History of Kashmir - Wikipedia

07/09/2017 History of Kashmir - Wikipedia
History of Kashmir
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The history of Kashmir is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and the surrounding
regions, comprising the areas of Central Asia, South Asia and East Asia. Historically, Kashmir referred to the
Kashmir Valley.[1] Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and
Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, and Ladakh), the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad
Kashmir and GilgitBaltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram
Tract.
In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later of
Buddhism; later in the ninth century, Shaivism arose. Islamization in Kashmir took place during 13th to 15th
century and led to the eventual decline of the Kashmir Shaivism in Kashmir. However, the achievements of the
previous civilizations were not lost, but were to a great extent absorbed by the new Islamic polity and culture
which gave rise to Kashmiri Sufi mysticism.
In 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Shah Mir Dynasty. For the next five
centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughal Empire, who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and
the Afghan Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed
Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, and upon the purchase of the region from the
British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule
of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former
princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's
Republic of China.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Historiography
3 Early history
4 Muslim rulers
4.1 Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (13461580s)
4.2 Mughals (1580s1750s)
4.3 Afghan rulers (1750s1819)
5 Sikh rule (18201846)
6 Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 18461947)
7 1947
8 Post-1947
9 Historical demographics of Kashmir
10 Gallery
11 See also
12 Footnotes
12.1 Notes
12.2 Citations
13 Bibliography
13.1 Historiography
14 External links
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kashmir 1/16
Etymology
According to folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land"
(from the Sanskrit: Ka = water and shimeera = desiccate).[2] In the
Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th
century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake.
According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or
sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the
hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained,
Kashyapa asked Brahmins to settle there. This is still the local tradition,
and in the existing physical condition of the country, we may see some
General view of Martand Sun Temple ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is
and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the
near Bhawan. Probable date of temple chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-
AD 490555. Probable date of pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud
colonnade AD 693729. Photograph of Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44).[3][4]
the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.[5]
& Kashmir taken by John Burke in Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still
1868. spelled this way.
According to the Mahabharata,[6] the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the

epic period with a Republican system of government[7] from the capital city of Karna-Rajapuram-gatva-
Kambojah-nirjitastava.,[8][9] shortened to Rajapura,[10][11][12][13] which has been identified with modern
Rajauri.[14]
Later, the Panchalas are stated to have established their sway. The name Peer Panjal, which is a part of modern
Kashmir, is a witness to this fact. Panjal is simply a distorted form of the Sanskritic tribal term Panchala. The
Muslims prefixed the word peer to it in memory of Siddha Faqir and the name thereafter is said to have changed
into Peer Panjal.[15] According to legend, Jammu was founded by Hindu King Raja Jambu Lochan in the 14th
century BC. During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion
drinking water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo.
With the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu".
Historiography
Nilmata Purana (complied c. 500600 CE)[16] contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a
Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability.[17][a] Kalhana's
Rajatarangini (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the
history of Kashmir's dynasties from mythical times to 12th century.[20][21] It relies upon traditional sources like
Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political
experiences of his family.[22][20] Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and
critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as India's
first historian.[17][20] During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to Rajatarangini were
written by Jonaraja (14111463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with Akbar's conquest of
Kashmir in 1586 CE.[23] The text was translated into Persian by Muslim scholars such as Nizam Uddin, Farishta,
and Abul Fazl.[24] Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's Tarikh-i-Kashmir (completed in 1621 CE) are the most
important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and
used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.[25]
Early history
Earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir valley are dated to c.
3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom,
which had two Neolithic and one Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920
BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse
pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted till c. 1700 BCE,
houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried,
sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were
the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat,
barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases.[26][27] In the
megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black
burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery.[28] During the later Vedic
period, as kingdoms of the Vedic tribes expanded, the UttaraKurus settled This general view of the unexcavated
in Kashmir.[29][30] Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with
two figures standing on the summit, and
In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, another at the base with measuring
the king of Kashmir, to aid him scales, was taken by John Burke in
against Alexander the Great in the 1868. The stupa, which was later
Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost excavated, dates to 500 CE.
the battle, Abhisares submitted to
Alexander by sending him treasure
and elephants.[31][32] During the reign of Ashoka (304232 BCE), Kashmir
became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in
Kashmir. During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva,
and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) were built.[33] Kanishka (127151 CE),
an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the
new city of Kanishkapur.[34] Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held
the Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such
as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part.[35] By the fourth
century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and
Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to
Kanishka inaugurates Mahayana Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these
Buddhism in Kashmir. countries started visiting Kashmir.[36] Kumrajva (343413 CE) was
among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He
influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of
many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery.[37]
Hepthalites (White Huns) under Toramana crossed over the Hindukush mountains and conquered large parts of
western India including Kashmir.[38] His son Mihirakula (c. 502530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of
North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa. After
the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where
he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after
Mihirakula's death.[39][40] After seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the
centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit
literature and Hindu religion.[41] Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875925 CE) who wrote
the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic
interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 9751025 CE) who wrote many philosophical
works on Kashmir Shaivism.[42] Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly
influenced Shaivism in Southern India.[43]
In the eighth century, Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers

of Kashmir.[44] Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the
Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial
order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor
Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the
Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and
subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa,
Gauda, and Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and
Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh.[45][46] After his demise,
Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty
ended in c. 855856 CE.[44] Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman
Martand Sun Temple Central shrine,
followed the Kakrotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885902 CE)
dedicated to the deity Surya. The temple
led a successful military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab.[47][44]
complex was built by the third ruler of the
Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in
(Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest
administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir till they were temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent.
defeated by Chakravarman.[48] Queen Didda, who descended from the
Hindu Shahis of Kabul on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in
second half of the 10th century.[44] After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to Lohara dynasty.[49] During the
11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed
because he could not siege the fortress at Lohkot.[50]
Muslim rulers
Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (13461580s)
Historian Mohibbul Hasan states that the oppressive taxation, corruption,

internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (Damaras) during the unpopular
rule of the Lohara dynasty (10031320 CE) paved the way for foreign
invasions of Kashmir.[51] Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled
Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a TurkicMongol chief, led a savage raid
on Kashmir.[52][53] Rinchana, a Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir,
established himself as the ruler after Zulju.[54][52] Rinchana's conversion to
Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu by his minister Shah Mir, probably for political reasons. Islam had
temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support
Srinagar. Probable date AD 400 to 500,
from Hindus, who were in a majority,[55] Rinchana needed the support of
1868. John Burke. Oriental and India
the Kashmiri Muslims.[54] Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor
Office Collection. British Library.
secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir.[55]
In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in

Kashmir.[56] Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi,
combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses.[57] The Sultans between 1354
1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of Sultan Sikandar (13891413 CE). Sultan Sikandar
imposed taxes on nonMuslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title ButShikan for destroying
idols.[52] Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 14201470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from Central Asia and Persia to
train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, papier-mch , shawl and carpet weaving
prospered.[58] For a brief period in 1470s, states of Jammu, Poonch and Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir
revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as
ruler in 1472 CE.[58] By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had
declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and Persian replaced
Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to
unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.[58]
Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member

of ruling family in Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on
behalf of emperor Humayun.[52][59] Persecution of Shias,
Shafi'is and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt
which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.[60][59]
Mughals (1580s1750s)
Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule till the reign of
Mughal padshah (emperor) Akbar the Great, who visited the Silver sasnu of the Kashmir Sultan Shams al-Din Shah
valley himself in 1589 CE. The Mughal conquered Kashmir II (ruled 153738). During the Sultanate period, the
and added it in 1586 to his Afghan province Kabul Subah, but Kashmir sultans issued silver and copper coins. The
Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah (imperial top- silver coins were square and followed a weight
level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive standard unique to Kashmir of between 6 and 7 gm.
Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and This coin weighs 6.16 gm.
palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and
discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.[52][59]
In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of
Muhammad, to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of Dal Lake.[61] Nadir Shah's
invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.[61]
Afghan rulers (1750s1819)
In 1753, Abdul Khan Isk Aquasi, a general in Ahmed Shah Abdali's army, invaded Kashmir and established the
rule of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan. Afghan rule in Kashmir was extremely cruel and oppressive,
particularly for the Hindus. Locals were extorted from, captured and forced into slavery during this period.
Dominance of Afghans declined after Ahmed Shah Abdali's death in 1772, but they ruled Kashmir for another 47
years.[62][61]
Sikh rule (18201846)

In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of
Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of
Punjab.[63] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.[64]
However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered
oppressive,[65] protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.[66]
The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,[66] which included handing out death sentences for cow
slaughter,[64] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to
prayer.[66] Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty
of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some
contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the
cultivable land to be cultivated.[64] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the
produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers;
Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire.
During this time Kashmiri shawls became known world wide, attracting
many buyers especially in the west.[66]
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the
kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured
by the Sikhs and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh
power.[63] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought
service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later
campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley, and, for his
services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his
officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands
of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east and north-east, respectively, of
Sheikh Imam-ud-din along with Ranjur
Jammu.[63]
Singh and Dewan Dina Nath. 1847.
(James Duffield Harding) Sheikh Imam-
ud-din was the governor of Kashmir Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra
under the Sikhs, and fought on the side
of the English in the battle of Multan
Rule, 18461947)
during the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845
46). In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived
to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as
a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir
Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were
concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e.
West Punjab) handed over to the British, as
equivalent for (rupees) ten million of
indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and
Indus; by the second[67] the British made over
to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the
hilly or mountainous country situated to the
east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale
of Kashmir).[63] The Treaty of Amritsar freed
Gulab Singh from obligations towards the
Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu Portrait of Maharaja Gulab
and Kashmir. [68] The Dogras' loyalty came in Singh in 1847, a year after
handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 signing the Treaty of
1909 Map of the Princely State of which challenged British rule in India. Dogras Amritsar, when he became
Kashmir and Jammu. The names of Maharaja by purchasing
refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers,
different regions, important cities, rivers the territories of Kashmir
allowed English women and children to seek
and mountains are underlined in red. "to the eastward of the
asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops
river Indus and westward
to fight on behalf of the British. British in
of the river Ravi"[b] for
return rewarded them by securing the
7.5 million rupees from the
succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir.[69] Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857,[68] British (Artist: James
his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the Duffield Harding).
kingdom.[70]
The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was
"somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its
disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."[71] It
combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and
its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in
the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there
was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely
populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north,
also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was
Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[71]
Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of
high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws.[72] Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to
Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers.[73] The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by
a Hindu elite.[74][75] The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to
landlords and moneylenders,[74] and did not organize politically until the 1930s.[75]
1947
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch
in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian
Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. An internal revolt began in the
Poonch region against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja.[76] In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon
demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people.[77]
The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October.[78] Rulers of Princely
States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion India or Pakistan, taking into account factors
such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim
and 20% Hindu".[79] To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a standstill agreement with
Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an
agreement was pending with India.[80] Following huge riots in Jammu, in October 1947, Pashtuns from Pakistan's
North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded Kashmir, along with the Poonch rebels,
allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in
looting and killing along the way.[81][82] The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh
into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the Governor-
General Lord Mountbatten[c] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India.[79] Once the Maharaja signed
the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all
but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional[83] until such time as the will
of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad-hoc which would
be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the
Maharaja.[84] The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent,
that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill
agreement with Pakistan was still in force.
See also: 1947 Poonch Rebellion, 1947 Jammu massacres, Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and The Accession of
the Princely States.
Post-1947
In Early 1948, India sought a resolution of the Kashmir Conflict at the United Nations. Following the set-up of the
United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on
21 April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime
Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession
will be decided.[85] However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of
irregulars.[79]
On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question
of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and
impartial plebiscite.[86] As per the 1948[87] and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle,
that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces,
as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a
plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the
procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army is to be disbanded
during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.[88]
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the
UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[79] and eventually led to three more wars
over Kashmir in 1965, 1971 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of
Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as GilgitBaltistan and Azad Kashmir.
According to Encyclopdia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947
partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in
Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in
a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly
populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the
Vale of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-
administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[89]
The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39

establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to
the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its
Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army
retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either
India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be
supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security
Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite.
However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security
Cease-fire line between India and Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was
Pakistan after the 1947 conflict non-binding and the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they
managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war, required by the
Security Council resolution 47.[90]
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the
late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain,
Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the
official Chinese position did not change with the communist revolution in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese
army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.:[89] "By 195657 they had completed a military road through
the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated
discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of
October 1962."[89] China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-
Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.
In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to
Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party.[80] Since then, a bitter
enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over
Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy[91] also led to the rise of
Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.
Following the disputed elections in 1987, young disaffected Kashmiris in the Valley such as the HAJY group
Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed Yasin Malik were recruited by the
Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front(JKLF) and the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley increased in
momentum from this point on.[92][93] The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as
Mujahadeens from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet-Afghan War the same
year.[94] Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel
to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.[95][96][97]
Historical demographics of Kashmir

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of
these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found
mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population.[98] In the Kashmir Valley, the
Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of
Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[98] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir
Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or
93.6% of the population.[98] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[99] In the 1941
Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus
constituted 4%.[99] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[100] and those of Hindus
4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.[100]
Among the Muslims of the Kashmir province within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs,
Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but
have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[101] It was
recorded that these kram names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc.
The Saiyids, it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who
have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession
Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[101] The Mughals who were not
numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and
"Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly
in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting
of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak
Pashtu."[101] Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput,
Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title
Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted
to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.
Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely
state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the
Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[98]
Gallery
Pot, excavated from A Muslim shawl Kashmiri home life c. Muslim papier-mch
Burzahom (c. 2700 making family in 1890. Photographer ornament painters in
BCE), depicts horned Kashmir. 1867. unknown. Kashmir. 1895.
motifs, which suggest Cashmere shawl Photographer:
links with sites like manufactory, unknown.
Kot-Diji, in Sindh. chromolith., William
Simpson.
Three Hindu priests Full-length portrait of

writing religious texts. two Ladakhi men. 1895,
1890s, Jammu and Ladakh, unknown
Kashmir, photographer: photographer.
unknown.
See also
United Nations Security Council Resolution 47
Kashmiriyat
Dynasties of Ancient Kashmir
Sharada Peeth
Buddhism in Kashmir
Harsha of Kashmir
History of Ladakh
List of topics on the land and the people of "Jammu and Kashmir"
Rajatarangini
History of Azad Kashmir
History of GilgitBaltistan
Footnotes
Notes
a. . This is incorrect. Scholasticism was a hallmark of the Puranas. It is not that Puranic genealogies are
"incomplete and occasionally inaccurate"[18]but rather they take the long view which is not a creation myth
but has realistic as well as spiritual underpinnings-- metaphors need to be understood within those time space
specificities. The chronology of events described in Puranas often are accurate-- they were added on during
successive centuries by scribes.[19]
b. From the text of the Treaty of Amritsar, signed 16 March 1846.[67]
c. Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to
1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.
Citations
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"article name needed". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
1. Christopher Snedden (15 September 2015). Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris (https://books.google.co
m.in/books?id=a19eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT22). Hurst. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-84904-622-0.
2. Dhar, Somnath (1986), Jammu and Kashmir folklore (https://books.google.com/books?id=PwM7AAAAMA
AJ), Marwah Publications, p. 8
3. Encyclopdia Britannica (1911) Kashmir (http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Kashmir) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20121020184914/http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Kashmir) 20 October 2012 at the
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4. Danilou, Alain (2003) [first published in French, L'Histoire de l'Inde, Fayard, 1971], A Brief History of
India (https://books.google.com/books?id=Kwnv3I6qIosC&pg=PA65), translated by Hurry, Kenneth, Inner
Traditions / Bear & Co, pp. 65, ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3
5. Houtsma 1993, p. 792.
6. MBH 7.4.5.
7. MBH 7/91/39-40.
8. Mahabharata 7.4.5
9. Political History of Ancient India, from the Accession of Parikshit to the ..., 1953, p 150, Dr H. C.
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13. Misra, Shivenandan (1976). Ancient Indian Republics: From the Earliest Times to the 6th century A.D. p. 92.
14. Watters. Yuan Chawang. Vol I. p. 284.
15. Ratanlal Joshi. "Kashmir: The Fountainhead of Indian Culture" (http://www.koausa.org/Crown/fountain.htm
l). Official webpage of the Kashmiri Overseas Association. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
16. Kenoyer & Heuston 2005, p. 28.
17. Sharma 2005, p. 74.
18. Ganguly 1985, p. 13.
19. Ganguly 1985, pp. 1618.
20. Singh 2008, p. 13.
21. Sreedharan 2004, p. 330.
22. Sharma 2005, p. 734.
23. Sharma 2005, p. 75.
24. Sharma 2005, p. 37.
25. Hasan 1983, p. 47.
26. Singh 2008, pp. 1113.
27. Kennedy 2000, p. 259.
28. Allchin & Allchin 1982, p. 113.
29. Rapson 1955, p. 118.
30. Sharma 1985, p. 44.
31. Heckel 2003, p. 48.

32. Green 1970, p. 403.
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45. Majumdar 1977, pp. 2603.
46. Wink 1991, pp. 2425.
47. Majumdar 1977, p. 356.
48. Majumdar 1977, p. 357.
49. Khan 2008, p. 58.
50. Frye 1975, p. 178.
51. Hasan 1959, pp. 324.
52. Chadha 2005, p. 38.
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54. Asimov & Bosworth 1998, p. 308.
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77. Official Records of the United Nations Security Council, Meeting No:234, 1948, pp.2501:[1] (http://www.k
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86. UNCIP Resolution, 5 January 1949.
87. UNCIP Resolution, 13 August 1948.
88. UNCIP Resolution, 30 March 1951.
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92. Puri 1993, p. 52.
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96. Pakistan admission over Kashmir (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1881669.stm)
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Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English (http://history.world-citizenshi

p.org/baharistan-i-shahi)
Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA;
Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list (http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/kashmir.html)
Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline (http://www.kashmirlibrary.org/)
Coins of the Kashmir Sultanate (13461586) (http://coinindia.com/galleries-kashmirsultans.html)
(in Arabic) "The Great History of the Events of Kashmir" (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4077) from 1821
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07/09/2017 History of Kashmir - Wikipedia

According to the Mahabharata,[6] the Kambojas ruled Kashmir during the

In the eighth century, Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers

Historian Mohibbul Hasan states that the oppressive taxation, corruption,

In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in

Mughal general Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, a member

Afghan rulers (1750s1819)

Sikh rule (18201846)

The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39

Historical demographics of Kashmir

Three Hindu priests Full-length portrait of

31. Heckel 2003, p. 48.

Chadha, Vivek (2005), Low Intensity Conflicts in India: An Analysis (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ap

Stein, B. (1998), A History of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC) (1st ed.),

Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English (http://history.world-citizenshi

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kashmir&oldid=793861541"

This page was last edited on 4 August 2017, at 11:46.

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