Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Oil spills are devastating for marine life and are often challenging to clean up. Oil spills

can be caused by the accidental or intentional release of any form of petroleum during any

point in the oil production process, from drilling, refining, or storing to transporting. Oil can

be spilled when a pipeline breaks, underground storage tanks leak, or in the current case, when

an oil rig explodes or is damaged. While large oil spills arising from shipping accidents often

make dramatic news, most oil spills are small and originate in or near ports and actually occur

everyday (OBrien, 2006).

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) oil spill statistics for

tankers, for instance, reveal that 80% of all tanker spills are less than 7 tonnes and that 80% of

these arise from operational accidents such as those that might occur during loading,

discharging, and bunkering (OBrien, 2006). There are international compensation regimes

such as the Civil Liability Convention (CLC) and the International Oil Pollution Compensation

Fund (IOPCF) which are available in many countries to compensate for oil pollution damage

caused by tanker spills and these include reasonable response costs (OBrien, 2006). Even

small spills that happen everyday can be exceedingly expensive, sometimes requiring chemical

dispersants (Geuss, 2010).

Virtually every major metropolis of the world has serious marine-pollution problem

and Davao City is not an exception. According to Guia (2012), the Port of Davao consists of a

number of ports, all within the Davao Gulf which is part of the Celebes Sea, but its main office
and seaport is located at Brgy. Sasa, Davao City. SASA Wharf is one of the largest piers in the

port area and the busiest. The Port of Davao is largely dominated by container cargo, raw

materials exportation, bulk cargo, general cargo, and passenger traffic facilities.

Many sources contribute to water pollution, but, in most cities including Davao City,

oil spill is the single largest contributor. When spilled, the various types of oil can affect the

environment differently. They also differ in how hard they are to clean up. Most of the oil

products in the Philippines, specifically in Davao City, are made out of crude oil the rough,

unprocessed form of oil. Crude oil, although they are less toxic, they are thick and gluey and

can smother living creatures. And these oils don't evaporate, so they can remain in the

environment for much longer (Guia, 2012). This type of oil spilled 20 to 25 tons everyday from

the year 2000 to 2016 in the Philippine ports according to ITOPF statistics.

Oil spill happens everyday and is impossible to stop, but there surely is a way to

propagate and reduce it. The proponents desire to help reduce the crude oil spill without using

cleaning materials that are exceedingly expensive paved the way for the creation of this study.

Alternative devices, such as the one centered in this study are some of the ways of helping

marine life.

Statement of the Problem

The goal of this research was to fabricate an alkali-treated crude oil absorbent sponge

using kapok fiber as the main component. Specifically, it aimed to:

1. Design and fabricate a sponge that can reduce the crude oil spillage.

2. Conduct a series of test to the device if it is effective in minimizing the crude oil spill.

3. Compare the results of the three set-ups (raw kapok fiber, kapok sponge, alkali-treated

kapok sponge) and determine if there is a significant difference among the three.
Conceptual Framework

This study is anchored by the research entitled coated kapok fiber for the removal of

spilled oil by Jintao Wang and Aiqin Wang (2013). In addition to the previous research, the

researchers for this study wanted to fabricate a sponge made of kapok fiber. A sponge would

be a better option than raw kapok since it could hold the fibers together and would be sturdier.

As shown in Figure 1, the independent variable of the study is the mass of kapok fiber,

while the dependent variable is the sorption capacity and the reusability of the kapok sponge.

Another variable which will determine the outcome of the study is the chemical coating.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Mass of kapok fiber Sorption Capacity and

Reusability of kapok sponge

Moderator Variable

Chemical Coating

Figure 1. Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

Scope and Delimitation

The study was focused on fabricating kapok fiber sponge and using its unique

properties for the sorption of oil. For this research, sample of raw kapok fiber and sample of a
kapok sponge were prepared. The researchers limited the study on evaluating the effects of

coated kapok sponge and how its sorption capacity and reusability improved by the coating

mechanism.

The boundary of this research was in the vicinity of Davao City, and the sea water

used is within the Davao Gulf Peninsula.

Significance of the Study

The researchers believed that the results of the study would be a great help for future

related researches that would make it to be more productive and may provide better valuable

information which is significant to the following institutions or individuals:

Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE XI). The success of this research

will help the department to provide livelihood program to Davaoeos regarding the production

of the desired product.

Department of Agriculture (DA XI). Cotton Development Administration, under the

Department of Agriculture, will able to further extend the production and use of kapok fiber

(cotton) through making it as primary raw material for bio-absorbent sponge.

Marine Sectors. If the research is proven effective, this will serve as a possible solution

for larger scale of oil spillage not just within the city but also throughout the country.

Future Researchers. The outcome of this study will help the future researchers to

formulate a component for a more effective absorbent capacity of the sponge that will probably

absorb twice or thrice its efficiency.

Definition of Terms
 On this paper, some of the words were given emphasis throughout the study. For better

understanding, the following terms are defined from the Britannica.com (2014):

Kapok Fiber. Kapok (Ceibapentandra), also called Java cotton, ceiba, or Java kapok,

seed-hair fibre obtained from the fruit of the kapok tree or the kapok tree itself. The kapok is a

gigantic tree of the tropical forest canopy and emergent layer. Common throughout the tropics,

the kapok is native to the New World and to Africa and was transported to Asia, where it is

cultivated for its fiber or floss.

Crude Oil. A naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed of

hydrocarbon deposits and other organic materials. A type of fossil fuel, crude oil can be refined

to produce usable products such as gasoline, diesel and various forms of petrochemicals. It is

a nonrenewable resource, which means that it can't be replaced naturally at the rate we consume

it and is therefore a limited resource.

Oil Spill. The release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,

especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is

usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but

spills may also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers,

offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such

as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel,

or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

Seawater. Water that makes up the oceans and seas, covering more than 70 percent of

Earths surface. Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5 percent water, 2.5 percent salts, and

smaller amounts of other substances, including dissolved inorganic and organic materials,

particulates, and a few atmospheric gases.

 Sponge. A tool or cleaning aid consisting of soft, porous material. Usually used for

cleaning impervious surfaces, sponges are especially good at absorbing water and water-based

solutions.

Bio-absorbent. Also called organic absorbents made from organic, sustainable or

recycled resources and are ideal for bio-degrading at a suitable and approved land farm facility

to minimize disposal costs. Most organic absorbent are hydrophobic and therefore are oil and

fuel absorbents.

Oleophilic. Having or relating to strong affinity for oils and or readily absorbing oil.

Hydrophobic. Comes from the Greek roots hydro- (meaning water) and -phobia

(meaning fearing or hating). The word hydrophobic describes that fact that nonpolar substances

don't combine with water molecules.

Alkali Treatment. One of the simplest and most effective surface modification

techniques which is widely used in natural fiber composites. In the present study, both

untreated and alkali treated short fibers (after grinding) were used as reinforcement in

unsaturated polyester resin composites.

Sodium Hydroxide. Also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound

with formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting of sodium cations Na+

and hydroxide anions OH. Sodium hydroxide is used in many scenarios where it is desirable

to increase the alkalinity of a mixture, or to neutralize acids. It is also a key component of the

white liquor solution used to separate lignin from cellulose fiber.

Sodium Sulfate. Also known as sulfate of soda, is the inorganic compound with

formula Na2SO4 as well as several related hydrates. This helps in leveling reducing negative

charges on fibers so that dyes can penetrate evenly.

 Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter includes the ideas, finished thesis, generalizations or conclusions,

methodologies and others. Those that were included in this chapter helps in familiarizing

information that are relevant and similar to the present study.

Kapok Fiber as Oil Absorbent

Kapok (Ceiba pentandra), is a tropical tree of the order Malvales and the family

Malvaceae which is abundant in nature. Kapok tree bears 1000 to 2000 pods annually (Narahari

and AshaRajini, 2003). The wax layer on its hair-like fiber surface possesses excellent

hydrophobic-oleophilic (oil-loving) characteristics that draw oil out of water (Wang et al.,

2012a, b,c, 2013a,b,c,d). According to Ali N et al. (2012), the researchers of Department of

Chemical Engineering in Perak, Malaysia, kapok fiber shows overwhelmingly high oil to water

sorption (O/W) ratios ranging from 19.35 to 201.53. This suggests that kapok fiber is a highly

effective oil sorbent even in well mixed oil-water media.

Kapok fiber is a highly lignified organic seed fiber and mainly consists of cellulose,

lignin and xylan (Fengel and Przyklenk, 1986; Gao et al., 2012). The chemical composition of

kapok fiber varies in different reports. One study found that kapok fiber was chemically

composed of 64% cellulose, 13% lignin, and 23% pentosan on a weight basis (Kobayashi et

al., 1977), while another found that kapok fiber was comprised of 35% cellulose, 21.5% lignin,

and 22% xylan, with a high ratio of syringyl/guaiacyl units (46) and a high level of acetyl

groups (13.0%) as compared with normal plant cell walls (about 2% 4%) (Chung et al., 2008;

Hori et al., 2000). The differences might be related to the differences in kapok sources and
processing techniques. The crystallization degree of kapok fiber has been determined to be

35.90%, the specific birefringence is 0.017, and the bulk density is 0.30 g/cm3 , considering its

large lumen (Xiao et al., 2005a).

Kapok fiber is composed of two major layers with differing microfibrillar orientations.

The outer layer is composed of cellulose microfibrils oriented transversely to the fiber axis,

whereas the inner layer is composed of fibrils oriented nearly parallel to the fiber axis (Nilsson

and Bjrdal, 2008). Optical microscopy and SEM observation found that kapok fiber shows a

cylindrical shape, a surface without texture and thickening groins at the ends (Fengel and

Wenzkowski, 1986). The surface of kapok fiber is smooth with a thick layer of wax, and the

cross-section is oval to round with large lumen and thin wall (ca. 810 m in diameter and ca.

0.81.0 m in wall thickness) (Mwaikambo and Bisanda, 1999; Chung et al., 2008). This

hollow structure differentiates the kapok fiber from other natural fibers and endows it with a

porosity of more than 80% (Xiang et al., 2013). As another unicellular fiber, cotton fiber shows

a compressed ribbon-like morphology, rolling in a helicoidal manner around the axis (Chung

et al., 2008)

Chemical Treatment

Chemical treatment can give rise to continuous covalent bonds between the fiber

surface and a matrix, or create some new binding sites according to the structure and

characteristics of the reacting species. One of the most common and efficient methods of

chemical treatment is alkali treatment of the fibers, which has been used to treat almost all

natural fibers with successful results (John and Anandjiwala, 2008). Alkali treatment of kapok

fiber was originally used to remove lignin, pectin, wax and natural oils covering the outer

surface of the fiber, which consequently improves its surface and mechanical properties for

polymer applications (Wahi et al., 2013; Reddy et al., 2009).

 Sodium hydroxide is the most commonly used chemical for bleaching and/or cleaning

the surface of kapok fiber. Alkali treatment has no obvious effect on the chemical composition

of cellulose, but leads to an increase in the amount of amorphous cellulose at the expense of

crystalline cellulose, changing the fine structure of the native cellulose I to cellulose II by a

process known as alkalization (mercerization) (Liu and Wang, 2009, 2011).

Furthermore, alkalization of kapok fiber changes the surface topography of the fiber

(Mwaikambo and Ansell, 2002). For NaOH-treated kapok fiber, small fibrils, broken holes and

shallow pits can be observed on its surface, while the raw kapok fiber exhibits a smooth surface,

indicating the removal of surface wax from the kapok fiber and subsequent exposure of

hydrophilic hydroxyl groups, which is advantageous in fibermatrix adhesion, as it facilitates

both mechanical interlocking and bonding reactions to chemicals such as resins and dyes

(Mwaikambo and Ansell, 2002). Data has shown that after 8 hr of alkali treatment, 26.3%

reduction in sorption capacity for a model oil was observed as compared to the raw kapok fiber

(Abdullah et al., 2010). Kapok fiber is treated with 0.025 M of NaOH or 1000 ppm. NaOH

solution with 1000 ppm or below is safe for skin contact and enough for kapok fiber treatment

(Tye et al., 2012). That is, care must be exercised in selecting the concentration of NaOH for

alkalization of kapok fiber (Liu and Wang, 2011).

Foreign

Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energys (DOE) Argonne National Laboratory

have invented a sponge that also aims to absorb oil underwater. They started out with an alkali-

treated polyurethane foam, a foam used in everything from furniture cushions to home

insulation. Seth Darling, a scientist with Argonnes Center for Nanoscale Materials and a

fellow of the University of Chicagos Institute for Molecular Engineering and co-inventor of

the sponge explained that Argonne scientists tested the materials performance in a pool filled
with saltwater in New Jersey. The team placed a 4-inch wide square arrays of the sponge foam

in a 5-gallon clear tank contained a mixture of 9 liters of crude oil and 9 liters of seawater.

Used sponges can be simply wrung out to be reused and the oil itself recovered. Tests showed

that the sponge did successfully collect both crude oil and diesel from the water column.

Methods for Oil Spill Clean-up

Oil spill is a result of human activity wherein oil is leaked from ships, shore facilities,

pipelines and offshore platforms (Farrington, et al., 2004). Contrary to what is believed by

many, automobiles, boats, industrial plants, and machinery were among the largest contributors

of oils spills rather than tankers and ships that carry large amounts of oil. Consequently it gets

into the ocean where it destroys marine ecosystems. There are many factors that affect the

severity of oil spills, it includes spillage, quantity of oil, and the effects of waves (Effects of

Oil Spills on Wildlife and Habitat, 2004).

Since oil does not dissolve in water, it goes through a biological, physical and chemical

process called weathering(Farrington, et al., 2004). Weathering degrades oil through natural

mechanisms produced by sunlight, tidal waves, water temperature, and bacteria. As oil

contaminates shallow water, it mixes with mud and other substances and accumulates on the

bottom. This results to longer years of deterioration of oil causing massive problems to marine

life that comes in contact with contaminated materials.

One of the biggest oil spills is the British Petroleum (BP) oil spill of 2010 where 4.9

million barrels of crude oil were spilt in the Gulf of Mexico. According to Time, dead

invertebrates like starfish like starfish and corals were found accounting to thousands. These

marine organisms play a vital role in the ecosystems they live in, thus affecting many other

marine populations. Dolphin offspring were also found along the Gulf coast and oyster beds

were destroyed which would take up a decade for its population to reach its maximum number.
 In 1989, Exxon Valdez oil spill was as devastating as that of Mexico. BBC News

reported that the oil spill killed as many as 250,000 sea birds, 2,800 sea otters, 250 bald eagles,

300 harbor seals, and 22 killer whales, as well as a number of herring and salmons (World:

Americas Exxon Valdez: Ten Years on, 1999).

Not only did oil spill kill many sea dwellers but it also affected those that survived. Oil

can change feeding habitats of some invertebrates. It also disrupts shell development and cause

slow suffocation. Moreover, those invertebrates that live in the bottom are highly at risk when

oil accumulates at the shoreline (Effects of Oil Spill on Wildlife and Habitat, 2004). Although,

many of these bottom-dwellers can actually survive, they however cause harm to organism that

eat them leading to higher toxin concentrations.

There are numerous natural processes that degrade oil; however, human efforts are

needed for damage prevention in the long-run. Here are the methods used for oil spill cleanup

at sea

Booms

Booms are floating, physical barriers to oil, made of plastic, metal, or other materials,

which slow the spread of oil and keep it contained. Skilled personnel use booms using mooring

systems, like anchors and land lines. Booms are commonly placed across a narrow entrance to

the ocean. Streams and small inlet are the common place where booms can be seen. This is to

prevent oil from entering the marshland or other habitat. It could also be found on nesting

habitats like shellfish beds.

Sorbents

Oils sorbents comprise a wide range of organic, inorganic and synthetic products

designed to recover oil in preference to water. Their composition and configuration depends

upon what materials are used what they are used for (Use of Sorbent Materials in Oil Spill

Response). Generally, the most effective use of sorbents is in the final stages of retrieval of oil
on the shore-line and for the recovery of small pools of oil that are not recovered using other

techniques.

For a material to be a sorbent, it must be able to attract oil preferentially to water, thus,

it should oleophilc and hydrophobic. Sorbent materials act in two ways; by adsorption or less

commonly, by absorption. In adsorption, oil is preferentially attracted to the surface of the

material used whereas absorbent incorporate the oil, or other liquid to be recovered into the

body of the material. Most products available for oil spill cleanup are adsorbents, just a few are

true absorbents.

Burning In-Situ

In-situ burning is the term given to the process of burning floating oil at sea, at or close

to the site of a spill. For the oil to be burned, it must be concentrated first before applying

ignition source. By burning oil at the sea, it could potentially remove large amounts of oil from

the surface of the sea. Burning the oil at the sea undergoes a complex process. The resultant

fire and the smoke have great effect to human health and therefore this technique is more

suitable for use offshore or away from the populated area. Oils condition must also be taken

into consideration, since the oil weathers, it may lose its lighter oil fraction through evaporation

and the oil may start to form an emulsion. Both these processes make the oil hard to be burned.

Given the many factors to be considered, the decision-making process for the in-situ burning

is best addressed during the contingency planning process.

Dispensers

This method involves using fertilizers to disperse the oil spillage in the water. Even

though the method sounds and looks unconventional, it is one of the highly recommended oil

spill cleanup methods. The fertilizers help to hasten the growth of micro-organisms which help

to diffuse the components of the oil spilt in the water.

Skimming
 As the name suggests, skimming involves the removal of the oil spillage with the help

of tools and equipments from the surface of the water. The most important aspect to be noted

that only lighter oils can be separated and removed from the water in this method of cleaning

up oil spills. This is because the density of oil will tend to be lighter than the density of water.

Natural Methods

The simplest method of dealing with the oil spill cleanup operation is to make use of

the components of nature like the sun, the wind, the weather and the tides. The particles of the

oil spill, in due course of time evaporate because of the constancy of these elements. This also

forms the most cost efficient and the slowest method of cleaning up oil spills.

With the help of these methods of oil spill cleanup, the task and its hugeness do not

affect the optimism of the person. Just like one makes use of the broom, these methods are

adopted to clean affected and problematic areas at a much higher level. However it can be

hoped that since many shipping companies are getting aware of the risks and problems caused

to the oceanic atmosphere, the requirement of such oil spill cleanup methods will reduce in the

days to come (MI News Network: Marine Environment, 2013).

Crude Oil

The word "petroleum" or known as crude oil means "rock oil" or "oil from the earth"

(EIA , 2005). Mankind has known crude oil or petroleum since the dawn of civilization. It

was used in ancient Persia and Burma, particularly as fuel for lamps. Burning of the natural

gas (escaping from petroleum underground) gave the perpetual fire at Baba Gurgur in Iraq

(Arene and Kitwood, 1979).

Uses of Crude Oil

 Crude oil has two main uses. The first is as a fuel. Crude oil has been a source of energy

for heating, lighting and locomotion and particularly the most convenient fuel for the internal

combustion engine. This use has increased rapidly in importance with the coming of the motor

car and a wide range of other applications of internal combustion engine (Bankole and

Ogunkoya, 1978). The second use of crude oil is the synthesis of organic compounds. By

1965, about 80% of the world organic chemicals were synthesized from crude oil. This figure

rose to 98% in 1980 and 99% in the year 2000. Commercially important ones include gasoline

and kerosene (Arene and Kitwood, 1979).

The Origin of Crude Oil

Nelson (1954) wrote on two believable schools of thought on the origin and formation

of petroleum. The older one, "organic matter theory", suggests that crude oil was formed from

the decomposition of dead marine organisms, like plankton. Compounds (e.g., fats) which

are very similar to hydrocarbons and even traces of certain hydrocarbons themselves, are

present in virtually all forms of plant and animal life. The theory is supported by the finding

that very recent marine deposits (10,000 to 15,000 years old) contain hydrocarbon and

asphaltic material. Besides, there is a similarity between the molecular structures of some of

the minor constituents of crude oil and those of compounds found in living organisms. Again,

it is hard to see where else the carbon content of crude oil could have come from other than

biological material, if indeed its origin is geologically fairly recent.

Also, supporting this view, Arene and Kitwood (1979) submit that crude oil occurs

naturally in sedimentary rocks. It had collected into small pools from seepage from

underground. Aligning with this claim, EIA (2005) states that crude oil was formed from the

remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago in a marine (water) environment
before the dinosaurs. About 300-400 million years ago, tiny sea plants and animals died and

were buried on the ocean floor. Over time, layers of silt and sand covered them. About 50-

100 million years ago, the remains were buried deeper and deeper and covered by layers of

mud. The enormous heat and pressure from these layers turned the remains into crude oil and

gas. Today, drilling down through the layers of silt, sand and rock help to reach the rock

formations that contain crude oil and gas deposits. The challenge for the theory is accounting

for the enormity of crude oil deposits. For such a vast amount of crude oil to be formed, the

marine organisms would have to be abundant over several million years. Another challenge

is accounting for the accumulation of the oil in large deposits. For this to happen, the

dispersed droplets of crude oil must have migrated a very long distance. But, it is doubtful

whether a mechanism within the conditions and time-span favored this.

The Nature and Composition of Crude Oil

Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and is usually found in underground areas,

called reservoirs (EIA , 2005). Bankole and Ogunkoya (1978), Hobson (1973), Sweeney

(1950), Sachanen (1945), McCain (1970), Shreve and Brink (1977) and Arene and Kitwood

(1979) have observed that crude oil consists mainly of a mixture of gaseous, liquid and solid

hydrocarbons. Some crude oils have sulphur-containing compounds, including the thiol

(mercaptans), such as ethanethiol (C2H5SH) and cyclic sulphides, such as the thiophen

derivatives (e.g., tetrahydrothiophen and benzothiophen). Others also contain organic

nitrogen compounds. The nitrogen is usually present in complex ring structures, such as

carbazole:
 Again, some crude oils contain small amounts of organic acid, whose molecules have

the carbonyl group (-COOH) (e.g., benzenecarboxylic acid). Besides, some crude oils contain

traces of phenol-type compounds, in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is directly attached to a

benzene ring (e.g., phenol):

Shreve and Brink (1977), Nelson (1958), Rossine (1947), Sweeney (1950) and Arene and

Kitwood (1979) have noted that crude oil is a highly complex mixture, the main constituents

being compounds (gases, liquids and solid) of hydrocarbons (11-15% hydrogen and 83-87%

carbon) which are classified as alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. Crude oil is a viscous

mobile liquid mixed with water and sand. Its appearance ranges from colorless to green-black.

Crude oils vary in density between 0.78 and 1.00 gcm-3.

Alkanes make up 90% of most crude oils. They are compounds of hydrogen and carbon

only. Some alkanes have straight chain, e.g., pentane (Arene and Kitwood, 1979):

Others have branched chains, e.g., 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (iso-octane) (Arene and Kitwood,

1979) :
 Straight-chain alkanes are undesirable in petrol, but desirable in kerosenes and diesel

fuels. Also, the straight-chain alkanes are preferred for the manufacture of detergents and for

the bacteriological production of protein (Eneh, 2000).

Cycloalkanes are ring-structure hydrocarbons with single bonding only, e.g., cyclopentane,

cyclohexane, etc:

Aromatics have molecules containing the ring structure characteristic of benzene, e.g.

benzene, ethylbenzene, 1,2-dimethylbenzene, naphthalene and biphenyl (Arene and

Kitwood, 1979):
Crude Oil and the Environment

Even though crude oil products make life easier by their use in fueling airplanes, cars,

trucks, cooking stoves and other applications in combustion engines, as well as in heating our

homes, using them can cause environmental problems, like air and water pollution. When

crude oil products are burned as fuel, they give off carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas

that is linked with global warming. The use of crude oil products also gives off pollutants-

Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides, particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons-that

pollute the air humans breathe. Since a lot of air pollution comes from cars and trucks, many

environmental laws have been aimed at changing the make-up of gasoline and diesel fuel so

that they produce fewer emissions. These "reformulated fuels" are much cleaner burning than

gasoline and diesel fuel was in 1990. In the next few years, the amount of sulphur contained

in gasoline and diesel fuel will be reduced dramatically so that they can be used with new,

less-polluting again technology (USDE, 1999).

Exploring and drilling for oil may disturb land and ocean habitats. A study on

assessment of the impact of oil exploration activities on agriculture and natural resources in

the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria showed that oil exploration activities adversely impacted

specifically on soil/land resources, aquatic life/fisheries, water resources, crops, livestock and

forests/vegetation. Oil spills have degraded most agricultural lands, reduced the availability

of fish and fish products, caused the pollution of surface and ground water resources,

destruction of arable and tree crops and death of farm animals in the region as a result of toxic

materials in the soil and polluted water. Oil exploration activities have also resulted in the

disappearance of some forest vegetation and animal species, including primates, fish, turtles
and birds. The ultimate result of these impacts is a drastic reduction in farm productivity and

animal farm income (Ugwu, 2009; Eneh, 2000; Tabieh and Al-Horani, 2010; Al-Turki, 2010).

New technologies have greatly reduced the number and size of areas disturbed by

drilling, sometimes called "footprints." Satellites, global positioning systems, remote sensing

devices and 3-D and 4-D seismic technologies, make it possible to discover oil reserves while

drilling fewer wells. Again, the use of horizontal and directional drilling makes it possible for

a single well to produce oil from much bigger areas. Today's production footprints are only

about one-fourth the size of those of 30 years ago, due to the development of movable drilling

rigs and smaller "slimhole" drilling rigs. When the oil in a well is gone, the well must be

plugged below ground, although its soil fertility is gone. As part of the "rig-to-reefs" program,

some old offshore rigs are toppled and left on the sea floor to become artificial reefs that

attract fish and other marine life. Within six months to a year after a rig is toppled, it becomes

covered with barnacles, coral, sponges, clams and other sea creatures (USDE, 1999).

If oil is spilled into rivers or oceans it can harm wildlife. Oil spills can come from

natural oil seeps from the ocean floor, ships that crash, or leaks that happen when crude oil

products are used on land, such as the gasoline that sometimes drips onto the ground when

people are filling their gas tanks, motor oil that gets thrown away after an oil change, or fuel

that escapes from a leaky storage tank. When it rains, the spilled products get washed into the

gutter and eventually go to rivers and the ocean. Another way that oil sometimes gets into

water is when fuel is leaked from motorboats and jet skis (USDE, 1999).

When a leak in a storage tank or pipeline occurs, crude oil products can also get into

the ground. In some places where gasoline has leaked from storage tanks, one of the gasoline

ingredients, called Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE), has made its way into local water
supplies. Since MTBE makes water taste bad and many people are worried about drinking it,

a number of states are banning the use of MTBE in gasoline and the refining industry is

voluntarily moving away from using it when blending reformulated gasoline. To prevent

leaks from underground storage tanks, all buried tanks are supposed to be replaced by tanks

with a double lining (USDE, 1999).

Why does Crude Oil Spills

A book publish by Thompson, Andrea (2013) entitled The Science and History of Oil

Spills, it briefly discusses that this is because there are a lot of tricky steps to get oil from

inside the Earth to inside, say, gas tank. Oil spills can be caused by the accidental or

intentional release of any form of petroleum during any point in the oil production process,

from drilling, refining, or storing to transporting. Oil can be spilled when a pipeline breaks,

ships collide or are underground storage tanks leak, or in the current case, when an oil rig

explodes or is damaged.

Oil spills can also happen naturally. Oil is released into the ocean from natural oil

seeps on the seafloor. The best known such seep is Coal Oil Point along the California coast

where an estimated 2,000 to 3,000 gallons (7,570 to 11,400 liters) of crude oil is released

each day.

Thus, crude oil can spread very rapidly unless it is quickly contained by a boom (a large

floating barrier that can round up and lift the oil out of the water) or other mechanism.

Crude Oil Spills Effects in Wildlife

Oil slicks, a film or layer of oil floating on an expanse of water, especially one that has

leaked or been discharged from a ship, affect wildlife by coating their bodies in the water-

repelling gunk. Since it floats, all sorts of marine animals, even birds, can take a hit. And fish
sometimes mistake the floating slick for food and so are attracted to it, according to the

Australian Maritime Safety Authority. ( Thompson, 2013)

When birds' feathers get coated with oil, they lose their ability to trap air and repel

water, meaning the animals can't maintain body heat. The result: hypothermia. Marine

animals, such as sea otters, which depend on their clean fur coats to stay warm, can also

become hypothermic, according to the Oiled Wildlife Care Network. ( Thompson, 2013)

Crude Oil Spill

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, 1.3 million gallons (4.9 million liters) of

crude oil are spilled into U.S. waters from vessels and pipelines in a typical year. A major oil

spill could easily double that amount.

Between 1971 and 2000, the U.S. Coast Guard identified more than 250,000 oil spills

in U.S. waters, according to a 2002 report from the U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals

Management Service.

Approximately 1.7 billion gallons (6.4 billion liters) of oil were lost as a result of tanker

incidents from 1970 to 2009, according to International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation

Limited, which collects data on oil spills from tankers and other sources.

Crude Oil Spilled Caused by Rigs and Tankers

Tanker accidents have accounted for most of the world's largest oil spills. They are less

frequent than other kinds of oil spills, such as pipeline breaks, but typically involve large

volumes of spilled oil relative to other kinds of oil spills.

 Between 1971 and 2000, tankers and barges were responsible for 45 percent of the

volume of oil spilled in U.S. waters, according to a 2002 U.S. Department of the Interior

Minerals Management Service report.

In that same period, pipelines were responsible for 16 percent of the volume of oil

spilled in U.S. waters. This includes both onshore and offshore pipelines, though onshore

spills accounted for most of the pipeline spillage into U.S. waters 92 percent or more in

each decade. (Eneh, 2011)

Between 1971 and 2000, U.S. Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) offshore facilities and

pipelines accounted for only 2 percent of the volume of oil spilled in U.S. waters. ( Eneh,

2011)

The amount of oil from different types of spills can vary from year to year.

Oil Spill in the Philippines

The oil tanker M/T Solar I, carrying more than two million liters of bunker fuel, sank

on August 11, 2006 at the Guimaras Strait off the coast of the Guimaras and Negros

Occidental provinces, causing some 500,000 liters of oil to pour into the strait. ( BBC NEWS,

2006 )

A lot has already been reported and said about the recent oil spill which has now

adversely affected marine sanctuaries and mangrove reserves in three out of five

municipalities in Guimaras Island and reached the shores of Iloilo and Negros Occidental. It

is heartbreaking that the oil spill occurred in the Visayas Sea which is considered a rich

fishing ground that supplies most of the fisheries demand for the entire country. (NDCC,
August 2006). Oil spills inhibit the growth of phytoplankton which are the primary source of

food for all marine life (Castro and Huber, 2000). Oil clogs the gills of fishes and the filtering

structure of benthic organisms such as oysters and clams. Feeding and reproduction are also

hindered and these organisms become susceptible to diseases. Its effects on corals are swollen

tissues, excessive production of mucus and tissue degeneration. For marine birds and

mammals, such as whales and dolphins, their insulation and buoyancy are affected since their

feathers and fur become matted and soaked with oil (Sumich, 2000).

The spill has damaged Taklong Island National Marine Reserve, a marine sanctuary

and feeding and breeding ground for fish and other species. ( BBC NEWS, 2006)

Another oil spill disaster hit the Philippines when a leak in an underwater pipeline of Petron

Corp. poured 500,000 liters of diesel into the waters of Manila Bay. It affected four towns in

Cavite, the most populous province in the Philippines located south of Manila.

The Cavite oil spill is a grim reminder of Petrons dirty record. According to reports,

Petron also caused an oil spill in the same area three years ago. The company also caused the

worst oil spill disaster in the countrys history seven years ago. Exactly seven years after the

worst maritime oil disaster in the Philippines caused by Petron in the province of Guimaras,

the same oil giant has caused a repeat performance in Manila Bay with yet another oil spill

affecting several towns in Cavite province. Its the same story over again: fish and shellfish

kills, affected coral reefs, and immediate impacts on the health and livelihood of coastal

communities. (Kalikasan PNE, 2009)

 Chapter III

METHODOLOGY

This section presents the research design, research instruments, research procedures,

and statistical research data.

Research Design

In this study, the experimental research design will be used. This is an experiment

where the researchers manipulate one variable and control the rest of the variables. It has

a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups, and the

researchers only test one effect at a time. This is used in this research to modify which absorbent

is the most effective by having three containers containing crude oil-seawater mixture and

letting the raw kapok, untreated kapok sponge and treated kapok sponge absorb the crude oil

respectively.

Research Instrument

The researchers will use the following materials to conduct the study: raw kapok fiber,

sodium sulphate crystals, cellulose derived from wood pulp, sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

solution, bleach (?), treatment thing (?), seawater, crude oil, measuring cups or cylinders,

distilled water, mallet (? For pangdokdok sa kapok), water table or basin, container, and hand

mixer.

General Experimental Process

The following procedures will be conducted by the researchers:

Step 1: Preparation of Materials

 Raw kapok fibers will be collected in batch from the kapok tree. About _____ will be

enough to make a ______(unsa kadako nga) sponge. Cellulose will be extracted from wood

pulp.

All containers that will be used will be washed by distilled water in order to prevent

contamination.

Sodium sulfate crystals and sodium hydroxide solution will be obtained from Chem

Vest Commercial Trading, Co Bldg., Ramon Magsaysay Avenue, D Suazo Street, Barangay

30-C, Davao City, 8000 Davao del Sur.

Step 2:

After the preparation of materials, kapok fibers will be pounded until it will be softer

in order to easily mix it with other materials. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution will be

concentrated to 0.025M by mixing the solution to distilled water in a 0.002:1 ratio in liters.

NaOH solution with 0.025M concentration is safe for skin contact and enough for kapok fiber

treatment.

Step 3: Mixing and Heating

The cellulose, kapok fiber and sodium sulphate crystals are then placed in a container

to blend the ingredients. When the mixture is thoroughly mixed by the mixer, the pasty mixture

is then poured into a mold and heated. The heat melts the sodium sulphate crystals, which flow

to the bottom, where the liquid is removed. The pores or gaps left from the melted crystals form

the familiar structure we see in finished sponges. The size of the crystals determines the size

of the pores and the eventual use of the sponge. Large pores are used to make big sponges for

washing cars, walls, and floors, while finely perforated material can be sold for beauty and art

applications.
Step 4:

The material, a hard block, next must be softened and cleaned. The blocks are first

soaked in bleach to remove impurities and to ensure consistent coloring.

Step 5: Repetition

Next, repeated soaking and rinsing in clean water completes the process, leaving the

sponge material pliable and ready for drying and cutting.

Step 6: Mixing Crude Oil and Seawater

Crude oil about four liters and seawater about six liters will be mix into the basin to

obtain a hydrophobic mixture.

Step 7: Testing the Kapok sponge and Comparing it to other Variables

By then, to test the effectiveness of treated kapok sponge in absorbing the crude oil, it

will be put inside the basin containing the crude oil-seawater mixture. Likewise, raw kapok

and untreated kapok sponge will also be tested to another water table containing the said

mixture respectively. The crude oil that will be absorbed by both variables will be measured in

a cylinder or measuring cup. Several trials will be conducted until such time no crude oil will

be observed.

Statistical Analysis

Data obtained will then be presented to the universitys statistician for proper statistical

interpretation in accordance with the research objectives.