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Art of War for Teachers

by David McLachlan Jeffrey
American University of Sharjah, Intensive English ProgramSharjah, United Arab Emirates

Abstract

The Art of War, an ancient Chinese military classic by Master Sun Tzu, remains decidedly relevant in our contemporary world. This
is due to its Taoist-based strategies aimed at conflict resolution, making it adaptable to competitive situations beyond the
battlefield. Competition and conflict in our present time call for a working knowledge of applying its strategic principles to
adversity. This has been done to some extent in the areas of business and sport, but not yet to the needs of contemporary
educators whose .battle ground. is one where success relies on negotiation, conflict resolution and problem solving. A key
principle of The Art of War is candid self-knowledge. Teacher diary studies are an effective means of acquiring self-knowledge,
given that they are accounts of sincere thoughts. Undertaking a teacher diary based on the Five Fundamentals of planning in The
Art of War was helpful in bridging the gap between an aesthetic understanding of this classic and its practical application to the
challenges faced by teachers.

Acknowledgement:All translations of Sun Tzu's words in this paper are from the core text translation of The Art of War by
Minford (2003).

1 The Art of War for TeacherThe Art of War was written by Master Sun Tzu 2 500 years ago during the turbulent Spring and
Autumn period of China.s history. It is a military classic, and perhaps the first ever written. It continues to have an immense
influence on decision-making today, not only in the military but in the competitive areas of sports and business. This is by virtue
of its Taoist foundation, and its understanding of how the weak can overcome the strong.

The Art of War advocates judicious strategic planning and positioning for the resolution of conflict. Sun Tzu stressed that
reaching strategic objectives without fighting was superior to direct battle, and said:

The skilful strategist defeats the enemy without doing battle, captures the enemy without laying siege, and overthrows the enemy
state without protracted war. (p. 16)

Given the adaptability of The Art of War to competitive situations beyond the combat zone, it follows that this classic also has
wide-ranging professional and strategic benefits for teachers. Success for teachers depends not on open confrontation but on
conflict-resolution through negotiation and problem solving. Teachers face much competition and adversity in their professional
lives. Essentially, adversity for teachers is anything that prevents them providing the students with anything less than an excellent
education. Confrontational approaches to overcome adversity require no special skill, but overcoming adversity without conflict
requires superlative skill.

Credible reflective research has been undertaken on applying Taoist principles to education (Nagel, 1994). However, the
adaptability of The Art of War specifically for teachers remains a scantly researched area. Therefore, it was decided that a teacher

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diary study would serve as an appropriate means of providing the required guideposts along the way to the application of The Art
of War to education.

2 A Teacher Diary Study to Apply The Art of WarBailey (1990), Nunan (1992) and Bell (1993) are notable linguists who
acknowledged the benefits of teacher diary studies, as well as their wide-ranging applications for the professional development
of teachers.

Teacher diaries are written accounts of experiences that teachers encounter, not only with students in the classroom, but also
within the broader context of their work, such as the administration, colleagues and the wider professional, even personal,
environment.

The entries are examined for recurring patterns for insights that can lead to advances in professional development. In addition,
these studies are an effective and thorough means of attaining a balanced self-perspective, and give teachers the courage to
challenge previously held opinions that, due to their rigidity, limit the deployment of appropriate strategy to cope with adversity.

An important principle of The Art of War is candid self-knowledge. It is viewed as an indispensible prerequisite to planning before
embarking on any mission. Traditional Chinese philosophers believed that our greatest enemy is ourselves, and that the main
battle rages within. Indeed, Sun Tzu said that knowing oneself was as important as knowing the enemy, and said:

Know the enemy, know yourself and victory is never in doubt, not in a hundred battles. He who knows self but not the enemy will
suffer one defeat for every victory. He who knows neither self nor enemy will fail in every battle. (p. 19)

The more sincere and frank the entries of the diary study, the better they will serve towards the candidness of the self-awareness
derived which, in turn, greatly enhance the effectiveness of applying principles from The Art of War to the professional life of the
teacher.

2.1 Where to Start: The Five FundamentalsThe Art of War is a short book of 13 Chapters, and can be read in a few hours. On the
surface, its concepts are not difficult to understand. Yet these concepts require considerable contemplative reflection to pass
from a superficial to a deeper understanding of their philosophical depths. This is a prerequisite to applying The Art of War
successfully to practice.

In the first chapter, Sun Tzu said:victory belongs to the side that scores most in the temple calculations before battle(p. 8). As a
result, the first chapter is devoted entirely to the strategic essentials of thorough planning before embarking on a mission. This is
the core around which The Art of War evolves because these planning concepts re-appear more intricately in various strategic
themes throughout the text.

Sun Tzu believed that battles should ideally be won off the battlefield, before they even need to be fought. He outlined Five
Fundamentals for strategic assessments to avoid the costly miscalculations that lead to war. These are: (1) The Way (moral
influence), (2) Heaven (change), (3) Earth (terrain and resources), (4) Command (leadership), and (5) Discipline (logistics). He
added:

Every commander is aware of these Five Fundamentals. He who grasps them wins; he who fails to grasp them loses (pp. 3 . 4).

These Five Fundamentals were chosen as prompts for this diary study, as a guide for the entries. They were written on paper
which was laminated, and carried with me to keep my thoughts focused on them during the two weeks that the diary entries were
made.

The diary consisted of two distinct tasks. The first was to type the entries into a computer over a two-week period, while the
second was to analyze the entries. Typing the entries was mostly done after class while the memories of what happened were still
fresh. However, since the diary entries also included aspects beyond the classroom, a notebook was kept to jot down any
thoughts that crossed my mind at any time (which included midnights, and the early morning hours) so that they would not be
forgotten, and were then added to the entries.

Sifting through thousands of entries to find recurring thought patterns for the revelation of insights was no easy task. Entries
were copied-and-pasted into the categories pertaining to the Five Fundamentals and closely examined for trends. The
WordSmith Tools Concordance Program (Scott, 1997), computer software employed in studying corpora, was used, and found to
be invaluable.

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Eventually, after another month of reflection, a clearer understanding of the application of this classic to myself as a teacher, and
to the field of education in general, was attained. The last phase of this study entailed writing this paper as a summary of these
insights.

Further elaboration of the theoretical background and specifics of this teacher diary study have been omitted so as not to detract
from its essential purpose of relating the insights to readers and to save space. Also, only one excerpt has been placed within
each of the five sections. If readers wish to have access to these omissions, please feel free to contact the author, who will
provide them to you.

3 Insights Based on the Five FundamentalsThe following are the main insights gained from the teacher diary study within the
parameters of Five Fundamentals:

3.1 The Way (Moral Influence)The Way causes men to be of one mind with their rulers, to live or die with them, and never to
waiver. Sun Tzu (p. 4)

The Way makes me truly realize that I'm entrusted with a great responsibility: preparing my students for their future. But do we
share the same path? If my students do not agree with what is being taught, and how it is being taught, then my educational
mission is pointless. (Diary excerpt)

Of the Five Fundamentals, The Way is the most important, yet it is often overlooked in educational planning. The Way relates to
the motive: the shared underlying reason as to why administrators, teachers and students interact together on a daily basis. It
penetrates far beyond a mere affiliation.

The Way is also about moral influence. When applied to the field of education this means the moral values and philosophy, as well
as the vision of the institution. It represents the mission and culture of the institution in daily practice, and it is the living creed
behind its mottos, badges and slogans. For The Way to be realized, all members of the institution, including the students, need to
share in it with equal commitment. For this to happen, the institution must skillfully transfer The Way to all who are associated
with it.

Teachers are an indispensable link in the chain of transfer of The Way to students. The students must be encouraged to be an
integral part of The Way of an educational institution, both in mind and in spirit, through patience, nurturing, dignity and respect.
This in turn provides the trust that inspires both individual initiative and teamwork. If students do not share in The Way of the
institution, for whatever reason, then its educational mission is seriously flawed.

A teacher attains moral influence through self-refinement and a long-term effort to become truly compassionate and humble.
Moral influence will then find the teacher (rather than the teacher finding it proactively), and will become imbued in his or her
teachings in such a manner that the students become one with the educational mission.

The Way is identical with the Tao (meaning path in Chinese). Just as the path of Taoism is balanced, harmonious, sublime, gentle
and without moral and ethical flaws, so too should be the path of the teacher. Giving students more space to be themselves, and
genuinely listening to them is mandatory for the bond between students and teachers to strengthen. This, in turn, serves The Way
of the educational mission, so that the students, the teachers and administrators act in unison, and in accord with its values.

3.2 Heaven (Change)Heaven isYinandYang, cold and hot, the cycle of seasons. Sun Tzu (p. 4)

Instead of trying to 'fix' things in the classroom according to how I think they should be, I should try to adjust my perspective to
the way things in the classroom actually are, and adapt to them first. Perhaps my perspective of .chaos' is a false interpretation of
what is, in actual fact, aptness -- a form of perfection that merely appears as chaotic. (Diary excerpt)

Sun Tzu recognized that, in all aspects of timing and change, there are both fixed and variable intangible elements that are often
unpredictable. For example, there is both collective and individual time, and each cannot exist without the other. Teachers need to
adapt to collective time, whilst managing their individual time.

Just asYinandYangare complementary opposites in Taoism, each relying on the other for its existence, so too should teachers
work in tandem with collective time. In this respect, endurance is an important attribute for teachers. Like water that gracefully
flows around, and does not attempt to strike through an object, teachers should endure what needs to be in order to bend
adversity towards their desires. Eventually, after observing the true nature of whatever adversity is endured, teachers can
overcome it, in the same way that water eventually erodes rock.

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Whilst considerations for taking action are important, the consideration for not taking any action at all is equally important in
strategic planning. Taking action before thoroughly thinking through all possible consequences, both the good and the bad, is
inferior to adopting a state of non-action. While non-action is often interpreted as indecision in our results-orientated world
driven by instant-gratification, inappropriate action is a potentially disastrous implementation of a fragile and immature strategy.
Yielding, even under humiliating circumstances, can be a virtuous strategic response in the face of adversity.

Also, it is important to go beyond comfort zones (to avoid combat zones). A strategy that worked in the past will not
automatically work again in the same way. Instead, unfettered new approaches, based objectively on assessing unique emerging
perspectives of changing realities, are more likely to succeed. Past successful strategies tend to be reused because of the innate
fear of the unknown and of making mistakes. Mistakes are essential to the strategy of turning misfortune into gain, because,
paradoxically, they lay the foundation for future success. It is the lesson within the apparent .failure' and the circumstances which
arise through misfortune (for example, making new acquaintances, or learning an important life lesson) that makes what happens
less important than what we actually do as a result of it. Consistency can be a virtue in many situations, but strategic rigidity is
often perilous.

Foresight is another necessity. It allows teachers to win battles before they need to be fought. Foresight comes from
foreknowledge, which in turn comes from information. Sun Tzu said:

Prior information enables wise rulers and worthy generals to move and conquer, brings them success beyond that of the
multitude. this information cannot be obtained from spirits; it cannot be deduced by analogy; it cannot be calculated by
measurement. It can only be obtained from men, from those who know the enemy's dispositions. (p. 90)

Teachers can obtain information and ideas from almost anywhere, especially in conversations with other teachers and with
students, and by listening to colleagues in meetings. This is especially so in the casual and unintentional remarks people
sometimes make especially when they are dissatisfied and complain. Their emotions cloud their own foresight of the
consequences of their words. It is always better to say less than necessary, and to let others say more, in order to see prospects
where others see threats, and to strategically optimize a future position that is yet to emerge. To use an analogy, it requires
moving to where the ball is going to be, and not merely to where it is, whilst not giving away your position, nor your intentions, to
the other players in the competitive game of life.

Teaching is a multifaceted and demanding activity. When burnout occurs it is important to make the time to recover. Teachers
should carefully chose which battles to fight by moving when it is advantageous, and stopping when it is not. Sometimes a quick
decision is necessary, and at other times a decision could, or should, take longer. This requires careful discernment, because rest
is essential for fortitude, and fortitude is essential in the successful deployment of strategy. Rest is merely another form of
productivity, and cannot be ignored or downplayed.

Yet, even when exhaustion makes one vulnerable; it is most undesirable for a teacher to exhibit impulsive behavior, especially
when provoked. To be trapped by insults exhibits recklessness (leading to destruction) and a hot temper (vulnerable to
provocation), that Sun Tzu described as serious leadership flaws. It also takes a greater effort to unravel the undesirable
consequences of actions based on ego and annoyance, whereas simply taking no action would yield more positive results. After a
period of non-action, anger subsides, clearer energized reasoning returns, and the correct path to deal with a situation emerges.
Abusive action, such as shouting and threatening, may convey a superficial aura of power, but it is merely an affirmation of losing
control to those at the receiving end.

In addition, when actions are launched, they must be decisive and not become drawn-out affairs. Sun Tzu said:I have heard that
in war haste can be folly, but have never seen delay that was wise(p. 10). The worst scenario is to let non-action lapse into
complacency, which long delays tend to cause.

Take time to make an important decision, and then move ahead swiftly. Then morale and enthusiasm will not be needlessly
wasted, and lethargy will not set in. This is known as first-mover advantage, and Sun Tzu described it as:First on the battlefield
waits for the enemy fresh, last on the battlefield charges into the fray exhausted(p. 31).

Self-control is a critical characteristic for teachers, because they are the representatives of the educational mission, and must
lead by example. If they fail to do so, students will not take their teachings seriously. It is better to be spontaneous, than to be
impulsive. Deep contemplation of The Art of War helps us develop spontaneity in place of impulsiveness.

3.3 Earth (Terrain and Resources) Earth is height and depth, distance and proximity, ease and danger, open and confined ground,

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life and death. Sun Tzu (p. 4)

What a tense meeting! I made my comments and suggestions as brief as possible and kept the rest inside. I'll go for a long walk
tonight. With high-ranking members of the administration in attendance, this was worst place to lose sight of the big picture, and
engage in ego-driven petty squabbles. Those that did merely invited peril to us all. (Diary excerpt)

Terrain is also about managing fixed and variable elements. Again, as with managing change which is more esoteric, acceptance
and endurance is also a key strategic factor with terrain and resources (which are more practical in nature). Change and terrain are
the environmental and physical conditions of battle, and are within the adversities teachers face. Just as a general on a battlefield
cannot move a mountain or a stream, but must skillfully maneuver within such a configuration to the best strategic advantage, so
too must teachers accept, adapt and endure the things they cannot change while positioning themselves to ultimately take
advantage.

Wherever there are paradoxes, deception plays a critically strategic role. Deception is often frowned upon in the West, given that
it is associated with treachery and dishonesty. However, the Taoist perspectives of deception that The Art of War deploys are
related more to concealment, and to camouflage, primarily to keep information and positions undisclosed, to prevent plans being
thwarted, and reduce the vulnerability to being attacked. Sun Tzu pointed out that: ...the way of war is a way of deception(p. 6),
and: ...the highest skill in forming dispositions is to be without form...war has no constant dynamic; water has no constant
form(pp. 37 . 38).

Arrogance and deception are inversely related entities, and boastfulness is a dangerous trap for teachers to fall into. It is not wise
to broadcast all plans, especially since those who do not support them may come to hear of them. It is better to be blend in with
situations and become invisible to potential predators, as do green caterpillars on leaves in the midst of hungry birds.

Teachers should be acutely aware of the educational environment of which they are a part, including the nuances that apply. Their
reputation relies on it. A good reputation is a crucial necessity, especially for an educator. Teachers must strive to see themselves
through the eyes of the students, the administration, as well as the wider community (including the students' parents). Then they
will avoid the costly and embarrassing consequences of a ruined reputation.

Teachers must be actively responsive to their constituents, because others perceptions of their abilities can sometimes exceed the
facts. Therefore, they must constantly deliver on these perceptions; otherwise the effort to create a good opinion of themselves
by others will be pointless. The best way to deliver on a reputation is to establish trust by sticking to promises and commitments.
Direct channels of communication must be kept open and this trust must be acted upon. Ideas must be communicated clearly,
even in informal settings, in order to get them across to ensure a harmony of purpose and a positive collective vision. Nothing is
worse than an educator with a ruined reputation; it takes a great effort to acquire but it can be lost in an instant.

It is also vital to multitask and be flexible, because teaching is a multidimensional activity. On the surface flexibility may appear to
convey indecision, in the same way that someone who multitasks may appear to be a scatterbrain, but in essence the reverse is
true. Teachers must be prepared to deviate from plans if necessary and be open to new opportunities. One example of this is
rigidly sticking to a lesson plan that is not compatible with changing circumstances in the classroom. Another is having fixed ideas
about teaching, or about students, co-workers and members of the administration.

Teachers should always be willing to modify their plans under changing conditions to benefit from opportunities as they arise.
They should also never be afraid to admit when they are wrong. Apologies are wise, ethical, and the epitome of wise strategy.
This is the power of yielding: a giant tree appears to be stronger than bamboo, yet it gets uprooted in a gale whereas the bamboo
yields and survives.

3.4 Command (leadership)Command is wisdom, integrity, compassion, courage, severity. Sun Tzu (p. 4)

There are times when I have to be severe. It would be unacceptable to always take a passive stance towards undisciplined
students. It goes against my gentle nature to be severe, and I think some students exploit this. Is there a way to be wisely, and
compassionately, severe? It is hard to strike a balance. The question is not so much whether to be either passive or severe, but
rather to aptly discern when it is appropriate to be passive or severe. (Diary excerpt)

Sun Tzu's leadership attributes may seem contradictory at a glance, especially that of compassion and severity. However, just as
opposites are paradoxical and complement each other, so too do these leadership characteristics. Although teachers are not
generals, they are leaders whose actions influence others considerably, especially the students. Educational leadership requires
teachers to be a guide to students. To be an effective guide is challenging, yet it is an indispensible requirement. Therefore,

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teachers must cultivate integrity, but this cannot exclude discipline and obedience. Teachers need to be wise to make sound
decisions (through experience), credible to allow for trust (through integrity), compassionate to build unity (through care),
courageous to transcend the conventional (through commitment) and severe to ensure discipline (through appropriate
punishments and rewards).

Perhaps the most challenging leadership attribute for teachers to master is severity, because the lack of discipline is often worse
than excess discipline. Severity therefore cannot be ignored, as teachers have to ensure obedience and loyalty. When it becomes
necessary, careful consideration should be given to appropriate rewards and punishments, to ensure that a balance is maintained.

This is especially so in the timing and nature of punishments so as to ensure that they do not destroy the bond between the
teacher and the students. Harsh punishments should be avoided, especially if they ridicule students in front of others, as well as
tyrannical forms of disciplining (including shouting), as these also destroy unity. This is different to failing students for low
grades or excessive absences, which is necessary for upholding a respect and appreciation of the expected standards of
achievement.

Conversely, large tangible rewards should be made sparingly as this creates undue competition, and jealousy, even anxiety, which
again destroys unity. Sun Tzu said:Excessive rewards are a sign of desperation. Excessive punishments are a sign of
exhaustion(p. 58). Students are aware of this, and for this reason teachers should be weary of using punishments and rewards
excessively.

Excessive emotion clouds reasoning, and to many leadership pitfalls. However, it should also be accepted that emotion does have
a place in education, because students and teachers are human and their emotions should be acknowledged. This also needs
careful discernment, because education devoid of emotion is a barren exercise, and education with excessive emotion is equally
unwarranted. It is therefore important to balance emotion, because all excesses are detrimental to The Way of educational
leadership.

Teachers should be vigilant of Sun Tzu's five pitfalls of leadership:

Recklessness, leading to destruction; cowardice, leading to capture; a hot temper, prone to provocation; a delicacy of honor,
tending to shame; a concern for his men, leading to trouble. (p. 50)

The ultimate leadership role of all educators is to serve the needs of others, to ensure that the educational mission succeeds in
providing the students with a solid educational foundation. Sun Tzu described the highest caliber of leadership as:

...he who advances without seeking fame, who retreats without seeking blame, he whose one aim is to protect his people and
serve his lord, this man is a jewel of the realm. (p. 66)

When students see their teachers wholly supporting their employers, they become encouraged because they witness their leader
sacrificing self-interest for the common good. Personal prestige, pride and popularity should have no place within The Way of an
educator. This is because education is both an intellectual and a service profession, and much more about charity than it is about
personal gain.

3.5 Discipline (logistics)Discipline is organization, chain of command, control of expenditure. Sun Tzu (p. 4)

Many teachers, including myself, tend to be very critical of the workplace. We often seem to see ourselves as a unique entity. This
is surely in opposition to The Way. We need to be more receptive, more tolerant, and more understanding of how we fit in within
the wider picture. (Diary excerpt)

Discipline refers to the regulations, control and expenditures within the chain of command, which sustains the institution and
keeps it focused. Without discipline, The Way would disintegrate and educational leadership would be senseless, because it binds
the superstructure of the institution together.

The flow of information is indispensible to discipline, through the dissemination of instructions and information between the
administration and teachers, and between teachers and students, through the right channels, at the right times. Instructions from
administration to teachers and from teachers to students must be concise, and unambiguous, so that the intentions of the
administrators can be clearly understood as they filter down though the ranks of the institution. Sun Tzu acknowledged the
importance of communication, saying:

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When ears do not hear, use gongs and drums. When eyes do not see, use banners and flags. Gongs and drums, banners and flags
are the ears and eyes of the army. (p. 43)

Discipline within an educational institution requires a clear understanding of the responsibilities of its constituents to allow for a
cohesive and synchronized harmony of relations. All should be aware of their respective roles and duties, in order to serve The
Way of the institution.

If teachers, for whatever reason, cannot share in The Way of the institution, they should quit. Remaining, and attempting to
change The Way confrontationally, merely sows more discord, which in turn sabotages morale. The Way of the teacher cannot be
in conflict with The Way of the institution. Teachers must acknowledge that The Way of the institution is not fixed, but in a state
of constant change. Therefore, they must be prepared to adapt to changes in The Way.

However, teachers cannot do what they have to do without the absolute and wholehearted support of their administrators across
a wide spectrum of practical, professional and financial needs. Administrators must also govern expenditure astutely, through
planning and the controlling of resources, to provide for the salaries of teachers, the course materials, and the classroom
infrastructures that teachers need to complete their tasks. They must also minimize unnecessary waste.

In the same way that soldiers are a treasured asset of an army, and employees are a treasured asset of a business, then so too
should teachers be a treasured asset of their administrators. This is because the object of the mission is to serve the needs of the
students, first and foremost, and must be the common goal of the institution. Failure to recognize this will result in confusion
among the rank and file of the institution, and the students will lose their chance of receiving the quality education they deserve.

Sun Tzu recognized that an army whose senior and subordinate ranks share the same aspirations would be victorious. In the same
way, an educational institution where the senior and subordinate ranks share the same aspirations, and agree on the means to
achieve them, will be successful. The outcome for educators divided against themselves, and against the students, is collective
disaster, because the students will be denied a quality education, and the whole exercise will be pointless. This needs careful
deliberation.

4 ConclusionUndertaking the teacher diary study to apply The Art of War was a worthwhile exercise. Although it was demanding
and time-consuming at times, it led to a clearer self-understanding through the personal insights it revealed. It also allowed for a
deeper understanding of The Art of War itself, and how it can be applied to the field of education.

Education is by definition a noble profession, since it prepares young people for their future. The Way of the educator must
therefore uphold this honor, not only in words but also in deeds. It is therefore strategically fatal for teachers to assume that
their vision of themselves, and surroundings, is the only reality. Nothing that governs their actions should be left to assumption,
including self-perceptions. It is essential to have a truly accurate picture of one's own abilities, as well as limitations, in order to
succeed as a teacher.

Before embarking on the diary study, The Art of War was applied as sets of seemingly separate checklists and rules, and even as a
quick fix to daily problems. The Art of War would be imprudently flipped through in order to find specific solutions for particular
problems. Because of this, so much of The Art of War seemed to contradict itself. In hindsight, it is almost certain that Sun Tzu
did not intend his classic text to be used this way.

The diary brought home the realization that The Art of War is concerned with appropriate actions (or non-action) in accordance
with the nature of emerging unexpected situations. Therefore, to effectively apply principles from The Art of War, one has to
learn how to think about oneself, and ones environment, in a holistic and multidimensional manner.

One should understand the cause-and-effect interplay between the static and dynamic, as well as the tangible and intangible, and
be attentive of paradoxical situations in order to apply strategy successfully. To be proactive, rather than reactive, is important,
but it is equally important to accept and yield to certain situations as an integral part of managing change.

Self-knowledge is an indispensible part of this equation: it enables a greater sense of true self-awareness, the recognition to be
less egotistical and impulsive, and to be more humble and serving of the needs of others.

Through the teacher diary study I am now better able to apply The Art of War in a manner that is of more benefit to the students
and administrators I serve, to the wider field of education, and to my life in general.

ReferencesBailey, K. M. (1990)The Use of Diary Studies in Teacher Education Programs. In Richards, J. and Nunan, D.

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(1994).Second Language Teacher Education. Cambridge University Press: United Kingdom.

Bell, J. (1993)Doing your Research Project: a Guide to First-Time Researchers in Education and Social Science. Open University
Press, Buckingham: United Kingdom.

Minford, J. (2003)The Art of War: The Essential Translation of the Classic Book of Life. Penguin Books: United States of
America.

Nagel, G. (1994)The Tao of Teaching. Penguin Books: United States of America.

Nunan, D. (1992)Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press: United Kingdom.

Scott, M. (1997)Wordsmith Tools 3.0 Oxford. Oxford University Press: United Kingdom.

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