SPHERICAL MIRRORS

A spherical mirror is a part of hollow sphere ,whose one side is silvered

and coated with red oxide and other side is the reflecting surface.
Pole- the central point of the reflecting surface of the mirror
Centre of Curvature- the Centre of the sphere of which the mirror
forms a part
Radius of curvature- the radius of sphere of which the mirror forms a
part
Principal axis the straight line joining the pole and the Centre of
curvature of the mirror
Aperture- the diameter of the periphery of the mirror
Focal length the distance of the principal focus from the pole of the
mirror
Focal plane- the plane perpendicular to the principal axis and passing
through the principal focus of the mirror
Note
focus of concave mirror is real and lies infront of the mirror
Focus of convex mirror is virtual and lies behind the mirror
Mirror formula-
the mathematical relation between the object distance and image
distance from the pole of the mirror and the focal length of the mirror
Linear magnification-
The linear magnification produced by a spherical mirror is a ratio of the
size of the image formed by the mirror to the size of the object,both
measured perpendicular to the principal axis .
Note A negative magnification corresponds to real and inverted
image while a positive magnification corresponds to virtual,erect
image.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT A PLANE INTERFACE
Physical signification of refractive index-
1-the value of refractive index gives the information about the
direction of bending of the refracted ray.
2- it gives the ratio of the speed of light in vaccum to that in the
given medium .
Critical angle depends on-
1-nature of two media
2- colour of light
Total internal reflection-
When a ray of light travelling from a denser medium to a rarer
medium is incident at the interface of two media ata n angle
greater than the critical angle for media ,the ray is totally
reflected back in denser medium.
Mirage
It is an optical illusion occurring in deserts and on coal tarred
roads on hut summer days . An object,such as tree ,appears
inverted to a distant observer who gets the wrong impression
the pool of water in which tree is reflected.
Reason- Lear from book .
Brilliancy of diamonds-
Due to small critical angle with respect to air.the refractive
index is 2.42 and the critical angle about 24.The light which
enters the diamond is totally reflected repeatedly at the various
faces f the diamond an emerges only when the angle of
incidence at some face is less than 24 degreeThus all the light
entering the diaond emerges in a few directions only and the
diamond sparkles brilliantly when seen along these directions.
Q- Right angles issoscles prism are frequently used as reflecters of light
in optica instruments . OR totally reflecting prisms hve the following
advantages over plane mirror.
Ans- 1-Reflection occurs at only one surface only and so there are no
multipke omages.
2-nearly 100 percet of the light is reflected
3- There is no silvering to tarnish or wear off.
Optical fibre-
It is a device which transmits light introduced to one end to the
opposite end,with little loss of light through the sides of the fibre.
1-They are used in telephone .
2-A doctor can examine the interior of the stomach and intestine.
REFRACTON OF LIGHT AT SPHERICAL
SURFACES:LENSES
Conves lens-lens which are thicker in the middle and thinner at the
edges.
Concave lens lens which thinner in the middle and thicker at the
edges.
Optical centre-
If a ray of light is incident on a lens such that after refraction through
the lens ,the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.then the point
Atwhich the refracted ray intersects or appers to intersect.
Note Lateral displacement decrease as the the thickness of the lens
decreases.
Fist focus-The rays starting from a fixed point on the principal axis of
the lens,or appearing to go towards a fixed point on the axis,after
refraction through the lens become parallel to the principal axis.
Second fcus-The rays travelling parallel to the axis of he lens,after
refraction through the lens,either go towards a fixed point on the axis
,or appear to come from a point .
The distance of the second focus fron the optical centere of the lens is
called secnd focus or principal focl length.
Note focal length of thin lens is large and that of thick lens is small.
REFER TO CLASS 10 BOOK FOR IMAGE FORMATION BY LENSES AND ITS
RULES.
RFERTO COMBINATION OF LENSES AND MIRRORS FROM BOOK(PG 610)
PRISM
A prism is homogeneous ,transparent medium bounded by two
surfaces,inclined at each other at an angle.
The reason for the dispersion is that ina material medium the light rays
of different colours travels with different speeds.n is different for
different colours of light.
COLUMBS LAW
The value of the elementary charge is so small that we do not
experience the quqntiation of charge in our daily life.
electric charge cannot be divided indefinetely
Importance of columbs law
I helps in explaining the forces which bind electrons with nucleus in an
atom,two or more atoms in a molecule,and several atoms and
molecules in solids and liquids.
ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric line of force is tha imaginary smooth curve drawn in an
electic field along which a free, isolatedpositive charge moves.
The electric line of force do not pass through a conductor.this indicates
that electric field insida a conductor is 0.
In regions, where lines of force are closer ,the electric field is
stronger;lines of force are farther apart,electric field is weaker.
Moment of electric dipole-
It is the torque acting on the dipole placed perpendicular to the dirction
of a uniform electric field of intensity 1 N/C.
GAUSS THEOREM
Electric flux linked with a surface in an electric field ay be defined as ae
surface integral of the electric ield over the surface.
ELCTRIC POTNIAL-
The net work done by a conservative force in a complete round trip is
zero.
If 1 joule of work is done in carrying a test chare of I coulomb from one
point to another point in an electric field then the [potential difference
between these points will be 1 VOLT.
Potential and pd ca be defines onl in a conservative field.
Positive charge always flows from a higher ptenetial to a lower
potetialwhile negative charge always flows from a lower potential to
higher potetntial until potetials become equal.
1-Electric field and electric lines are normal to equipotential surface.
Reason-
There is no potential gradient along any direction parallel to the surface
and so no electric field to the surface(E= -dV/dr=0)
2- In a family of equipotetial surfaces,the sufcaes are closer together
where electric field is stronges and farther apart where the electric field
Is weaker. (dr inversely prortonal to E)
Electric potential energy
It is equal to the work that must be done by a external agent to
assemble the system,bringing in charge from infinity.
Electric properties of a isolated charged conductor
1-the electric filed inside a charged conductor is zero everywhere.
Reason-there is no variation of potential inside a charged conductor.
2- the electric potentials at all ponts inside and on the surface of a
chared conductor is same(reason-equipotential suface)
CAPACITOR
Conductors are those through which an electric charge can easily
pass.human body,earth
Inslators are those through which an electric charge cannot flow.glass
R,plastcs
Insultors are alo called dielectrics becoz dielectrics fail to conduct
electricity.
A CAPACITOR is a pair of two conductors of any shape which are close
to each other and have equal and opposite carges.
Dilectric strength-
It is defined as the maximum value of electric field that it can tolerate
Without its electric breakdown.
Dielectric constant of a conductor Is infinite
REFER TO CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WH
DIELECTRIC SLABS BETWEEM PLATES (161)
A DIELECTRIC is an insulating material in which all the electrons are
tightly bound to the nuclei of the atoms.
Polar diectric molecules-
It is one in one in which centre of gravity of the positive chargesis
separated from the centre of gravity of negative charges by a finite
distance.(permanent electric dipole momemt)
Non polar dielectrics molecules
There are molecules in which centres of positive and negative charges
coincide and so the molecules have zero electric dipole moment,ex-
CO2,N2
To sum up,an electric field produces n a dielectric(non polar or polar) a
net dipolement in the direction of the field .This phenomen I known as
DIELECTRIC POLARISATION or ELECTRIC POLARISATION OF MATTER.
NOTE-
1-When a dielectric slab is introduced across the capacitor plates then
electric field and pd reduced by a factor K( capacitor remains
disconnected with the battery,)
2- When a dielectric slab is introduced across the capacitor plates then
electric field and pd does not change but charges on its plates increases
by a factor K( capacitor remains connected with the battery,)
Uses of capacitor-
In electrical instruments
In storing of charge
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
The charge flowing per second ina na electric circuit is called electric
current
Current density-
It is the ratio of the at that point n the conductor to the area of cross
section of the conductor at rhat point.
NOTE-
If we bend a wire at one or more points the resistance of wire does not
changebcoz resistance of wire determined by mo of fre electrons and
relaxation time and they both does not change
Limitation of oms law
Ohms law holds only for small currents in the metallic wire
Non ohmic-liquid electrolytes ,transistors
1 KILOWATT HOUR OR 1 UNIT is the quantity of electrical energy which
is dissipated in 1 hour ina a circuit when the electric power in the circuit
is 1 kilowatt.
EMF of the cell is directed from negative electrode t positive electrode.
EMF is the characteristic of each cell and its value remains constant for
the cell,while the terminal potential difference goes on decreasing
taking more and more current from yhe cell.
Superirioty of potentiometer over voltmeter
1-potentiometer is equivalent t an ideal voltmeter of infinite resistance
2-for measuring the emf by voltmeter,the deflection in the voltmeter is
to be read.There may be some error in reading the deflection.On the
other hang the potentiometer method is a null method.One has to read
a null point position the wire.In reading the null point Positon there can
be maximum error of 1 mm.
MAGNETI EFFECT OF CURRENT
Oersted found experimentaaly that a magnetic field is established
around current carrying conductor just as it occurs around a
magnet.He coccluded that moving charges produce magnetic field in
the surrounding space.
REFET TO BOOK FOR COMPARISON OF COLOUMBS LAW AND BIO
SAVART LAW (446) ANDMAGNETIC FIED AT THE AXIS OF A
CURRENTCARRYING COIL(449)
The magnetic field within the solenoid is unform and paraalel to the
axis of the solenoid.
Solenoid produces a uniform and known electrcic field.\
PROPERTIES OF DIA-
1- A diamagnetic gas when allowed to ascend in between the poles
of a magnet spreads across the field.
2- In a non uniform magnetic field ,a diamagnetic substances tends
to move from stronger to the weaker part of the magnetic field.
3- Zero magnetic dipole moment
PRP OF PARA AND FERRO-
1-A paramagnetic gas when allowed to ascend in between the
poles of a magnet spreads along the field.
4- In a non uniform magnetic field ,a diamagnetic substances tends
to move from weaker to the stronger part of the magnetic field.
5- Non zero magnetic diple moment
REFER TO BOOK FOR HYSTERIS(432)

AC
An alternating current whose magnitude changes continuously with
time between zero and a maximum value and whose direction reverses
periodically.
The maximum value of the current current in either direction is called
pea value or amplitude of the current
The time taken by the alternating current to complete one cycle of
variatons is called periodic timeof the current
The no. of cycles comleted by an alternating current in one second is
call ferequency of the current
Domestic ac=50hz
The mean value of a AC for a half cycle is 0.637 times of peak value
The root mean square value of an alternating current is defined as the
square of the average of i (ki power2 ) durind a complete cycle,where I
is the instantaneous value of an alternating current.
A diagram representing altenating and alternating voltahe (of same
frequency)as vectors with phase angle is called phasor diagram.