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978 O. D. Jefimenko Experimental Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
siderable controversy and reevaluation [5], However, dilemma has been now resolved with the help of the the-
there appears to be some experimental evidence support- ory of electromagnetic retardation 2 . Recent advances in
ing (albeit indirectly) the reality of relativistic length con- the theory of electromagnetic retardation have made it
traction. possible to derive all the equations of relativistic electro-
It should be noted that although Einstein's hypotheti- dynamics and relativistic mechanics as a direct conse-
cal relativistic length contraction is a strictly kinematic quence of Maxwellian electrodynamics and electromag-
effect and has nothing to do with the world ether, it con- netic force relations without ever invoking the concepts
tinues to be known as the "Lorentz contraction" rather of relativistic length contraction and time dilation [14,
than as the "relativistic length contraction" as it should 15]. Thus the reality of these concepts appears doubtful.
be properly called [6, 7]. The question now arises therefore: How reliable are the
The idea that some physical phenomena occur at a experiments seemingly proving the reality of length con-
slower rate when the system in which the phenomena traction and time dilation?
take place is moving with respect to the observer dates In the next two sections of this paper we shall see a se-
back to 1897, when Joseph Larmor, using transforma- ries of calculations, based on Maxwellian electrodynam-
tions for length and time analogous to Lorentz transfor- ics as well as on the theory of relativity, showing that all
mations, concluded that the periods of orbiting electrons the experiments that have been presented and interpret-
are shorter by the factor y in the rest system than in the ed as proofs of relativistic length contraction and time
moving system [8]. Einstein, in his 1905 article, inter- dilation can be simply and rigorously interpreted as man-
preted (actually verbalized) the Lorentz transformation ifestations of dynamical interactions taking place within
equation of time the systems involved in the experiments rather than as
manifestations of any relativistic effects.
t' = y(t-vx/c2) (2)
as indicating that the rate of a moving clock, "when
viewed from the stationary system," is slower by the 2. Alternative Interpretation of the Experimental
factor 7 than the rate of the same clock at rest in the sta- Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
tionary system [4], Later he generalized this statement
by declaring that "a living organism after any lengthy Although Einstein's prescription for the measurement
flight could be returned to its original spot in a scarcely of the length of moving bodies is only a "Gedankenex-
altered condition, while corresponding organism which periment" that is impossible to implement, many authors
had remained in the original position had already long insist that the relativistic length contraction has been
since given way to new generations" and "every happen- proved by experiments with charged particles moving at
ing in a physical system slows down when this system is relativistic speeds. Here is an example of such a proof.
set in translational motion [9,10], Thus, according to Ein- The Stanford accelerator is approximately 3 km long,
stein, not only clocks run slow, but time itself is "dilat- and a beam of charged particles accelerated by it would
ed" in systems that move with respect to the system con- spread out by mutual electrostatic repulsion of the par-
sidered to be stationary (laboratory). ticles and would disappear long before reaching its tar-
The idea of the slowing down of moving clocks as a get. However, in reality the beam spreads very little. Ac-
strictly kinematic effect was unacceptable to many of cording to some authors [16], the beam does not spread
Einstein's contemporaries [11], and the idea of time di- because, in the frame of reference comoving with the
lation remains to this day one of the most controversial beam, the accelerator is relativistically contracted. For
aspects of Einstein's special relativity theory. However, instance, in the case of the beam of 10-Gev electrons,
experiments on the radioactive decay of fast mesons whose 7=2x 104, the 3 km are contracted to just about
show that their decay occurs indeed at a rate slower by
the factor /(within experimental errors) than for resting 2
The theory of electromagnetic retardation is an extension
or slowly-moving mesons [12], And the observations of of Maxwellian electrodynamics to rapidly varying and rapidly
moving charge and current distributions. The theory explicitly
the rate of moving atomic clocks also appear to support
takes into account that electromagnetic effects propagate with
the reality of relativistic time dilation [13]. finite speed, so that there always is a time delay before a chan-
Until very recently it was believed that it was impos- ge in electromagnetic conditions initiated at a point of space
can produce an effect at any other point of space. This time
sible to reject relativistic length contraction and time di- delay is called electromagnetic retardation. Hence the name
lation without rejecting the relativity theory itself. The "theory of electromagnetic retardation."
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979 O. D. Jefimenko Experimental Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
15 cm, so that the beam "does not have enough time to Although the force given by (6) repels q from the beam,
spread. 3 the repulsion is smaller than the ordinary electrostatic re-
The problem with this proof is that it completely ig- pulsion, because the magnetic force attracts q toward the
nores the actual forces responsible for the spreading of beam. In fact, if the beam could move with the velocity
the beam, erroneously attributing the spreading to an of light, the charges on the surface of the beam and in-
electrostatic repulsion between the particles and even ig- side the beam would experience zero radial force, and
noring the well-known rules for the relativistic transfor- the beam would not spread at all.
mation of forces. Thus the beam in the Stanford accelerator remains in-
In reality, the particles in the beam are subjected not tact because the electric repulsion forces acting on its par-
to one but to two forces: an electric repulsion away from ticles are to a large degree counterbalanced by the mag-
the axis of the beam and a magnetic attraction toward the netic attraction forces, rather than because the accelera-
axis of the beam. This interplay of the electric and mag- tor is "contracted to 15 cm.".
netic forces had been discussed and correctly explained To complete our explanation of the beam phenome-
in terms of c lassical electrodynamics long before any par- non, we shall now derive (6) by using the theory of rel-
ticle accelerators were built. A very lucid explanation of ativity itself.
these forces had been given, for example, by R. W. Pohl In the reference frame X' comoving with the beam, the
in his famous textbook "Elektrizittslehre" [17]. The es- force on the charge q is purely electrostatic, normal to
sence of this explanation is as follows [18]. the beam, and is, by (3),
Consider a long cylindrical beam of charged particles
q A' q p Ka qP a
moving with velocity v along its length. Let the radius F' = (7)
of the beam be a, and let the charge density of the beam 2 K 0 a 2 TL 0 a 2e0
be p (line charge density A). Let there be a particle of The relativistic transformation equation for the charge
charge q on the surface of the beam, and let the polarity
density is (see e.g. [14], p. 150)
of this particle be the same as that of the beam. The
electric field at the location of q is (see e.g. [18], pp. P = y [ p ' + (vie1) J'x], (8)
89-90)
and the relativistic transformation equation for the per-
E= A
= p K a l
= (3) pendicular component of the force is (see e.g. [14],
2 k e0 a 2 n 0 a 2 e0 pp. 196-197)
and is normal to the beam. The force associated with this 1
F= F'. (9)
field repels the charge q from the beam. The magnetic y( 1 + v u'x/c2)
field produced by the beam at the location of q is (see
Assuming that the beam moves along the x axis, taking
e.g. [18], pp. 331-332]
into account that in 27 the charges of the beam do not
vpa move in the direction of the beam, so that the current
B= (4)
2 o c Jx=0, taking into account that in E' the JC component of
the velocity of the charge q is ux=0, and substituting (8)
and is in a circular direction relative to the beam. Accord-
and (9) into (7), we obtain for the force acting on q in the
ing to the Lorentz force law (see e.g. [18], p. 417)
laboratory reference frame
F = q (E + v x B), (5)
q pa q p a
F= (\-v2/c2), (10)
the total force experienced by q is then (observe that q 2for 20
and the beam move with the same velocity and that the
magnetic force on q is directed into the beam) which is exactly the same as (6) that we obtained by di-
rectly considering the forces acting on q in the accelera-
= 2/c2)f (6) tor.
2 So 2 0 Thus the experimental proof of relativistic length con-
traction discussed above ignores the basic laws of elec-
where we have used q p0= \/c2.
tromagnetism and even ignores the basic rules of the rel-
3
It may be noted that the same argument is frequently used
ativity theory itself.
to "prove" the relativistic time dilation; see Section 3.
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980 O. D. Jefimenko Experimental Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
3. Alternative Interpretation of the Experimental close to the center, so that x< a, which we assume to be
Proofs of Relativistic Time Dilation the case, the force on q2, F = q2 E, is essentially
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981 O. D. Jefimenko Experimental Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
The period of the oscillations of q2 is therefore consideration. In this connection it is important to note
( V /2 that some authors interpret the absence of a strong spread
Tm = 2 k of the beam of rapidly moving charged particles (see Sect.
F,l x 2) as a proof of time dilation as well as a proof of length
1/2 contraction.
m 0 4 n Q a 3 /(1
i - ,2/2\l/2
vie)
= 2 K (18)
(1- v11c2)3/2 q\ q2
1/2 4. Conclusion
3/2 3/2 m0 e 0
L (1 v1! c2) q\ q2 J The experiments that are interpreted as proofs of the
so that reality of relativistic length contraction and time dilation
have a simple alternative interpretation in terms of ve-
1T m = T. (19) locity-dependent forces present in the systems under con-
(1 -v2le2)1/2
sideration. Of course, we do not know what forces are
Thus the period of the oscillations of q2 located in the responsible for the decay of elementary particles (me-
moving reference frame, as observed from the laborato- sons) and we know little about the force responsible for
ry (stationary) reference frame, is by the factor the functioning of atomic clocks. But there can be no
( l - f 2 / c 2 ) _ 1 / 2 longer than the period of the oscillations doubt that the meson decay and the atomic clocks are
of q2 in the laboratory. Hence our clock consisting of the controlled by some kind of forces and that these forces
charged ring and the point charge runs slower when the cannot be ignored. In the light of the calculations pre-
clock is moving, and the rate of the moving clock is sented in Sect. 2 and 3 and of similar calculations pre-
(l-i> 2 /c 2 )~ 1 / 2 =y times the rate of the same stationary sented in [21 ] it is much more natural and prudent to inter-
clock. However, the slow rate of our moving clock is a pret the experiments allegedly proving the reality of rel-
result of dynamic interactions (a cause-and-effect phe- ativistic length contraction and time dilation as manifes-
nomenon) rather than a kinematic effect of time dilation tations of velocity-dependent interactions in the systems
enunciated by Einstein. Of course, the force acting on the under consideration rather than as proofs of length con-
point charge in our clock may be very different from the traction and time dilation. More experiments are definite-
forces responsible for the decay of mesons or for the op- ly needed in order to elucidate the essence of these inter-
eration of the atomic clocks, but whatever the nature of actions and in order to establish their exact quantitative
these latter forces may be, they cannot be ignored. characteristics. One thing is obvious, however: it is fal-
lacious to interpret any experiment as a proof of length
It is clear now that just as the proof of length contrac-
contraction or time dilation as long as the experiment has
tion discussed in Sect. 2, the experimental proofs of time
a simple and clear alternative interpretation.
dilation have a monumental flaw: they completely ignore
dynamic interactions taking place in the systems under
[1] A. A. Michelson and E. W. Morley, Amer. J. Sei. 34, 333 Wilhelm, Z. Naturforsch. 4 5 a , 7 3 6 (1990); H. E. W i l h e l m ,
(1887). Apeiron, Nr. 18, 9 (1994). W i l h e l m ' s theory is based on
[2] G. F. Fitzgerald, Science 13, 3 9 0 (1889). accepting the world ether as the carrier of electromagnet-
[3] H. A. Lorentz, Versl. Kon. Acad. Wetensch. A m s t e r d a m ic effects. According to this theory, length contraction and
1,74(1892). time dilation are dynamical rather than kinematic effects.
[4] A. Einstein, A n n . Phys. 17, 891 (1905). W i l h e l m ' s theory essentially completes the work initiat-
[5] See, for e x a m p l e , J. Terrell, Phys. Rev. 116, 1 0 1 4 ( 1 9 5 9 ) ; ed by Fitzgerald, Larmor, and Lorentz at the end of the
Roy Weinstein, Amer. J. Phys. 2 8 , 6 0 7 (1960); V. F. Weiss- last century, which has been interrupted since 1905.
kopf, Phys. Today 1 3 , 2 4 (1960); A. G a m b a , Amer. J. Phys. [7] A history of the ideas of length contraction and time dila-
35, 83 (1967); G. D. Scott and M. R. Viner, Amer. J. Phys. tion as dynamical effects and an interpretation of these ef-
3 3 , 5 3 4 (1965); V. N. Strel'tsov, Fond. Phys. 6 , 2 9 3 (1976); fects based on the existence of an observable c o s m i c f u n -
V. N. Strel'tsov, Hadronic J. 17, 105 (1994); K y e o n g - D o damental reference frame for light propagation is given in
Kwak, Length Expansion, Institute for Asian Studies, S. J. Prokhovnik, Z. Naturforsch. 48 a, 925 (1993).
Seoul 1995. [8] J. Larmor, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. 190 A, 205 (1897).
[6] In this connection it is important to note that in recent years [9] A. Einstein, Nat. Ges. Zrich. Viers. 56, 1 (1911).
an important alternative to Einstein's special relativity the- [10] A. Einstein, "Die Relativittstheorie," in Kultur der Ge-
ory has been developed. It is the "Galilei Covariant genwart: Physik, 2nd ed., Teubner, Leipzig 1925, pp. 7 8 3 -
E l e c t r o d y n a m i c s " created by H. E. Wilhelm. See H. E. 797.
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982 O. D. Jefimenko Experimental Proofs of Relativistic Length Contraction
[11] See A r t h u r I. Miller, Albert Einstein's Special T h e o r y of [16] See, for e x a m p l e , E. J. Konopinski, Electromagnetic
Relativity, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts 1981, Fields and Relativistic Particles, M c G r a w - H i l l , N e w York
pp.257-264. 1981, p. 333.
[12] B. Rossi a n d D . B. Hall, " R a t e of Decay of Mesotrons with [17] R. W. Pohl, Elektrizittslehre (Springer, Berlin, n u m e r o u s
M o m e n t u m , " Phys. Rev. 59, 2 2 3 (1941); D. H. Fisch and editions since 1927), pp. 8 8 - 8 9 in the 11th (1944) edition,
J. H. Smith, Amer. J. Phys. 31, 342 (1963); J. Bailey, pp. 8 4 - 8 5 in the 15th (1955) edition
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E. Picasso, W. von Rden, F. J. M. Farley, J. H. Field, Electret Scientific, Star City, West Virginia 1989, p. 420.
W. Flegel, and P. M. Hattersley, Nature, L o n d o n 268, 301 [19] Oliver Heaviside, T h e Electrician 22, 147 (1888); Oliver
(1977). Heaviside, Phil. M a g . 27, 3 2 4 (1889). O b s e r v e that
[13] J . C . H a f e l e a n d R . E . Keating,Science 1 7 7 , 1 6 6 , 1 6 8 ( 1 9 7 2 ) . H e a v i s i d e ' s equation is relativistically correct (see [14],
[ 14] O l e g D. J e f i m e n k o , E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c Retardation and T h e - pp. 1 6 7 - 1 7 0 ) .
ory of Relativity: N e w C h a p t e r s in the Classical T h e o r y [20] See e.g. [14], p. 195 or H. Goldstein, Classical M e c h a n -
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[15] O l e g D. J e f i m e n k o , Amer. J. Phys. 63, 267 (1995). J. Phys. 6 4 , 8 1 2 ( 1 9 9 6 ) .
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