k gSA ftlesa Quality assurance dk
mís'; documentation and process activities dks handle fd;k tkrk gSA SQA
plan ds lHkh document yxHkx lHkh application ds fy;s apply fd;s tk ldrs gSA
bles organization rules rFkk responsibilities bR;kfn dks define fd;k tkrk gSA
blesa fuEufyf[kr software process include jgrh gS &
1. Project Documents (Project Plan)
2. Models
3. Technical Documents (Test Plan)
4. User Documents (Help Files)
bu lHkh plans dk mi;ksx high quality provide djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA
ftlls software processing ds nkSjku documentation standards, coding standard
and guide lines vklkuh ls izkIr gks tkrh gSA D;ksfd lHkh project process and
product metrics software engineering dk gh Hkkx gskrh gSA iwjs project dh
outgoing software engineering team, SQA group and customer ds }kjk
conduct dh tkrh gSA

ISO 9000 Quality standard (International Standard

Organization) :-
;g ,d quality assurance system ds tks fd organization structure
responsibilities, procedures, process and qualtity assurance system fdlh
organization ds product rFkk services ds standard dks maintain djrk gSA ftlls
customer satisfy gksrs gSA bl izdkj ds system esa cgqr lkjh activities include
jgrh gSA ftlesa fdlh product ds iwjs life cycle dh planing, controlling,
measuring, testing, reporting, and imporve quality etc.. ISO 9000 fdlh Hkh
business ds fy;s tks fd products ;k service provide djrk gSA ,d quality
assurance standard provide djrh gSA ISO 9000 standard dks cgqr lkjh
countries esa viuk;k gSA ftlesa Europ, Canada, Maxico, US, Australiya,
Newzelend etc countries IS) standard izkIr dj ysrh gSA vkSj mldk registration
ISO es gks tkrk gS rks og country government agency rFkk public ds fy;s
product and service provide dj ldrh gSA ;gka ij tele communication
equipment and medical device gS ,sls devices gS tks fd ISO registration
company ds }kjk gh vko';d fd;k tkrk gSA

The ISO-9001 Standards :-

ISO-9001 ,d ,slh quality assurance standards gS tks fd software
engineer ds fy;s apply fd;k tkrk gsA bl standrad esa ,d effective quality
assurace system dbZ requirments dks fulfill djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
D;ksfd ISO-9001 standard engineering discription ds fy;s apply fd;k tkrk gS
blesa manager responsibility, quality system, contract review, design control,
document adoq, control product densification, and tracatrility process control
inspection and testing corrective and preventive action, control of quality
record, internal quality audits, tranning, services and staticals techniques etc.
requirment include jgrh gSA

UNIT III
Analysis Concept & Principal :-
Software requirment engineering ,d ,slh process gS tks discovery,
refinment, modeling and specification dks process djrh gSA System engineers
details es le>rs gS vkSj vko';drkuqlkj data information control flow and
operational behaviour ds models rS;kj djrs gSA vkSj blds ckn gh complete
analysis model rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA bleas principals, techniques, languages,
control, effective, analysis documentation rFkk system dk external behaviour
user dh gh vko';drkuqlkj design fd;k tkrk gSA tks fd fdlh Hkh business ds fy;s
main object gksrk gSA bleas engineers rFkk customer nksuks dk gh eq[;
Hkkx jgrk gS A rFkk mudh activities dh lgk;rk ls ,d complete analysis rS;kj
gksrk gSA customer dh lgk;rk ls data function and software fdl izdkj dk
behaviour pkfg;s iwjh information izkIr dh tk ldrh gSA vkSj developr
customer dh problem ds vuqlkj software rS;kj dj ysrk gS vkSj og le;&le; ij
vko';drkuqlkj customer ls information izkIr dj ldrk gSA

Requirment Analysis :-
Requirment analysis ,d software engineering dk dk;Z gS tks fd system
level requirment rFkk software design ds chp esa dk;Z djrk gSA Requirment
activities dh lgk;rk ls gh software ds function, data and behaviour ds
vko';drkuqlkj change fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk blds vuqlkj software designeers
vklkuh ls software design dj ldrs gSA requirment analysis dks software
designeers data, architectures, interface and component level model esa
trnaslate djrs gS vkSj blh dh lgk;rk ls var esa customer ds fy;s ,d quality
software rS;kj dj fn;k tkrk gSA
Software requirment analysis 5 Hkkxksa esa ckaVk x;k gSA
1. Problem Recoganition.
2. Evaluation & Synthesis.
3. Modeling.
4. Specification.
5. Review.
lcls igys analyst system specification ds study djrk gSA vkSj software
project plan create djrk gS ;s vko';d gS fd tks plan rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS mls
software ds vuqlkj le>k tk;s] rFkk ,d proper estimate rS;kj fd;k tk;sA blh ds
ckn dk step analyst ds fy;s program recorgnition ds fy;s gksrk gSA ftlds
customer ;k user dh basic problem dks le>k tkrk gSA blds ckn analyst dks
data objects, data flow, information, software functions define djus dh
vko';drk gksrh gsA rFkk blds lkFk&lkFk software dk behaviour vkSj
interface Hkh design fd;k tkrk gSA

Analyst Principal :-
 fiNys dqN lkyksa esa fofHkUu izdkj ds analyst modeling methods rS;kj
fd;s x;s gSA Investigation analysing problems dks identify djrs gSA vkSj
muds dkjdksa dk irk yxkrs gSA vkSj blh ds vuqlkj ,d model rS;kj djrs gSA
izR;sd analysing model dk md viuk dk;Z gksrk gSA ftlesa fuEufyf[kr
operational, principal use fd;s tk ldrs gS &

i. Information ,slh gksuh pkfg;s tks fdlh problem dks vklkuh ls

discribe dj ldsA rkfd ;wtj dks mls le>us esa dksbZ problem u vk;sA
ii. Software ds fy;s tks functions rS;kj fd;s tkrs gSA mudksa
vyx&vyx izdkj ls define fd;k tkuk vko';d gSA
iii. Software ds behaviour dks represent djuk vko';d gksrk gSA
iv. ,sls model tks information fucntion rFkk behavour fdks discribe
djrs gS mudh vyx&vyx catagaries detailed information ds lkFk
gksuh pkfg;s A
v. Analyst process ds vko';drkuqlkj modify fd;k tk ldsA

bu principal dks ;fn fdlh software esa apply fd;k tk;s rks fdlh Hkh
problem dks vklkuh ls solve fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj user viuh vko';drkuqlkj
model rFkk information dks le> ldrk gSA blds fy;s vko';drkuqlkj dqN guide
lines bl izdkj gS &
i. Understand the problem before you begin to create the analysis
model.
ii. Develop prototypes theat enable users to understand hwo humen
machine instruction ocuure.
iii. Record the origion of and the resion for every requirment.
iv. Use multiple viewes of requirment.
v. Rank requirments.
vi. Work to requirment.

1. The informtaion Domain :-

lHkh software applications esa vko';drkuqlkj MkVk rFkk information
dk collection gksrk gsA ftls ge data processing ds uke ls Hkh tkurs gS vkSj
;gh ,d ,slh term gS A ftldh lgk;rk ls software requirments dks vklkuh ls le>k tk
ldrk gSA software data dks process djus ds fy;s ;k ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku rd
transmitt djus ds fy;s ;k vko';drkuqlkj result izkIr djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA
tks fd input izkIr djrk gSA mlds vk/kkj ij manipluation djrk gSA vkSj
vko';drkuqlkj result (output) rS;kj djrk gSA bl izdkj ds software batch
software dgykrs gA ftudks payroll system ;k automobile system etc. esa
vklkuh ls mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA
;s vko';d gS fd software gj izdkj ds events dks process dj ldsA vkSj
system dks control dj ldsA Information domain esa MkVk rFkk processing
control ds fy;s fofHkUu izdkj ds domain use fd;s tkrs gS ftUgsa computer
program ds }kjk process fd;k tkrk gsA ftuesa ls dqN bl izdkj gS &

i. Information Context & Relationships. (The Datamodel)

ii. Information flow.
iii. Information Structure.
Information context esa software ds vuqlkj vkSj user dh vko';drkuqlkj
vyx&vyx izdkj dh information dks collect fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk mls control fd;k
tkrk gSA Information flow esa data and controlling ds fy;s function rS;kj fd;s
tkrs gSA ftlesa input, process rFkk output dh izfØ;k complete gksrh gSA
Information structure esa software dh items dks control fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk
mUgsa vko';drkuqlkj store Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gSA

2. Modeling :-
tc Hkh bu fdlh software dks design djrs gSA rk vPNh understanding ds
fy;s functional model create fd;s tkrs gSA tc entry physical gksrh gSA rks
mlds fy;s ,d NksVk ekWMy rS;kj djrs gSA ftlesa building, plan and machine
etc. include jgrh gSA vkSj tc software ds fy;s model rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA rks
mls dqN vyx rjg ls create fd;k tkrk gSA D;ksfd og gj rjg ls information dks
handle djus ;ksX; gksuk pkfg;sA Operational analysis ds vuqlkj tks ekWMy
rS;kj fd;s tkrs gS muesa dqN function rFkk behaviour fuEu izdkj gks ldrs gS
&
i. Functional Model
ii. Behaviour Model.

3. Partioning :-
 Problems ges'kk gh cgqr cM+h gksrh gS vkSj iwjh problem dsk ,d lkFk
le>uk dfBu gksrk gSA blh dkj.k ,slh problem dks NksV&NksVs Hkkx esa
foHkkftr dj fn;k tkrk gSA rkfd ml problem dks vkSj mlds information dks
vklkuh ls le>k tk ldsA Analysis principal ds vuqlkj information function ,d
software ds behaviour dks vko';drkuqlkj partions esa ckaVuk vko';d gksrk
gSA ftlls software dks vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk gS mls create fd;k tk ldrk gSA
rFkk lHkh parts dks overall acitivity esa include fd;k tk ldrk gSa ftlls dHkh
Hkh fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ problem ugh vkrh A

4. Analysis Modeling :-
Software Engineers fdlh Hkh problems dks vyx&vyx rjhds ls analysis
djrs gSA rFkk problem ds vuqlkj ,d model structure choose djrs gSA ;s
analysis modeling 1960 ls 'kq: gqbZ FkhA tks fd vkt structured design ds uke
ls tkuh tkrh gSA ;s ,d graphical representation gksrh gSA ftlesa iwjs software
dks analysis djds represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk vko';drkuqlkj graphics,
symbols use fd;s tk ldrs gSA Diagram ds vuqlkj lHkh objects ds chp esa
relationship set fd;k tkrk gSA Dataflow diagrams create fd;s tkrs gS vkSj ;wtj
dh vko';drkuqlkj process documentation rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA
1980 ds ckn analsis esa realtime analysis use fd;k x;kA ftldh lgk;rk ls
engineering dh problems ds Åij deep analysis fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk mldk use
CASE tools esa Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA
The Element of the analysis model :- Analysis model dh lgk;rk ls 3 primary
objectives vo'; izkIr gksus pkfg;s &

i. To discribe what the customer require.

ii. To establish a bases for the creation of the software design.
iii. To define a set of requirments that can be validated once the
software is build.

bu objectives dks izkIr djus ds fy;s structured analysis dh vko';drk

gksrh gSA Model ds vuqlkj model ds CASE esa data dictinay fLFkr gS ftlesa
lHkh data objects dh information store jgrh gSA blds ckgj rhu vyx&vyx izdkj
dh diagram gSA Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD) data objects ds chp esa
relationship create djrh gSA rFkk bldk use data dsk conduct djus ds fy;s Hkh
fd;k tkrk gSA Data Flow Diagram (DFD) nks purpose ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA Data ds movement ds fy;s vkSj dataflow ds fy;s DFD ds }kjk analysis ds
nkSjku editional information Hkh provide dh tkrh gSA ftls modeling
functions ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gsA DFD process specification (PSPEC) dh
information ds handle fd;k tkrk gSA State Transaction Diagram (STD)
system, ds behaviour dsk control fd;k tkrk gSA vf/kdre control specification
(CSPEC) dh information dks handle fd;k tkrk gSA

Data Modeling :-
Data Mideling ,d set of questions dk answer gksrk gsA tks fd fdlh Hkh
data processing application ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA data modeling
fuEufyf[kr question include jgrs gSA
1. What are the primery data objects to be process by the system.
2. What is the compasition of each data objects and what attributes
discribe the objects.
3. Where do the objects currently reside.
4. What are the relationship between each objects and other object.
5. What are the realitionship between the object and the process
theat transform then.
bu questions dk answer nsus ds fy;s data modeling method dk mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls entity relationship diagram rS;kj dh tk ldrh gSA
ftls software engineers esa mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ERD dh lgk;rk ls fdlh Hkh
system ds data dks operational analysis djds represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj
data modeling dh lgk;rk ls blds lkFk&lkFk processing dks Hkh control fd;k tk
ldrk gSA

Data Objects Attributes & Relationship :-

Data model three enter related piece of information ls feydj rS;kj gksrk
gSA Data objects ds chp esa attributes dks set djds relationship create fd;k
tkrk gSA ftlls lHkh objects ,d nwljs ls contect gks tkrs gsA Information ds ;s
rhukasa Hkkx bl izdkj gS &

i. Data objects :-
 Data Objects esa ,d lh information gksrh gS tks fdlh perticular dk;Z dks
complete djrh gSA rFkk software bls vklkuh ls le> ldrk gS bldh viuh
properties rFkk attributes gksrh gS ;s ,d external entity Hkh gks ldrh gSA ftlls
customer information, report, telephone call, seles person, accounting,
department, warehouse and life etc. objects include jgrs gSA

ii. Attributes :-
Attributes, data objects dh property gksrs gSA ftlesa fuEufyf[kr
characteristics gks ldrs gS &
a. Name on instance of the data objects be.
b. Describe the instance.
c. Make refrence to another instance in another table.
buds attributes indentifies dh rjg Hkh mi;ksx fd;s tk ldrs gSA tc
vko';drkuqlkj data, objects search fd;k tkrk gSA rks ;s identifiers "key" ds :i
esa mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gSA dqN ifjfLFkr;ksa esa indentfiers dh value unique
gksrh gS A gkykfd dHkh&dHkh budh vko';drk gh ugh gksrh gSA ysfdu fQj
Hkh bl izdkj ds attributes dk models esa mi;ksx fd;k tkuk vko';d gksrk gSA bu
attributes dh lgk;rk ls fdlh Hkh problem dks vklkuh ls understand fd;k tk ldrk
gSA

iii. Relationship :-
Data objects ,d nwljs ls fofHkUu izdkj ls connect fd;s tk ldrs gSA
;gk¡ ij ;fn book rFkk book store nks objects dks relationship ns[kk tk;s rks
blesa dsoy nks gh objects dk ,d nwljs ls connect fd;k x;k gSA ysfdu bu
nksuksa esa fdl izdkj dk relation gSA bldk answer tkuus ds fy;s ges books
rFkk books store role dks vo'; le>uk pkfg;sA mlds ckn gh software design
fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s cgqr lkjs objects and relationship create fd;s tk ldrs
gSA tSls fd &
a. A book store orders book's.
b. Book store displays books.
c. A book store sotcks books.
d. A books store sales books.
 e. A book store return books.
Orders, Displays, stocks sales and returns ,sls relationship gS tks Book
and book store ds chp esa connection create dj jgs gS ;s vko';d gS fd objects
and relationship pair esa gh gksuk pkfg;sA

Coordinality and modelity :-

Data modeling esa elements data objects attributes rFkk relationship
gksrs gS ftudh enn lsa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh problem dks vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk
gSA bu elements ds vk/kkj ij related information dks le>uk cgqr gh vko';d
gksrk gSA blfy;s ge ges'kk dgh objects and relationship dks pairs esa
represent djrs gSA
tSls fd object X, ojbect Y ls interrelate djrk gsA blds fy;s T;knk
information provide djus ds vko';drk ugh gksrh gS ysfdu nksuks objects dh
property dks le>uk important gksrk gS ;gh data modeling concept
coordinality dgykrk gSA

1. Cordinality :-
Data model ,slk gksuk pkfg;s fd mlesa vf/kd ls vf/kd objects and
relationship dks represent fd;k tk ldsA Data model ges'kk gh object rFkk
relationship ds pair esa represent fd;k tkrk gSA ;gk¡ ij ,d object nwljs object ls
interrelate djrk gsA Cordinality esa ,d object dks ckj&ckj mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk
gSA vkSj fdlh problem dsk solve djus ds fy;s ,d ls vf/kd objects Hkh mi;ksx
fd;s tk ldrs gsA blfy;s ;gk¡ ij one rFkk many relationship create gksrk gSA bu
nksuksa relationships dks bl izdkj define fd;k tk ldrk gS &
A. One to One (1:1)
B. One to Many (1:N)
C. Many to Many (M:N)

2. Modelity :-
Modelity ,d ,slk relationship gS tks fd optional gksrk gS bls
vko';drkuqlkj mi;ksx Hkh fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj ugh HkhA D;skfd software es
Hkh dqN ,sls modules gksrs gS ftudh vko';drk dHkh&dHkh gh iM+rh gSA
tSls fd ,d local telephone company viuh service customer dks provide djrh
gsA ;fn fdlh le; customer dksbZ viuh problem crkrk gSA vkSj problem simple
gks rks mls single repair action esa solve dj fy;k tkrk gS vkSj ;fn problem
complex gks rks mlds fy;s multiple repair action dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
ysfdu ;gk¡ ij repair aciton model dHkh&dHkh gh mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

Entity Relationship Diagram :-

Data model esa object relationship pair cgqr gh important section gksrk
gS ;s pair entity relationship diagram dk mi;ksx djds graphicaly represent fd;s
tk ldrs gS A ERD dk mi;ksx database system ds relation dks n'kkZus es fd;k
tkrk gSA blesa data objects attributes relationship rFkk fofHkUu izdkj ds
indicates dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA ERD dk purpose data objects rFkk
muesa relationship dks represent djuk gksrk gSA ERD esa data object ,d
rectangle esa represent fd;s tkrs gSA vkSj buds cph esa relationship
connecting line ds }kjk show fd;s tkrs gSA Data Objects and relationship ds
chp esa connection special symbol dk mi;ksx djds Hkh creaet fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Data object car rFkk information ds chp esa relationship bl izdkj
represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA Data modeling and entity relationship diagram
analysis ds }kjk design dh tkrh gSA vkSj mls software applicatin ds vuqlkj
n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA dHkh&dHkh data modeling dh ;s process ,d gh module esa
complete gks tkrh gSA ysfdu mls mi;ksx djus ds fy;s database design djus dh
vko';drk gksrh gSA bldk mi;ksx analysis method ds vuqlkj nwljh vko';drkvksa
dks iwjk djus ds fy;s Hkh fd;k tkrk gSA

Functional Modeling and Information Flow :-

Information ges'kk gh computer based system ds }kjk flow gksrh gS
blesa input cgqr lkjh term esa accept fd;k tk ldrk gSA tSls fd & hardware,
software rFkk humen elements and produce output. ;s output Hkh
vko';drkuqlkj vyx&vyx izdkj dk gks ldrk gSA Input ges'kk gh signals ds :i esa
gksrk gSA ftUgsa computer ds }kjk decode fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj data files ds :i
esa store dj fy;k tkrk gSA rFkk output monitor screen ij ;k reports ds :i esa
pages ij produce dj fn;k tkrk gSA ge fdlh Hkh computer based system ds fy;s
flow model rS;kj dj ldrs gSA
 Information two modeling technique dk mi;ksx djds structured analysis
'kq: fd;k tk ldrk gSA blesa hardware person rFkk nwljs programm include jgrs
gSA ;gk¡ ij processing or logic dk ,d sequence esa process fd;k tkuk vko';d
gksrk gSA Software designing ds le; procedure vkSj sequence dh detail
provide djuk Hkh vko';d gksrk gS ;gk¡ ij ;g vko';d gskrk gS fd user DFD rFkk
flowchart ds chp varj Li"V djsA

Data Flow Diagram :-

Software ds }kjk information dks computer ds fdlh Hkh part esa
transmitt fd;k tkk ldrk gSA rFkk mls vko';drkuqlkj modify fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Data flow diagram information flow and input, output dk graphical
representation gksrh gSA ftls ge data flow graph or bubble chart ds uke ls
Hkh tkurs gSA bldh lgk;rk ls fdlh system ;k software ds fdlh Hkh level dks
represent fd;k tk ldrk gsA rFkk Software ds partitions or modules dks DFD dh
lgk;rk ls information detail lfgr describe fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk dkSu lk model
fdl izdkj dh information izkIr dj jgk gS vkSj fdl izdkj dk output nwljs module
es transfer dj jgk gSA blds flow dks Hkh vklkuh ls represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA
DFD ds Hkh vyx&vyx level gksrs gSA Zero DFD Level dks functional
system model ;ks contect model dgk tkrk gSA tks fd ,d single bubble esa
input, output data dks represent djrk gSA blfy;s zero level DFD esa detailed
information dh vko';drk gksrh gSA tc fd 1 level DFD esa de ls de 5 ;k 6
bubble gks ldrs gSA tks fd arrowes dh lgk;rk ls interconnect jgrs gS vkSj ;s
arrows dataflow dks represent djrh gSA Level 1 dh izR;sd process iwjs model
ds functions ij depend gksrh gSA D;ksfd izR;sd bubble ,d complete module
dks show djrk gSA
DFD esa data ds collection dks ,d organized form esa store fd;k tkrk gS
A rFkk mls vko';drkuqlkj arrowes dh lgk;rk ls mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bl LVksj
dk structured analysis data dictionary dgykrk gSA fdlh Hkh bubble dh
processing ds fy;s process specification dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA tks fd input,
output ds function dks algorithm ds :i esa represent djrh gSA
Ward and Mellor Extenssions :- Ward and Mellor dk exetensions basic
structured analysis provide djrk gSA ftlesa real time system ds }kjk
fuEufyf[kr demands dks iwjk fd;k tkrk gSA tSls fd&
 1. Information flow is gather or produce on a time continous bases.
2. Control information is passed throw of the and associated
control processing.
3. Multiple instances of the same transformations are sometimes
encountered in multitasking sichuations.
4. Systems have states and a mechanizem causes transition between
states.

Realtime applications esa information continous gksuh vko';d gksrh

gSA ;fn information continous ugh gksxhA rks system fail gks ldrk gsA blfy;s
blds fy;s time continous data flow represent djuk vko';d gksrk gSA Diagram
esa double headed arrowes time continous flow dks represent dj jgh gSA rFkk
single haeded arrow data flow dks represent dj jgh gSA System engineering
rFkk software engineering esa system model rS;kj djrs le; time continous data
flow dk cgqr egRo gksrk gSA ftlls system model rS;kj djrs le; processing dh
performence c<+kbZ tk ldrh gSA rFkk blh ds }kjk high performence software
rS;kj fd;s tk ldrs gSA Time continous data flow dk mi;ksx lcls vf/kd
automobiles, automatic vehical rFkk robot control system etc. es fd;k tkrk
gSA bu lHkh eaas vko';drkuqlkj Ward and Mellor extenstion dk mi;ksx
multiple extenstion dks control djus ds fy;s fd;k tkrk gSA

The Mechanics Of structured Analysis :-

Structured analysis software dh vko';drkuqlkj perform dh tkrh gSA;fn
analysis vPNh gksxh rks mldk software or project Hkh lgh :i ls create fd;k tk
ldrk gSA Structured analysis cgqr igys ls mi;ksx dh tk jgh gsA ftldk izR;sd
LVsi ,d complete model represent djrk gSA bldh lgk;rk ls ERD bR;kfn Hkh
vko';drkuqlkj create fd;s tk ldrs gSA ftlesa customers analysis program etc.
include jgrs gSA Structured analysis ds izR;sd step esa object rFkk mlds
relation dks show fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj ;s model ges'kk gh pairs esa jgrs gsA tks
object rS;kj fd;k x;k gSA mlds attributes ds lkFk ;fn relation Hkh lgh :I ls
represent fd;k tk;s rks software esa ;k project esa fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ problem
ugh vkrh gSA blh dh lgk;rk ls vko';drkuqlkj documentation rFkk security
system Hkh define fd;s tk ldrs gsA
Creating a Data flow model (Diagram) :-
Data flow diagram engine ;k developrs dks ,slk model provide djrh gsA
ftldh lgk;rk ls ,d gh le; esa information domain and functional domain develop
fd;s tk ldrs gSA DFD esa izR;sd module dh complete analysis gksrh gS rFkk
lHkh operations esa MkVk dgk¡ flow dj jgk gSA bldh outline Hkh DFD esa
provide dh tkrh gSA DFD create djus ds fy;s fuEu step vko';d gksrs gSA

1. ,d Complete software ;k system dks ,d single bubble esa

represent fd;k tkuk pkfg;sA
2. Primary input and output dks lko/kkuh ls le>us dh vko';drk gksrh
gSA
3. Designing ds le; lHkh izdkj dh data processing, data object vkSj
output dks vko';drkuqlkj define djuk Hkh egRoiw.kZ gksrk
gSA
4. lHkh bubble ds fy;s ,d meaningfull name dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
tks fd ,d complete module dh processing djrk gSA
5. lHkh bubble dks arrowes ds lkFk fyad fd;k tkuk vko';d gksrk
gSA vkSj ;s arrow data flow dks show djrs gSA ;fn buds lkFk
documentation dks represent fd;k tk;s rks ml bubble dks ;wtj
vklkuh ls le> ldrk gSA ;fn safe home product dh DFD create
dh tk;s rks og bl izdkj gksxh A

Control Flow Model (Diagram) :-

Data processing ds fy;s fofHkUu izdkj dh application use dh tkrh
gSA ,d complete software create djus ds fy;s data model rFkk data flow
diagram cgqr gh vko';d gksrh gSA tks fd developr ;k engine dk dk;Z vklku dj
nsrh gSA bldh lgk;rk ls information dks control djds vklkuh ls process fd;k tk
ldrk gSA ftlls software dh performence increase gks tkrh gSA cgqr lkjs ,ssls
application gS ftuesa control flow rFkk data flow dk mi;ksx djuk dkQh vko';d
gksrk gsA D;skfd DFD data flow dks represent djrh gSA vkSj DFD dh lgk;rk
ls data flow dks control fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds fy;s fuEufyf[kr guide lines use
dh tkrh gS &
1. List on sensor that are read by user software.
 2. List or intrrupt condition.
3. List all switcheis that are operated by on operated.
4. List all data connection.
5. List all control items as possible CSPEL input and output.
6. Descriibe two behaviour a system by identifing its status,
identify, How each state is reached and defined two transaction
between states.
7. Focus on possible omssion a very common error in specifing
control.

UNIT IV
Design concept and principal :-
Design ,d meaningfull engine representation gS ftlds }kjk dqN rS;kj
fd;k tk lds besically bls customer dh vko';drkuqlkj rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS vkSj ,d
quality product developr fd;k tkrk gSA blesa data architecture interfaces rFkk
cgqr lkjs component dk lekos'k gskrk gSA
Software engines company based system design djrs gsA ysfdu
vyx&vyx rjg ds dk;Z ds fy;s designing ds izR;sd level esa skill dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA ;gk ij ;g vko';d gksrk gS fd designing esa fdl izdkj dh application
use dh tk jgh gSA lcls igys analysis djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA vkSj mlds ckn
program approach dk mi;ksx djds effective data rFkk processor rS;kj fd;s tkrs
gSA rFkk blds lkFk&lkFk ;g vko';d gksrk gSA fd tks Hkh computer software
rS;kj gks og error free gksA Designing ds fy;s data structure system
architecture represent rFkk component dh detail vfr vko';d gskrh gS ij izR;sd
design activity ds le; gesa basic concept apply djus pkfg;s rkfd high quality
product rS;kj fd;k tk ldsA

The Design Process :-

Software Design ,d interactive process gksrh gSA tSls&tSls software
design djus ds fy;s modules dh vko';drk gksrh gSA design process ges'kk gh
gj level ij perform gksrh gSA ;s ,d software ij view gksrh gSA ftldh enn ls
data functional rFkk project ds behaviour dks vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk gSA
Design process esa cgqr lkjs requirments dh vko';drk gksrh gSA ftuesa ls dqN
bl izdkj gS &

i. Design and Software Quality :-

iwjh design process esa quality ij iwjk /;ku fn;k tkrk gSA Design ges'kk
gh vko';drkuqlkj analysis model ds vuqlkj rS;kj gksuk pkfg;s tks fd customer
dh lHkh vko';drk dks iwjk dj jgk gSA design easy to read rfkkk easy to
understand gksuk pkfg;s rkfd vko';drkuqlkj software code rS;kj fd;k tk lds]
designing es gh iwjs software dh complete picture fn[kkbZ nsuh pkfg;s ;fn bl
izdkj dh lHkh charactristics design structure esa complete fd;s tkrs gsA rks
software dh quality vius vki imporve gksrh pyh tk;sxh rFkk software dk
le;&le; ij implement fd;k tk ldrk gSA

ii. Evaluation of Design :-

;s process software design dh continous process gksrh gS tks fd
modular programs esa apply dh tkrh gSA softwaer structure esa fdlh Hkh
izdkj dh program of approch use dh tk ldrh gSA vktdy programmer designing
esa object oriented approch dk mi;ksx dj jgs gSA ftlesa dk;Z djuk vklku gks
tkrk gSA rFkk fdlh Hkh izdkj ds modules dks vklkuh ls add, modify and
delete fd;k tk ldrk gSA Modules ds functions rFkk interfaces dks vklkuh ls
represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA rFkk blesa os lHkh concept use fd;s tk ldrs gSA
ftudh enn ls data architecture interfaces rFkk component level designing dk
vlkuh ls handle fd;k tk ldsA

iii. Desing Principal :-

Software design process and module nksuksa dk gh combination gksrk
gSA Design process esa lHkh steps ,d sequence esa mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gsA tks
software dks design djus esa lgk;d gksrs gSA ysfdu ;g /;ku jgs fd design
process bruh vklku ugh gksrh gsA blds fy;s creations skill, post expriance,
sense rFkk commiment quality dh vko';drk gksrh gSA

Design Model :-
 Design model architecture ds plan ds leku gksrk gSA ftl rjg ls architect
?kj dks rS;kj djus ds fy;s plan ds lkFk chart cukrk gSA mlh rjg ls software dks
rS;kj djus ds fy;s design medel rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA lcls igys lHkh models
miyC/ku gksuk pkfg;sA ftudk use software es gksrk gS mlds ckn computer
software dk mi;ksx djds vko';drkuqlkj design models rS;kj fd;s tk ldrs gSA
blds fy;s dqN principal bl izdkj gSA
1. The design process should not suffer form turnel vision.
2. The design should be according to the rquirment.
3. The design should be transable to the analysis model.
4. The design should minimize the distance to be the software and
the problem asis exist in the realtime.
5. The design should be use the complete model.
6. The disign should be structure to data events or operating
conditons.
7. The design should be structure to accom module change.
8. Design is not coding , coding is not disign.
9. The design should be accessed for quality as it si been
created not offer the fact.
10. The design should be reduce to minimize conceptual error.

Design Concept :-

Software design dk concept dkQh igys design gks pqdk FkkA ftls vktdy
cM+h vklkuh ls mi;ksx fd;k tk jgk gSA izR;sd concept dks le; ds vuqlkj le>k
tkrk gSA vkSj vko';drkuqlkj test fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk ;s concept engineers dks
foundation step provide djrs gSA ftls vko';drkuqlkj fdlh Hkh software esa
apply fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;s lHkh concept fuEufyf[kr questions dks solve esa
lgk;rk djrk gS &
1. What critarea can be used to partition software into indivisual
components.
2. How is function or data structure detail seprated from a
conceptual representation of the software.
 3. What uniform critarea define the behaviour quality of the
software design.

software design concept dh enn ls lgh software design djus ds fy;s dqN
eq[; step bl izdkj gS &

1. Abstraction :-
tc ge fdlh leL;k ds fy;s ,d module choose djrs gSA rks bl le; abstraction
dh cgqr lkjs levels introduce gksrs gSA ;gk¡ ij leL;k dks gy djus ds fy;s
language evnvironment dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Obejct oriented technology
dh enn ls leL;k ds gy dks n'kkZ;k tkrk gSA vkSj finaly problem dks solutions
dks direct implement fd;k tk ldrk gSA
Software process dk izR;sd step abstraction dh lgk;rk ls gy fd;k tkrk
gSA System engineering ds le; software dks computer based system dk
element ekuk tkrk gSA vkSj software requirment analysis ds le; software dks
cgqr lkjs modules esa convert dj fn;k tkrk gsA vkSj ;s abstractions rc rd pyrh
jgrh gS tc rd dh software dk source code rS;kj ugh gks tkrk gSA Abstraction
ds izR;sd ysoy es ge procedural and data abstraction create djrs gSA
Procedural abstraction esa izR;sd function dh instructions dks ,d sequence esa
represent fd;k tkrk gS rFkk data abstraction esa data objects dk collection
gksrk gSA Procedural abstraction esa tc perticuarl module dks open fd;k tkrk
gSA rks mls ge "door" ds uke ls tkurs gSA D;ksfd ckdh lHkh module blh ls
tqM+s jgrs gSA

2. Refinement :-
Refinement top down design approch gks tc fdlh program dks rS;kj fd;k
tkrk gSA rks mlds lHkh procedures dks details lfgr refine djus dh vko';drk
gksrh gSA rkfd programming language statements ds lkFk vuqlkj ;s
procedure lgh dk;Z djsA izR;sd LVsi gtkjksa instructions dks decompose fd;k
tkrk gSA vkSj ,d success full model rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA izR;sd refinement
step esa design decision fy;s tkrs gS ;gk¡ ij importent step ;g gksrk gS fd
programmer problem ds critarea dks rFkk mlds solution dks lgh :i ls le>sA
Abstraction and refinement nksuksa gh complementry concept gSA
Abstraction dh lgk;rk ls designner particular procedures rFkk data module
design djrs gSA vkSj refinement designner ds fy;s details lfgr design process
ds levels provide djrh gSA complete the desing model rS;kj djus ds fy;s ;s
nksuks gh step dkQh egRoiw.kZ gksrs gSA

3. Modularity :-
Computer software esa modularity dk concept dkQh igys vk pqdk Fkk
A ftldk mi;ksx viuh vko';drkuqlkj software architect djrs gSA bldh lgk;rk ls
software dks vyx&vyx Hkkxksa esa ckaVk tkrk gSA vkSj izR;sd Hkkx vius
vki ls complete rFkk addressable component gksrk gSA ftls ge module dgrs
gSA ;s Module fdlh perticualr problem dks solve djrk gS blh rjg ls nks ;k nks
ls vf/kd module vkil esa feydj ,d complete project rS;kj djrs gSA blesa devide
& conquer method dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Moduarity ,d ,slk step gS ftldh
lgk;rk ls fdlh Hkh cM+s project dks vklkuh ls complete fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk
development cost Hkh de vkrh gSA vkSj project esa ;fn dksbZ problem vkrh
gSA rks perticular module dks find djds ml problem dks solve dj fy;k tkrk
gSA Prodularity esa ;s process dkQh fast dh tk ldrh gSA ,d effective modular
system define fd;s tk ldrs gS &
a. Modular Composibility.
b. Modular Decomposibility.
c. Modular understandability.
d. Modular continouity.
e. Modular Protection.

4. Software Architecture :-
Software architecture ,d ,slh fLFkfr gksrh gS tgk ij iwjs project dk
overall structure design fd;k tkrk gSa bls hirerchical structure Hkh dgk tkrk
gSA blds lHkh izdkj ds component rFkk data structure dks ,d complete
software dk :i fn;k tkrk gSA vkSj system analysis ds chp esa interface create
fd;k tkrk gSA bldk dsoy ,d gh mís'; gksrk gSA tc Hkh module design fd;k tk;s
mldk resue fd;k tk;sA Software architecture dh fuEufyf[kr properties gksrh
gS&

a. Structural Properties :-
 ;s ,d ,slh representation gS ftlesa system ds lHkh component (Modules,
objects, filters, etc.) dks define fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj mu components dks
bdV~Bk djds lHkh ds chp esa interface create fd;k tkrk gSA

b. Extra Functional Properties :-

Software architecture dh bl property esa lHkh izdkj dh software
qualities dks represent fd;k tkrk gSA tSls fd requirment for performance,
capacity, relaibility, security, adeplarility and other system characterstics.

c. Families of Related System :-

Architecural design ,slk gksuk pkfg;s fd mls mlls related dksbZ Hkh
system use dj ldsA ;fn blesa reuse dh ability gksuh pkfg;s A

5. Control Hierarchy :-
Control Hierarchy dks program structure ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gSA tks fd
system ds lHkh modules dks organize djrh gSA rFkk muds chp esa control dh
facility provide djrh gSA blds }kjk procedural software represent ugh fd;s tkrs
gSA tSls fd sequence of processes, oder of decision or reapetation of
operations vkSj u gh bldk mi;ksx architecural style esa fd;k tkrk gS A
bl representation es lHkh izdkj ds modules dks control fd;k tk ldrk gsA
vkSj lHkh modules esa hierarchical control provide fd;k tkrk gSA tks fd
software dh effectiveness dks show djrs gSA blesa control ds vko';drkuqlkj
levels gks ldrs gSA vkSj dksbZ Hkh module nwljs module dks control dj ldrk
gSA ysfdu bles ;s crkus dh vko';drk gksrh gS fd dkSu lk module fdl&fdl
module dks control dj jgk gSA rHkh ge software esa lHkh modules ds chp esa
relationship create dj ldrs gSA

6. Strucural Partioning :-
;fn system dks architectural style hierarchical gS rks program structure
horzental ;k vertical structure esa devide fd;k tk ldrk gSA Horizental
partioning esa program functions dks vyx&vyx modular hirericy esa define
fd;k tkrk gSA ftlesa eq[; :i ls 3 partition fd;s tkrs gSA Input data
transformation (processing) and output horizental partition ds cgqr lkjs benefit
gks ldrs gSA tSls fd &
a. Software that is easier to test
b. Software that is easier to maintain
c. Software that is fewer significients.
d. Software that is easier to understands.

Major function ,d nwljs ls tqM+s jgrs gSA vkSj blesa changing

;k extenstion dh lqfo/kk vklkuh ls fcuk dh sideffect ds perform dh tk ldrh gSA
ysfdu horizental partition esa models ds chp esa interface djus ds fy;s T;knk
data process djus dh vko';drk gksrh gSA
Vertical partitioning esa factoring Hkh dgk tkrk gSA blessas program
structure ds fy;s top down approch dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blesa lHkh
modules ,d gk;jdh ds :i esa ,d nwljs ls connect jgrs gSA vkSj top level dk
ekWMy iwjs project ds modules dks control djrk gSA Actually bl ekWMy
esa lHkh modules dh processing dks control fd;k tkrk gSA bl structure esa ;fn
dksbZ module add or remove djuk gks rks mldk effect blesa related lHkh
modules esa reflect djrk gSA

7. Information Hiding :-
Information hiding dk rkRi;Z ;g gS fd lHkh modules vius vki esa
complete gks] vkSj ,d module dh information (procedural and data) dks nwljk
module access u dj ldsA ;fn fdlh function dh vko';d information dks izkIr djuk
gks rks og information dsoy software functions ds }kjk gh izkIr dh tk ldrh
gSA blds }kjk dksbZ Hkh module ;k procedure detailed information lfgr
define fd;k tk ldrk gSA ysfdu dsoy ogh information nwljs module ds }kjk
access dh tk ldrh gSA tks vko';d gSA Information hiding dk benefit ;g gS fd tc
Hkh maintainance dk dk;Z fd;k tkrk gSA rks mlesa tks Hkh errors detect
gksrh gS mUgs vklkuh ls gy fd;k tk ldrk gSA vkSj software module dks
vklkuh ls vko';drkuqlkj modify fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Effective modular design :-

 Modular designing ,d ,slh approch gS tks yxHkx lHkh organizing
project esa mi;ksx dh tkrh gsA bldh lgk;rk ls project create djuk Fkk mls
maintain djuk dkQh vklku gks tkrk gSA rFkk Hkfo"; eas esa ml project dks
dHkh&dHkh fdlh Hkh le; implement fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds lkFk&lkFk system
dh fofHkUu parts dh development Hkh lkFk&lkFk perform dh tk ldrh gSA

2. Cohesion :-
Cohesion information hiding concept dk nature extension gSA software
procedure esa cohesive module single dk;Z perform djrk gSA ftls program ds
nwljs module esa Hkh tksM+k tk ldrk gSA tc modules dks design fd;k tkrk
gSA rks ml le; ;g /;ku j[kuk vko';d gksrk gSA fd cohesion dh izfØ;k dks le>dj
modules design djuk pkfg;sA rHkh ge ,d modules ds function dks nwljs
module esa vklkuh ls enterrelate dj ldrs gSA Software es tc lHkh function
dks ,d single module esa combine dj fn;k tkrk gSA rks mlesa errors dh
laHkkouk;sa vf/kd jgrh gSA rFkk ;fn fdlh function esa fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ
error vkrh gSA rks mls debug djuk dkQh dfBu gksrk gSA ysfdu cohesion dh
lgk;rk ls izR;sd module ,d nwljs ls close jgrk gSA rFkk ,d nwljs ls interface
create djrk gSA ysfdu lHkh modules dk viuk vyx&vyx dk;Z gksrk gSA vkSj
lHkh instructions dks ,d sequence esa execute fd;k tkrk gSA rks ml process
dks ,d procedural cohesion dgk tkrk gSA tc lHkh processing element data
structure ds fdlh ,d area dk mi;ksx djrs gSA rks ml le; communication
cohesion represent gksrh gSA

3. Coupling :-
Software structure esa modules ds chp enter connection dks coupling ds
}kjk measure fd;k tkrk gSA D;ksfd coupling modules ds chp esa interface ij
gh depend djrh gSA tc fdlh module esa data entry dh tkrh gS rks data
interface esa fdl izdkj ikl gks jgk gSA ;g process coupling dgykrh gsA
Software design esa lkjs modules ds chp esa simple connectivity dh tk;s rks ;g
lowest coupling gksrh gSA vkSj iwjs software dks vklkuh ls le>k tk ldrk
gSA ;fn data transfer ds le; fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ error vkrh gSA rks mlds
location dk vklkuh ls irk yxk;k tkrk gSA ysfdu ;s error iwjs system esa effect
djrh gS tc modules ds chp esa control pass gksrk gSA rks mls control
coupling dgk tkrk gSA ;s coupling devices ds chp esa particular format vkSj
communication protocol dh lgk;rk ls dh tkrh gSA bl izdkj dh coupling dks
external coupling dgk tkrk gSA

UNIT V
Software Testing :-
Software system dh development es cgqr lkjh activity involve jgrh gSA
blesa software testing ,d ,slh process gS ftldh lgk;rk ls software dks customer
rd igqpkus ls igys mldh lHkh errors dks test dj fy;k tkrk gSA vkSj testing ds
le; dksbZ error vkrh gS rks mls debug dj fy;k tkrk gSA ;s ,d software dk
internal logic gksrk gSA ftlds }kjk programs dh dfe;ksa dks iwjk djds mlds
functions, behaviour and performance dks increase fd;k tkrk gSA Software
engineers designing ds le; cgqr lkjs tests djrs gSA ftlesa SQA activity Hkh
vkrh gS ysfdu blds }kjk lHkh errors dks nwj ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA tc Hkh
customer software dks execute djrk gSA rks mlls igys gh errors dks find djds
mUgs remove djuk vko';d gksrk gSA test ds nkSjku internal logic and
external requirment nksuksa dh vko';drkuqlkj test fd;k tkrk gSA tc testing gks
tkrh gS vkSj designner ds vuqlkj blesa dksbZ error ugh jgrh gSA mlds ckn bl
testing software dks ;wtj dks deliver fd;k tk ldrk gSA

A. Testing Objectives :-
Software testing ds le; cgqr lkjs rules apply djus dh vko';drk gksrh gS
bl izdkj gS &
1. Testing ,d ,slh process gS ftlds }kjk programs dks execute djds
errors dks find fd;k tk ldrk gSA
2. ;fn testing vPNh gksxh rks software dh quality Hkh high
quality show djrh gSA vkSj ,d success full test rHkh ekuk tkrk gSA tc
blesa lHkh izdkj ls input djds internal or external test fd;k tk;s vkSj
mlesa dksbZ error u vk;sA
3. tc desingners testing process esa Lo;a satisfy gks tkrs gSA
mlds ckn os software dks customer rd deliver dj ldrs gSA
 Testing ds le; ;fn bl izdkj ds lHkh objects dks ;fn /;ku esa j[kk tk;s
rks ,d successful test complete gksxkA vkSj mlesa dksbZ error 'ks"k ugh
cpsxh A blds ckn nwljk Qk;nk ;g gS fd bl software dks market esa
vko';drkuqlkj fdlh Hkh le; represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;fn software esa dksbZ
error 'ks"k u gks rks ;gh technique software dh quality dsk rFkk performance
dks increase dj nsrh gSA

B. Testing Principle :-
Software dksa test djus ls igys engineers dks software testing ds
principles vo'; le>us pkfg;sA testing principle dqN bl izdkj gS &
1. all tests should be practable to customer requirments.
2. Test should be planed long before testing begin.
3. Predefine principle should be apply to software testing.
4. Testing should begin in the small and progress sto words testing in
the longer.
5. Exhaustibe testing is not possible.
6. To be most effective, testing should be conducted an independant
third party.

C. Testability :-
Computer programmer ;k product dks software engineers ideas dk
mi;ksx djds design djrs gSA vkSj mlds ckn mls ;wtj dh requirment ds vuqlkj
test djrk gSA ysfdu ;s testing Hkh dqN predefine principal ds vuqlkj gh
gksarh gSA testing ds le; programmer dHkh&dHkh dificulty eglwl djrs gSA
D;ksfd dqN errors ,slh gksrh gS ftudks modify ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA blfy;s
designer dks ges'kk gh ;s /;ku j[kuk pkfg;s fd softwaer testability process
lower level ls gh 'kq: dj nsuh pkfg;s A blds ckn dqN charactristics bl izdkj gS
&

1. Operatability :- The better it works the more efficiency it can be

tested.
2. Observavility :- What you see is what you test.
 3. Controlability :- The better can control the software the more testing
can be automatted and optimized.
4. Decomposability :- By controlling the scope of testing, We can more
quickly isalate problem and perform shamarker retesting.
5. Simplicity : - The less there is to test the more quickly we can tested.
6. Stability :- The fewer the changes the lower interruption to test.
7. Understandablity :- The more information we have the smarter we
will test.

White Box Testing :-

White Box testing dks dHkh&dHkh ge glass box testing Hkh dgrs
gSA ;s ,d ,slk test care design method gS tks fd procedural design ds control
structure dks test djus ds fy;s mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA blds }kjk software
engineer project ds lHkh modules esa ckjh&ckjh ls de ls de ,d ckj test vo'; djrs
gSA vkSj ;s testing lHkh logic of technique ds vuqlkj perform dh tkrh gSA
blds lgk;rk ls lHkh loops execute fd;s tkrs gsA vkSj internal data structure fd
validity perform dh tkrh gSA nwljs test analysis dh rjg gh white box testing
esa software ds defects dks slove fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj ;s testing software ds
nature ds vuqlkj gksrh gSA bl izdkj dh testing ls tc function dsk design or
implement fd;k tkrk gsA rks mudh conditions rFkk controls dks gj step ij
VsLV fd;k tkrk gSA Designing ds le; logical errors dk lkeuk Hkh fd;k tk ldrk
gSA ;fn ,d ckj software dk path test dj fy;k tk;s] rks mldh logical errors dks
vklkuh ls handle fd;k tk ldrk gSA blds application dks tc fdlh software dks
perform languages source code esa translate fd;k tkrk gSA rks ml le; dqN
typing errors Hkh vk ldrh gSA ftuesa ls cgqr lkjh errors dks mlds syntex rFkk
type checking method ds }kjk recover dj fy;k tkrk gSA ysfdu dqN ,slh errors
gksrh gS tks fd software dh testing 'kq: gksus rd Hkh detect ugh gksrh gSA
vkSj bls errors logical errors gks ldrh gS bl izdkj dh errors dks nwj djus ds
fy;s white box testing dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

Black Box Testing :-

Black Box Testing ds }kjk fdlh system or system ds fdlh Hkkx ds
behaviour dks VsLV fd;k tkrk gSA blds fy;s dqN transaction rules dk mi;ksx
djds software ds module dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk dkSu lk modules fdl
izdkj dh behavioural activities black box testing ds varxZr vkrh gSA bl izdkj
dh activities dks lcls vf/kd object oriented system es mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

Control Structure Testing :-

Control Structure testing ,d ,slh testing gksrh gS ftlds }kjk software ds
iwjs structure dks path lfgr test fd;k tkrk gS ;s testing dkQh lk/kkj.k gksrh gS
ysfdu software esa high effectiveness provide djkrh gS blds }kjk white box
testing dh qualities dks Hkh improve fd;k tkrk gSA bl testing esa cgqr lkjh
technique dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA tSls fd & Conditional Testing, Dataflow
Testing, and Loop Testing etc.

1. Condition Testing :-
Condition testing test case design method gksrh gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls
program modules dh logical conditon dks VsLV fd;k tkrk gS ,d simple
condition esa fdlh Hkh programming language dks mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gS
vkSj testing ds nkSjku fuEufyf[kr errors dk lkeuk djuk iM+ ldrk gS &
a. Boolean Operator errors
b. Boolean Variables errors
c. Boolean Parantaces errors
d. Relational Operator errors
e. Arithmetic Expression errors
Conditions testing methods dh lgk;rk ls program dh izR;sd condition
dks ckjh&ckjh ls psd fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk fdlh Hkh izdkj dh dksbZ error vk;s
rks mls debug dj fy;k tkrk gSA bl izdkj dh testing ds nks ykHk gksrs gSA
igyk ;s fd condition testing simple gskrh gS vkSj blls ;s fd condition testing
additional programs ds test ds fy;s guidence provide djrh gSA Condition
testing dk mís'; dsoy conditional errors dsk gh detect djuk ugh gS cfYd bldh
lgk;rk ls program dh nwljh errors dks Hkh psd fd;k tk ldrk gSA

2. Data Flow Testing :-

 Data Flow Testing methdo dh lgk;rk ls program ds Åij lHkh modules
vkSj mu modules esa mi;ksx gksus okys variables dh defination dks VsLV
fd;k tkrk gS ;gka ij fofHkUu izdkj dh data flow testing perform dh tk ldrh
gSA tSlk fd ;fn fdlh program esa izR;sd statements ,d unique statement gks
vkSj izR;sd function vius parameters vkSj global variables dks modify ugh dj
jgk gks rks mlds fy;s vko';drkuqlkj conditional checking dh tk ldrh gSA ;gka
ij izR;sd satatement ds fy;s if or loops statement dk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gsA ;s
statements software ds iwjs path ds fy;s mi;ksx dh tk ldrh gSA

3. Loop Testing :-
Software es fdlh Hkh izdkj ds algorithm dks implement djus ds fy;s
loops cgqr gh important gksrs gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls software testing vklkuh ls
perform dh tk ldrh gSA Loop testing ,d white box testing technique gksrh gS
tks fd 4 Hkkxksa esa foHkkftr jgrh gSA tSls fd &
Simple Loop, Nested Loop, Concatenated Loop and Unstructured Loop
etc.

i. Simple Loop :-
Simple loop esa simple conditions dks check fd;k tkrk gS ftlesa
fuEufyf[kr set gks ldrk gSA
a. Skip the loop entity.
b. Only one pass to the loop.
c. Two passes to the loop.
d. In passes to the loop where M>N.
e. M-1, N, N+1 passes to the loop.

ii. Nested loop :-

;fn ge simple loop dh approch dks extend djuk pkgrs gS rks nested loop
dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA bu loops esa nesting level dsk increase fd;k tkrk gSA
rFkk need number fo test perform fd;s tk ldrs gSA ;gk¡ ij /;ku j[kus ;ksX;
ckr ;g gS fd lcls igys inner most loop execute gksrh gS vkSj outer most loop
lcls vkf[kjh eas test fd;k tkrk gSA
iii. Concatinated loop :-
Concatinated loop simple loop dks define djds mi;ksx fd;s tk ldrs
gSA ;fn lHkh loops ,d nwljs ls inddependent gks rks ml le; concatinated loops
dk mi;ksx djds lHkh loops dsk tksM+ fn;k tkrk gS vkSj tc loop fHkUu ugh
gks rks le; nested approch dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA

4. Unstructured Loop :-
Unstructured loop dk mi;ksx structured programming esa fd;k tkrk gSA
;gka ij ywi dks VsLV djus dk dksbZ sequence ugh gksrh gS ,sls software esa
design fd;s x;s loop user dh need test fd;s tkrs gS ftl loop dh vko';drk gksrh gS
dsoy ogh loop memory esa execute gksrk gSA

Testing for specilized Envrionments :-

Computer software vktdy cgqr gh complex gks x;s gS ftuds fy;s
specilized testing dh vko';drk gksrh gSA white box and black box testing
methdo yxHkx lHkh environments architecture rFkk application ds fy;s
mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA ysfdu guide lines ds ;k common application tks fd
software engineering esa mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA muds fy;s testing FkksM+h vyx
gksrh gS ;s testing fuEuizdkj dh gks ldrh gS &
a. Testing GUI's.
b. Testing of Client/Server architecture.
c. Testing documentation and help facilities.
d. Testing for real time system (task testing, enter task testing, software
testing)

Software Testing Strategies :-

Software designing method dk mi;ksx djds ;fnmls step by step plan djds
design fd;k tk;s] vkSj mlds ckn mls vko';drkuqlkj VsLV fd;k tk;s rks ,d lh
rFkk complete softwaer rS;kj gksrk gSA bl izdkj dh iwjh planning esa
stratagies esa test plaining, test case design rFkk test execution vkSj data
collection rFkk evaluation etc. steps include jgrs gSA Designing effects dkQh
important gksrs gSA vkSj stratagies dk mi;ksx mUgs execute djus ds fy;s fd;k
tkrk gSA ;gka ij iwjs project dks ,d lkFk ;k parts esa execute fd;k tk ldrk gSA
blesa customer Hkh involve jgrk gSA Software testing ds fy;s stratagies,
projects, managers, software engineers, and testing specialist ds }kjk rS;kj dh
tkrh gSA blds }kjk iwjs project dh activity dks control fd;k tkrk gSA Testing
NksVs ls module ls 'kq: gksdj cM+s project rd perform dh tkrh gSA Program
logic and fucntion dh lgk;rk ls ;k vko';drkuqlkj white & black box test dh
lgk;rk ls errors dks recover fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;s testing ml le; rd pyrh gSA tc rd
dh project complete u gks tk;s vkSj customer dh vko';drkuqlkj output izkIr u
gksA Testing ,d activities dk set gksrk gSA ftls advance esa plan dj fy;k tkrk
gSA vkSj ,d systematic <ax ls mls test fd;k tkrk gSA testing strategies ds fy;s
software developr cgqr lkjs technique dk mi;ksx djrs gS tks bl izdkj gS &

a. Varification and Validation :-

Software testing esa varification and validation dk important role gksrk
gSA Varification esa cgqr lkjh activities dk mi;ksx djds ;s irk fd;k tkrk gS fd
software ds functions dk lgh :i ls implement fd;k x;k gS ;k ugh A vkSj
validation es nwljs izdkj dh activities vkrh gS ftuls ;s irk fd;k tkrk gS fd rS;kj
fd;k x;k software customer dh vko';drkuqlkj dk;kZ dj jgk gS ;k ugh A ;s
nksuska activiteis SQA activity dk part gh gksrh gSA ftlesa Quality,
configration atudits, performance, feasibility study, documantation, database
of reffu, algorithm analysis, development testing, Qualification testing, and
installation testing etc. form of techniques include jgrh gSA

2. Testing Stratagis :-

Unit Testing :-
Unit testing esa varification dh og izfØ;k vkrh gSA ftlesa software
design dh lcls NksVh ;wfuV dks test fd;k tkrk gSA ftls ge software
component ;k module dgrs gSA unit testing esa cgqr lkjs components dks ,d
lkFk Hkh test fd;k tkrk gSA Module interface testing esa information ds
proper flow dks test fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk module dh statements de ls de ,d ckj
execute gskuk vko';d gskrh gSA ;fn fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ errors vkrh gS rks
mls Hkh debug dj fy;k tkrk gSA dksbZ Hkh nwljk test djus ls igys modules ds
chp esa interface create djuk vko';d gksrk gSA vkSj unit test dh lgk;rk ls
proper control flow rFkk effective loop testing technique dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk
gSA vkSj bu modules esa automatic error handlin path set fd;s tkrs gSA ;fn
module dsk ,d ckj vko';drkuqlkj test dj fy;k tk;s rks unit test procedure ds }kjk
nwljs modules ls tksM+k tk ldrk gSA lHkh units dsk blh rjg ls interconnect
djds ,d standalone software rS;kj fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Intrigration Testing :-
tc lHkh models ckjh&ckjh ls VsLV gks tkrs gSA vkSj indivisual dk;Z
djus yxrs gS rks mUgsa collect djds ,d project esa tksM+k tkrk gSA vkSj
muds chp esa interface create fd;k tkrk gSA dHkh&dHkh bl interfacing
process esa dkQh problem vkrh gS ,d modular ls nwljs modular esa interface
lgh create ugh gks ikrk gSA vkSj ftlds dkj.k vko'drkuqlkj output produce ugh
gks ikrk gSA bl izdkj dh leL;k dks solve djus ds fy;s integration testing
technique dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA Testing ds le; tks problem vkrh gS mUgs
blh testing dh enn ls nwj fd;k tk ldrk gSSA vkSj ;s approach tc ls power full
component dks advance esa gh combine dj fy;k tkrk gSA vkSj iwjs program
dsk ,d lkFk test fd;k tkrk gSA buds errors dks correct djuk FkksM+k dfBu
gksrk gSA ysfdu ;fn ,d ckj ;s errors lgh dj yh tk;s rks ;s process ,d ywi ds
vuqlkj fujarj pyrh jgrh gSA bl approch dks inorement djus ds fy;s cgqr lkjs
steps mi;ksx fd;s tkrs gS &

a. Top Down Integration

b. Bottom Up Integration
c. Regssion Integration
d. Smoke Integration
e. Comments on Integration testing.
f. Integration test documenatation.
g. Validiation.

Validation Testing :-
Integration testing esa complete software dks test djds rFkk assemble
djds ,d package rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA bl iSdst dks rS;kj djrs le; tks Hkh errors
gksrh gS mls lgh djus dh process gksrh gSA bl ds ckn validation dh testing
'kq: gksrh gSA bl process es customer dh vko';drkuqlkj lHkh requirments dsk
pSd fd;k tkrk gSA ;s Software lgh :i ls dk;Z dj jgk gS vU;Fkk ugh A blls tks
process pSd gksrh gS mls validation testing dgk tkrk gSA rFkk validation
testing esa fuEufyf[kr steps include jgrs gS &

a. Validation Test tritarea :-

Software Validation ,d ,slh technique gS ftlds }kjk user dh
vko';drkuqlkj lHkh requirments dks check fd;k tkrk gSA blesa test plan create
fd;s tkrs gSA vkSj bUgsa le; le; ij project ds behaviour ds vuqlkj test fd;k tkrk
gSA rFkk blesa project dh performance dks Hkh /;ku esa j[kk tkrk gSaA bl
testing esa doucmantation errors ;k fdlh izdkj dh dksbZ problem vkrh gS rks
mUgsa lgh dj fy;k tkrk gSA

b. Configration Review :-
Configration review validation, testing dk important element gksrk gS
blesa software ds lHkh function ds elements dks configration fd;k tkrk gSA
vkSj ml element ds fy;s vko';d documantation rFkk details rS;kj dh tkrh
gSA ;s process software life cycle dk part gksrh gSA bls dHkh&dHkh audits
ds uke ls Hkh tkuk tkrk gSA

c. Alpha & Beta Testing :-

Software development dks ;s irk djuk impossible gksrk gS fd rS;kj dh
xbZ program dks customer fdl izdkj mi;ksx djsxkA blds fy;s lHkh izdkj dh
test rFkk documantation provide fd;s tkrs gSA tc software ,d customer ds fy;s
rS;kj fd;k tkrk gS rks mldh vko';drkuqlkj accept test perform dh tkrh gSA ftlls
customer dh lHkh izdkj dh requirments dks project ds }kjk sub fd;k tkrk
gSA ;s acceptance test ,d particular period ds ckn perform fd;s tkrs gSA ;s
le; ,d lIrkg dk ;k ,d eghus dk gsk ldrk gSA Testing ds nkSjku lHkh izdkj dh
errors dks nwj dj fy;k tkrk gSA ;fn ;s software cgqr lkjs customer ds fy;s ,d
program ds :i esa rS;kj fd;k tkrk gSA rks izR;sd ds fy;s acceptance test
perform ugh fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;gk¡ ij end user dh problems dsk solve djus fy;s
programmer tks techniques viukrs gS mls Alpha & Beta testing dgk tkrk gSA
 Alpha test esa Customer ds }kjk programmer site dks test fd;k tk ldrk
gS fd tks software mlds fy;s rS;kj fd;k tk jgk gS mlesa look dSlk gS vkSj og
particular problem dks solve dj jgk gS ;k ughA Alpha Beta ges'kk gh control
environment esa perform fd;s tkrs gSA Beta test software ds enduser ds }
kjk ,d ;k ,d ls vf/kd customer sites esa conduct fd;s tkrs gSA Alpha testing dh
rjg developr present ugh jgrs gS tc fd beta test like application software gksrk
gS ftls ;gk¡ ij developr control ugh dj ldrk gSA Beta testing esa developr le;
ds vuqlkj lHkh izdkj dh problems dh ,d report rS;kj djrk gSA vkSj software
engineers bl problem ds vuqlkj software system dh security vfuok;Z jgrh gSA
Security testing esa protection dks varify fd;k tkrk gS fd bl system esa tks
security provide dh xbZ gS os lgh :i ls rS;kj gS ;k ughA ,slk djus ls user ds
attack ls cuk;k tk ldrk gSA Security testing ds nkSjku user name and
password provide fd;s tkrs gSA blds ckn dksbZ Hkh ;wtj fcuk user name or
password ds bl system esa enter ugh dj ldrk gSA ;fn security testing lgh :i ls
successful jgrh gSA rks system dh lqj{kk c<+ tkrh gS A Product dks modify
djrs gS vkSj ,d u;k software product release ds fy;s rS;kj gks tkrk gSA

System Testing :-
Software fdlh Hkh large computer based system dk dsoy ,d element
gksrk gS vkSj ;gh software nwljs system element (hardware, people,
information) etc. ls communicate djrk gSA vkSj blds ckn system intrigration
and validation test perform fd;s tkrs gSA ;s test software process ls ckgj gksrs
gSA D;skfd software designing dh process vyx gksrh gS vkSj testing Hkh
vyxA ysfdu bu nksuks dk gh mi;ksx ,d successful software rS;kj djus ds fy;s
fd;k tkrk gSA ftls ge large system esa mi;skx dj ldrs gSA Testing ds le;
rjg&rjg ds test fd;s tkrs gSA rkfd software esa lHkh errors dks debug dj fy;k
tk;sA izR;sd test dk viuk mís'; gksrk gS ftlls lHkh modules ds functions dks
test djds lHkh ,d lgh output produce fd;k tkrk gSA software based system esa
fuEufyf[kr system test perform fd;s tk ldrs gS &

a. Recovey testing :-
cgqr lkjs computer based system esa faults dks detect djus dh rFkk
processing ds le; mUgsa recover djus dh lqfo/kk iznku jgrh gSA ysfdu blesa
le; ij vf/kd /;ku fn;k tkrk gSA ysfdu dHkh&dHkh ;s leL;k system ds lgh
functions dks sease ¼dk;Z can djuk½ dj ldrh gSA blfy;s ;fn dksbZ system
problem dj jgk gS rks mls particular time ds vuqlkj lgh djuk vko';d gksrk gSA
recovery testing es blh izdkj dh leL;k dk gy fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk bles automatic
reinitialization, check point machanisam, data recovery etc. processes include
jgrh gSA recovery user invoke jgrk gSA tks fd le;&le; ij system dks repair
djrk jgrk gSA bl process dks ge Main Time To Repair (MTTR) Hkh dgrs gSA

b. Security Testing :-
dksbZ Hkh computer based system tsk fd sensitive information dks
manage djrk gSA rks og system user dks dkQh ykHk igqpkrk gSA blfy;s bl
system dh security vfuok;Z gksrh gSA Securtiy testing esa protection dks
varify fd;k tkrk gS fd bl system esa tks security provide dh xbZ gS os lgh :i ls
dk;Z dj jgh gS ;k ugh A ,slk djus ls system dks vU; unauthorized user ds
attack ls cpk;k tk ldrk gSA Security testing ds nkSjku user name ;k password
ds bl systeme es enter ugh dj ldrk gSA ;fn security testing lgh :i ls successful
jgrh gS rks system dh lqj{kk c<+ tkrh gSA

c. Stress Testing :-
Software testing steps ds le; white box and black box technique dk
mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk mlds }kjk program functions and performance ds
normal test fd;s tkrs gS ysfdu abnormal sotiation ds fy;s stress test dk mi;ksx
fd;k tkrk gSA bl test esa system ds fail gksus ls igys dh lHkh izdkj dh process
dk fjdkMZ LVksj fd;k tkrk gSA Stress testing resources dh vko';drkuqlkj
abnormal quantity, frequancy and volume ds vk/kkj ij perform dh tkrh gSA bl
testing esa virtual operating system Hkh involve jgrk gSA ;fn dkbZ program
dk;Z djuk can dj ns ;k MkVk currept gks tk;s rks mls stress testing ds vuqlkj
recover fd;k tk ldrk gSA bl testing dks sensitive testing ds uke ls Hkh tkuk
tkrk gSA

d. Performance Testing :-
Performance Testing esa system dh run time performance dk test fd;k
tkrk gSA vkSj blesa ;s VsLV fd;k tkrk gS fd lHkh modules lgh :i ls dk;Z dj
jgs ;k ughA ;s testing software life cycle ds lkFk include jgrh gSA
Debugging Process :-
Software testing ,d ,slh process gksrh gS ftldh lgk;rk ls software
preplan ds vuqlkj systematic <ax ls test fd;k tkrk gSA blesa test case design
fd;s tkrs gS] stratagy define dh tkrh gSA vkSj vko';drkuqlkj result dks
evaluate fd;k tkrk gSA successful testing ds fy;s debugging vko';d gksrh
gSA ;fn fdlh test case esa dskbZ error vkrh gS rks debugging process dh
lgk;rk ls mls remove dj fn;k tkrk gSA ;s ,d art gS ftls software engineers,
software problem dsk solve djus ds fy;s mi;ksx djrs gSA ;s testing process
ugh gS ysfdu ges'kk ls gh testing process esa mi;ksx dh tkrh gSA vkSj tSls gh
ge fdlh izdkj dk test 'kq: djrs gS rks mlh le; debugging process 'kq: gks tkrh
gSA ftlls project dh performance c<+ tkrh gSA debugging process ges'kk gh
errors dks find djus ds fy;s vkSj mUgs remove djus ds fy;s mi;ksx dh tkrh
gSA Debugging process dificult process gSA D;skfd ;g ,d project esa cgqr
lkjs modules dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj tc system esa errors vkrh gS rks ;g
irk djuk eqf'dy gksrk gS fd ;s error fdl module esa vk;h gS blds fy;s
programming knowledge rFkk work experiance dh vko';drk gksrh gSa
debugging ds le; ;fn dksbZ error feyrh gS rks mls vo'; Bhd djuk pkfg;sA

Software Maintanance :-
Software maintanance dh process cgqr gh egRoiw.kZ gS blds }kjk
software esa tks dfe;k¡ gksrh gS mUgsa nwj fd;k tkrk gSA rFkk ;fn software
esa dqN implementation djuk gks rks mlds fy;s Hkh ;s process eq[; Hkwfedk
vnk djrh gSA blds fy;s cgqr lkjs programs design fd;s tkrs gSA vkSj muds
fy;s proper cooling techniques dk mi;ksx fd;k tkrk gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls
operating system technology esa vko';drkuqlkj ,d u;k plateform rS;kj fd;k tk
ldrk gSA ftlls user computer based system esa vko';drkuqlkj dk;Z dj ldrk gSA
rFkk developrs vko';drkuqlkj ml ij control dj ldrs gSA vkSj mls modify esa
cny ldrs gS A Software maintanance essa pkj izdkj dh vyx&vyx maintanance
activities define dh xbZ gS &

a. Charactive Maintanance
b. Adoptive Maintanance
c. Perfactive Maintanance
d. Preventive Maintanance or reengineering
 bu Maintanance activity dk mi;ksx djds dsoy ge lHkh izdkj ds
Maintanance work d dsoy 20% dk;Z dj ldrs gSA ckdh 80% dk;Z igys ls gh
mi;ksx dh tk jgs system means external environment dks enhancement djds
iwjk fd;k tk ldrk gSA Enhancement dh request user ds }kjk provide dh tkrh
gSA rFkk ,d u;h application future use ds fy;s rS;kj dh tkrh gSA tc ;s
Maintanance dh lHkh activities iwjh dj yh tkrh gSA rks attractive and
effective software re-engineer gksrk gSA

Computer Aidded Software Engineering (CASE) :-

Software process eas CASE tools dk cgqr egRo gS A D;skfd bldh
lgk;rk ls software engineers rFkk practictioners vkSj ;wtj dks lHkh izdkj dh
activities provide gksrh gSA rFkk engineers ds fy;s ;s tools analysis, design,
coding and test work dh lqfo/kk iznku djrs gSA Project managers rFkk
software engineers nksuks gh CASE dk mi;ksx djrs gSA Software
engineering ,d dfBu dk;Z gS vkSj ;s toosl blds fy;s beneficial gksrs gSA bu
tools dh lgk;rk ls software engineering information dks u;s rjhssds ls produce
fd;k tk ldrk gSA ftlls good decisions fy;s tk ldrs gSA CASE dks process
module ds lkFk mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA CASE tools dk use djus ls igys
software process, framework vo'; rS;kj dj ysuk pkfg;sA blds ckn gh CASE
benefit provide djrk gSA bldh lgk;rk ls mannual acitvities dks automatic
represent fd;k tk ldrk gSA

Building Blocks :-
CASE ,d cgqr gh lk/kkj.k rFkk single tools gS tks fd fdlh particular
software engineering activity ;k mlds iwjs environment dsk complete djus esa
lgk;rk djrk gSA ftlls database, people, hardware, natwork, operating systems
standard rFkk nwljs componants include jgrs gSA CASE ds fy;s building
blocks bl izdkj rS;kj fd;k tk ldrk gS A
bl block ds vuqlkj izR;sd building blocks nwljs block dh foundation
gSA iwjs environment dk important software engineering tool gskrh gSA blds
ckn gh software engineering ds fy;s ,d successful environment create fd;k tk
ldrk gSA Software engineering process ds le; architecture lHkh yksxksa ds
dk;Z dks /;ku esa j[kdj viuk dk;Z 'kq: djrk gSA Environment architecture
hardware plateform and system support (Networking software DBMS and
object management system etc.) dks bdV~Bh djrk gSA vkSj CASE ds fy;s
ground work rS;kj djrk gSA ysfdu CASE environment esa nwljs blocks dh
vko';drk gskrh gSA Portability services CASE tools ds chp esa bridge provide
djrh gSA tks fd intrigration frame work and envrionmental architecture dks
Hkh support djrh gSA Intrigration frame work ,d Lis'ky izksxzEl dk
collection gS tks fd ,d indivisual CASE tool gksrk gSA vkSj lHkh tools ds
lkFk communicate djrk gSA Partability services dh lgk;rk ls rS;kj fd;s x;s
project dks fdlh Hkh hardware plateform and operating system esa fcuk fdlh
maintanance activity ds execute fd;k tk ldrk gSA

A Texonomey of CASE tools :-

tc Hkh ge CASE tools dks fofHkUu izdkj ls catagarise djrs gSA rks
gesa cgqr lkjs risks dk lkeuk djuk iM+ ldrk gSA ;gka ij ,slh cgqr lkjh planning
and tools gS ftudh lgk;rk ls ,d effective CASE environment rS;kj fd;k tk ldrk
gSA ,d vPNh performanance ds fy;s bl izdkj ds tools software engineering
process esa mi;ksx fd;s tk ldrs gSA CASE tools dks functions dh lgk;rk ls
classify fd;k tk ldrk gSA bleas technical persons and software engineers Hkh
include jgrs gSA rFkk environment architecture esa hardware rFkk software
dks include djds iwjs system dh cost create dh tk ldrh gSA blds fy;s dqN
egRoiw.kZ tools fuEuizdkj gS&

a. Business process engineering tools.

b. Process modeling & management tools.
c. Project planning tools.
d. Risk analysis tools.
e. Project management tools.
f. Requirment trasing tools.
g. Metrics & management tools.
h. Documentation tools.
i. System software tools.
j. Quality assurance tools.
k. Dlom tools.
l. Software configration management tools.
 m. Analysis & Design tools.
n. Interface & design & development tools.
o. Prototyping tools.
p. Porgramming tools.
q. Web development tools.
r. Intrigration & testing tools.
s. Static analysis tools.
t. Dynamic analysis tools.
u. Test management tools.
v. Client/Server testing tools.
w. Reengineering tools.

1. Intrigrated CASE environment :-

CASE tools software engineering dh izR;sd activity dsk handle djrs
gSA rFkk ,d vPNk benefite provide dj ldrs gSA ysfdu CASE dh real power
dks intrigration ds }kjk gh izkIr fd;k tk ldrk gSA Intrigration CASE ds
benefite fuEufyf[kr include jgrs gSA tSls fd

1. Smoth transfer of information (Models, Programs, Documents,

data) from one to another and one software engineering step to the
next.
2. A Reduction in the afferts required to perform various activity such
as configration management, quality assurance and document
production.
3. An increase in project control that is achived better planning,
monitering, and communication.
4. Improve Cordination among staff members who are working on a
large software project.

Intrigration dk rkRi;Z combination and closure nksuks ls gh gSA ftlesa

fofHkUu izdkj ds tools dks combine fd;k tkrk gS A vkSj tools ds chp esa]
yksxks ds chp eas rFkk iwjh software process ds chp esa md closure
communication provide fd;k tkrk gSA tools intrigrated gksrs gS blfy;s
software engineering information izR;sd tools ds fy;s vko'd;rkuqlkj miyC/k
gks tkrh gSA blesa ;s vko';d gksrk gS fd software engineering dh process ds
vuqlkj gh lgh toos choose fd;k tk;s] rkfd ,d lgh software rS;kj fd;k tk ldsA

2. Intrigration Architecture :-
Software engineering information dks process djus ds fy;s software
engineering team CASE tools dk mi;ksx djrh gSA intrigration dh lgk;rk ls
project ds chp esa information dks transfer djus dh lqfo/kk izznku dh tkrh
gSA ysfdu blds fy;s gekjs ikl igys ls gh component dk architecture vo'; rS;kj
gksuk pkfg;sA tSls fd & information dks store djus ds fy;s database create
gksuk] object management system rS;kj gksukA CASE tools dks control djus
ds fy;s machanism rS;kj gksuk vkSj environment esa fdlh Hkh izdkj dh action
ds fy;s user interface create gksuk vko';d gksrk gSA cgqr lkjs models bl izdkj
dh intrigration dks component layers ds :i esa represent djrs gS A bl frame
work dk simple model bl izdkj gSA
User interface layer standard interface tools dh lgk;rk ls common
presentation protocols ds lkFk interface create djrh gSA Interface tools esa
humen or computer interface management and object dh library ls related
software gksrs gSA ftudk use CASE tools esa communication provide djus ds
fy;s fd;k tkrk gS lHkh CASE tools ds fy;s preventation protocol guide lines dk
dk;Z djrs gSA ftudh lgk;rk ls moments names and organization , icons, object
names, the use of the keyboard and mouse rFkk lHkh izdkj ds tools dks access
djuk presentation protocol dk gh ,d part gksrk gS mldh lgk;rk ls ,d screen
layout rS;kj fd;k tkr gSA tools layer eas lHkh izdkj dh tools management
services provide dh tkrh gS rFkk bles lHkh izdkj ds modules ds fy;s vyx&vyx
izdkj ds CASE tools set fd;s tkrs gS A tks fd environment ds behaviour dks
control djrs gSA bl multitasking dh facility Hkh iznku dh tk ldrh gSA vkSj
vko';drkuqlkj functions ds fy;s security provide djuk tools management
services (TMS) ds varxZr gh vkrk gSA
Object management layer (OML) congrigration management functions
provide djrh gSA blesa framework architecture dks tools intrigration ds fy;s
bdV~Bk fd;k tkrk gSA vkSj izR;sd CASE tools object management layer ls
attach fd;k tkrk gSA tks fd CASE repository ds lkFk feydj dk;Z djrk gSA
OML intrigration services provide djrk gS tSls fd performing, version,
controls, providing support for chage control, audits and statas accounting etc.
bldk eryc ;s gS fd OML lHkh izdkj ds confrigration object dks identify djrk
gSA
Charged repository layer CASE databases gskrh gS rFkk blh ds }kjk
access control function provide fd;s tkrs gS tks fd object management layer
dks databases ds lkFk link djrs gSA Data intrigration object management rFkk
shared repository layer ds }kjk gh izkIr dh tk ldrh gSA

CASE Repository :-
Software development process esa repository ,d ,slk word gS tks fd fdlh
particular pht ;k person ds Åij depend gksrk gSA ;s ,d center point gksrk gS
;gka ij vko';drkuqlkj data dks store fd;k tkrk gSA Software development
process esa lcls igys repository ds fy;s ,d person dks choose fd;k tkrk FkkA
tks ,d programmer gskrk FkkA ftlds ikl software project dh lHkh information
store jgrh Fkh A ysfdu ;s person bruk vPNk dk;Z lgh djrk FkkA D;ksfd blds
ikl fdlh Hkh izdkj dh information fyf[kr :i esa ugh gksrh FkhA dHkh&dHkh
og vko';d information dks Hkwy tkrk FkkA ftls ckn esa recall ugh fd;k tk ldrk
A ysfdu vktdy repository ,d ,slk database gS tks software engineering esa data
dks store djus dk rFkk vko';drkuqlkj communicate djus dk dk;Z djrk gSA
Software engineer CASE tools dk mi;ksx djds repository ls interect djrs gSA
vkSj mls complete djrs gSA Software engineering information ds fy;s
fofHkUu izdkj ds storage places use fd;s tkrs gSA tSlk fd CASE database,
Project database, Intrigrate Project Support Environment Database (IPSE),
Requirment dictonary (a limited database) and Repository.
ysfdu storage rFkk accumitation fds fy;s bu terms ds chp es dqN
difference gksrs gSA tks bl izdkj gS &

1. The role of the repository I-CASE :-

I CASE environment ds fy;s repository, machanism rFkk data

structures dk set gksrh gSA ftlds }kjk data tools rFkk data intrigration provide
fd;k tkrk gSA blh fd lgk;rk ls database management system esa functions
provide fd;s tkrs gS tks bl izdkj gS &

a. Data Intrigraty.
 b. Information Sharing.
c. Data/tool intrigration.
d. Data/data intrigration.
e. Object Relationship.
f. Document Standardrization.

2. Features & Contents :-

Repository ds features rFkk controls dks vklkuh ls le>us ds fy;s nks
objectives dks le>us dh vko'drk gskrh gS fd repository esa D;k store fd;k tk
jgk gSA vkSj repository ds fy;s dkSu&dkSu lh services provide dh tk jgh gSA
Repository esa fofHkUu izdkj dh information sotre dh tk ldrh gSA ftuds
fuEufyf[kr points Hkh include jgrs gS &
a. The problem to be solved.
b. Information about the problem domain.
c. The system solution asit emerges.
d. Rules and instructions prataining to the software process
(methodology) being followed.
e. The project plan, resources and history.
f. Information about the organization contexts.