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The Aeronautical Journal 1

Page 1 of 21. Royal Aeronautical Society 2017

doi: 10.1017/aer.2017.108

Thermal characterisation
analysis and modelling
techniques for CubeSat-sized
spacecrafts
Anwar Ali
sa2000pk@gmail.com
Department of Electrical Technology
University of Technology (UoT)
Nowshera
Pakistan

Khalil Ullah
Department of Electrical Engineering
National University of Computers & Emerging Sciences
Peshawar
Pakistan

Hafeez Ur Rehman
Department of Computer Science
National University of Computers & Emerging Sciences
Peshawar
Pakistan

Inam Bari
Department of Electrical Engineering
National University of Computers & Emerging Sciences
Peshawar
Pakistan

Leonardo M. Reyneri
Department of Electronics and Telecommunications
Politecnico di Torino
Torino, Italy

ABSTRACT
Recently, universities and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) have initiated the develop-
ment of nanosatellites because of their low cost, small size and short development time. The

Received 6 January 2017; revised 9 September 2017; accepted 18 September 2017.

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2 The Aeronautical Journal

challenging aspects for these satellites are their small surface area for heat dissipation due to
their limited size. There is not enough space for mounting radiators for heat dissipation. As a
result, thermal modelling becomes a very important element in designing a small satellite. The
paper presents detailed and simplified generic thermal models for CubeSat panels and also
for the complete satellite. The detailed model takes all thermal resistances associated with the
respective layers into account, while in the simplified model, the layers with similar materials
have been combined and are represented by a single thermal resistance. The proposed
models are then applied to a CubeSat standard nanosatellite called AraMiS-C1, developed at
Politecnico di Torino, Italy. Thermal resistance measured through both models is compared,
and the results are similar. The absorbed power and the corresponding temperature differences
between different points of the single panel and complete satellite are measured. In order to
verify the theoretical results, thermal resistance of the AraMiS-C1 and its panels are measured
through experimental set-ups. Theoretical and measured values are in close agreement.

Keywords: satellite; thermal modelling; thermal resistance; module

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there has been an increasing trend towards the design and development of
nanosatellites. They are cost effective and are often launched as secondary payloads with
larger spacecraft. The first nanosatellite, developed by California Polytechnic State University
(Cal Poly) in collaboration with Stanford University, is called CubeSat with dimensions
101010 cm3 and mass less than 1.33 kg(1) . This has opened a window of research for uni-
versities and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) worldwide in the field of nanosatellites.
The Department of Electronics and Telecommunication (DET) at Politecnico di Torino has
been working on a comprehensive nanosatellite project called AraMiS (Italian acronym for
Modular Architecture of Satellites) since 2007(2) . The design process of AraMiS is based on
the concept of tiles and modules(3,4) . These modules can be reused for multiple missions,
which help to significantly reduce the overall cost, development and testing time(5) . One has
to just reassemble the required sub-systems to achieve the targeted specific mission. AraMiS-
C1 is a 1U CubeSat standard nanosatellite, developed by the DET as a demonstrator of the
AraMiS modular architecture. Six faces of the satellite are equipped with identical tiles
called CubeSat Power Management Tile (CubePMT). Inside the satellite, there is room for
batteries and payload boards. Solar panels are fixed and mounted on six external surfaces.
CubePMT is a power management, attitude determination and control tile of AraMiS-
C1(6,7) . It is built on eight layers of FR4 Printed Circuit Board (PCB) with dimensions
9882.51.6 mm3 , which also acts as the mechanical structure of the satellite. The solar
panel and sun sensor are mounted on the external side (layer 1) while power and attitude
sub-systems are mounted on the internal side (layer 8). A magnetorquer coil with 200 turns is
integrated within the PCBs four internal layers (layers 2, 3, 4 and 5)(8) . Layer 6 has the ground
plane while Layer 7 contains partial ground planes. Photographs of the CubePMT solar panel
and component side are shown in Fig. 1.
A comprehensive and precise thermal analysis is an essential element in the development
cycle of small satellites. Thermal control is critical to the success of any spacecraft mission,
and without a proper thermal control system, the extreme temperature variations during flight
may exceed component operating temperature ranges, leading to performance degradation
or even permanent damage. On the other hand, NASAs Guidelines for Satellites hardware
thermal analysis warns that a conventional thermal control system may need extra space,
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 3

Figure 1. (Colour online) Photographs of AraMiS-C1 and CubePMT module.

power and, furthermore, to increase the overall weight of the satellite(9) . The CubeSats are
very attractive for universities and SMEs because of their short development times, lower
development cost and relative simplicity compared to big satellites. However, due to the
limited size, thermal control may be more difficult than with their larger counterparts. Smaller
surface area provides less space for radiators and solar panels, as well as less thermal paths
and interfaces for radiators or other thermal control hardware. It means that adding active
thermal control systems to small satellites is not a suitable solution for their thermal control.
The proper solution is the passive one, i.e. by making small satellite structure suitable for
efficient heat dissipation. This paper provides a thermal modelling technique for analysing the
satellites structure as a network of thermal resistances.
This paper includes the following sections. Section 2 discusses the background and
literature review while Section 3 discusses the methodology for detailed and simplified generic
thermal model of the CubeSat and its panels. In Section 4, the thermal modelling presented in
Section 3 is applied to AraMiS-C1 and its panels and their thermal resistances are measured.
In Section 5, the thermal resistances evaluated via the thermal models presented in Section 3
are verified through laboratory experiments. The measurements regarding the absorbed power
and the corresponding temperature differences between different points of the single panel
and complete satellite are described in Section 6. The last Section 7 concludes the paper. The
paper is basically based on the work Dr. Anwar Ali did during his PhD research(10) .

2.0 BACKGROUND & LITERATURE REVIEW

Heat is generated by the satellite sub-systems as well as absorbed from the environment. In
space, heat transfers through conduction and radiation; there is no convection heat transfer(11) .
Therefore, the satellite face in front of the sun has higher temperature, while the opposite
side has a very low temperature. The temperature difference between the hot and cool face
depends on the thermal resistance of the satellite. If the satellite material has a high thermal
resistance, heat does not quickly dissipate to the cooler face and is trapped in the hotter side
of the satellite which increases further the sub-systems temperature mounted on that side.
The high temperature degrades the performance and reduces the lifetime of the satellite sub-
systems. The thermal resistance is related to the spacecraft structure material and the design
dimensions.
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4 The Aeronautical Journal

T_material_1 _material_1 _material_2 T_material_1 _material_1 _material_2

T C_material_1 C_material_2 T
(material_1 (material_1
Material_1
& &
material_2) material_2)

Material_2 T_material_2 T_material_2

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. (a) Object composed of two materials (b) Transient thermal model (c) Steady state thermal
model.

2.1 Temperature difference

When an object is exposed to the sun, some portion of the solar power is absorbed by the
object and the remaining power is reflected back from the object surface. Absorbed power (P)
is given by Equation (1).

P = Pd S, (1)

where is the absorption coefficient of the exposed surface, Pd is the solar power density, S
is the exposed surface area and P is the power absorbed by the surface.
When solar panels are exposed to the solar power, they absorb some portion of the incoming
solar power and the remaining power is transmitted to the satellite sub-systems. The power
absorbed by the solar panel is transformed to useful power where as the power transmitted to
the satellite is stored as unwanted heat power. The unwanted power (Pu ) depends on Pd , solar
panel conversion efficiency (), absorption coefficient (), and S, given by Equation (2).

Pu = Pd S (1 ) (2)

Based on the analogy between thermal and electrical networks with the respective
components and parameters, in thermal domain, Ohms law(12) is given by Equation (3).

T = P th , (3)

where T is the temperature difference across an object, P is the power dissipated and th is
the thermal resistance which can be found using the Fouriers Law for heat conduction(13) .

2.2 Thermal model

Thermal systems can be modelled as a network of thermal resistances and thermal capacitors.
Suppose that an object is composed of two materials attached with each other as shown in
Fig. 2.
The transient and steady state thermal models between the top surface of material_1 and
bottom surface of material_2 for the object shown in Fig. 2(a) are given in Fig. 2(b) and (c),
respectively. Where T is the temperature difference between material_1 and material_2;
T_material_1 is the top surface temperature of material_1; T_material_2 is the bottom surface
temperature of material_2; _material_1 is the thermal resistance of material_1; _material_2
is the thermal resistance of material_2; C_material_1 is the thermal capacitance of material_1;
and C_material_2 is the thermal capacitance of material_2.
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 5

S2 A

S1

D
B

Figure 3. (Colour online) Thermo-mechanical model of CubeSat panel.

The transient thermal model is composed of both thermal resistances and thermal
capacitances of the respective materials. In the steady state model, when the power and
temperature reach the constant levels, the thermal capacitors are fully charged and can be
neglected from the thermal model as shown in Fig. 2(b).
Thermal modelling has immense importance in the structural design of small satellites;
therefore, various attempts have been made to accurately present thermal models of small
satellites. In Ref. 14, the Adaptive Thermal Modelling Architecture (ATMA) has been
discussed which focuses to bridge the gap between the commercially available thermal
modelling tools used for larger, more expensive satellites, and the low-fidelity algorithms and
techniques used for simple first order analysis. Work in Ref. 15 addresses thermal modelling
used during the design and analysis of the Combat Sentinel Satellite (CSSAT). An overview of
the analysis is used to make design decisions and create working thermal models. In Ref. 16,
thermal models of various spacecraft sub-systems have been created using MatLab and used
to simulate projected operational modes of the satellite and the effects on major satellite sub-
systems. As compared to all the previously developed models, our presented model is very
simple, accurate, and robust which requires no special tool. The model is composed of detailed
and simplified models for CubeSat and its panels.

3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Thermo-mechanical model of the CubeSat panel
Normally on CubeSat, six faces are equipped with identical panels that are dual purpose:
generating power as well as providing mechanical structure of the satellite. These panels are
combined into a cube structure with the help of aluminum rails. The thermo-mechanical model
of the CubeSat panel is shown in Fig. 3.
The generalised thermal models have been presented for a generic CubeSat panel. The
composition of materials and dimensions of the CubeSat panel may vary from satellite
to satellite. Here, it is assumed that the CubeSat panel under discussion is composed of
solar cells, resin, FR4 and copper materials. For simplification and better understanding, the
thermo-mechanical model of the CubeSat panel shown in Fig. 3 is sub-divided further into
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6 The Aeronautical Journal

Top_Layer

s
R

R
F-1
Solar cell
Resin

Cu_b2_3 F_b2_3

Cu_d2_3 F_d2_3
Layer 1

F_a2_3

F_c2_3

F_e2_3
Layer 2
a b c d e

Layer 3

Cu_4
Layer 4

Ground plane Copper traces

F_4
Bottom_Layer
(a) (b)

Figure 4. (Colour online) CubeSat panel (a) cross-sectional view (b) detailed model.

three portions and corresponding detailed and simplified thermal models for the three portions
of the CubeSat panel are presented.

3.1.1 Top-to-bottom thermal model of the CubeSat panel

The top-to-bottom thermal (S1 to S2 face) model of the CubeSat panel shown in Fig. 3 has
been found using detailed and simplified models. In the detailed model, thermal resistances
associated with each sub-section are presented, while in the simplified model, the different
sub-sections of similar material are merged and represented with a single resistor. Therefore,
in the simplified model, the computation becomes easier because the total number of resistors
is reduced.

3.1.1.1 Detailed thermal model

The cross-sectional view of the generalised structure of CubeSat panel and the corresponding
detailed thermal model are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b) respectively. The CubeSat panel under
consideration is composed of four layers of FR4 PCB. The solar cells are attached on layer 1
using a thermally conductive resin as highlighted in Fig. 4(a). Layers 2 and 3 are embedded
inside FR4 and have different layers of copper traces of certain dimensions. The internal layers
may have different numbers of copper traces of certain dimensions. Layer 4 has the ground
plane.
In order to get a detailed model, the panel has been divided into different sub-sections
with respect to the type of material. Each sub-section has an associated thermal resistance, as
depicted in the detailed model of Fig. 4(b). The value of the thermal resistance depends on the
length, width and material type of the respective sub-section. In the detailed model, the solar
cell resistance (s ) is in series with its resin resistance (R ), while the combination of these
two is in parallel with the series connection of second solar cell and resin thermal resistances.
In thermal resistance representation, denotes the resistor, F represents FR4, Cu represents
copper, letters of the alphabet (a, b, c, d, e) represent the respective sub-section, and numbers
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 7

Top_Layer

S
R
98mm

F_a
Cu_c
Cu_d F_b
a
b c b c b
d

Ground Plane
Coil traces combined Bottom_Layer
together
(a) (b)

Figure 5. (Colour online) (a) Panel top-to-bottom cross-sectional view and (b) panel simplified model.

(1, 2, 3, 4) represent the relevant layers. For example F_a2_3 represents the thermal resistance
of FR4 material in sub-section a of layers 2 and 3.
The thermal resistance of Fig. 4(b) is modelled as given in Equation (4).

th_S1S2 = S +
2
R
+ F _1 + F _a2_3 //(Cu_b2_3 + F _b2_3 )//
(4)
F _c2_3 //(Cu_d2_3 + F _d2_3 )//F _e2_3 + Cu_4 + F _4

3.1.1.2 Simplified thermal model

The simplified model is obtained by merging different sub-sections of the panel with the same
material. The copper traces of different layers are merged into a single trace; similarly, FR4
material of the whole panel is also combined together. As a result, the FR4 and copper reduces
to four sub-sections (a, b, c and d), as shown in Fig. 5(a). Sub-sections a and b have FR4
material while sub-sections c and d have copper. The parallel combination of the two
solar cell resistors is represented by a single thermal resistance (S ) and the associated resin
resistors are also represented by a single thermal resistance (R ). The modelling representation
is identical to the previous one. Thermal model of Fig. 5(b) is written in mathematical form
as given in Equation (5).

thS1S2 = S + R + F _a + Cu_c //F _b + Cu_d (5)

3.1.2 Edge-to-edge thermal model of the CubeSat panel

Thermal resistance between the two sides B and D of the panel also called edge-to-edge
thermal resistance (th_BD or EE ), as shown in Fig. 3, is found using the proposed detailed
and simplified thermal models discussed in the subsequent sections.

3.1.2.1 Detailed thermal model

The panel has been divided into small sub-sections of different lengths with respect to the type
of material as shown in Fig. 6. The sub-sections a and e have pure FR4 material in layers 1,
2, and 3 while the ground plane is embedded in layer 4. Similarly the sub-sections b, c and d
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8 The Aeronautical Journal

Side B Copper traces Resin

F_a1_4
a
b

Cu_b3

Cu_b2
F_b3

F_b2

S
Layer 4

Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1

POS
F_c3

Cu_c3

Cu_c2
Cu_g4

F_f1
F_c2
g

F_f4
c
f

S
R
Cu_d3

Cu_d2
F_d3

F_d2
d

F_e1_4
e

Side D Ground Plane Solar Cell

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6. (Colour online) Panel (a) internal view (b) side view (c) detailed thermal model.

consist of both FR4 and copper traces. In sub-sections b and d, the individual resistance of
the copper traces is in series with each other while in sub-section c, copper traces resistance
is in parallel with each other. Sub-section f has the FR4 material of layers 1 and 4, while sub-
section g has the ground plane. The thermal model is obtained by combining the thermal
resistance associated with each sub-section. The solar panel internal view, side view and edge-
to-edge detailed thermal model are shown in Fig. 6.
The thermal model of Fig. 6(c) is written in mathematical form as given in Equation (6)
where I represents the number of layers that have copper traces and j represents the
number of ground planes.

 
F _b //Cu_b +F _c //Cu_c +F _d //Cu_d
thBD = EE = (2(R //S ) + POS )// i
Cu_g4
(6)
//F _ f 1 //F _ f 4 + F _a1_4 + F _e1_4 )// j

3.1.2.2 Simplified model

The detailed model from edge to edge of the panel is very complicated and requires complex
computations of resistors as it is apparent from Fig. 6(c). Through a simplified model, the
complex system is made simpler by combining different sub-sections of the panel having
similar material. The copper traces in different layers are merged into a single trace. Similarly,
the FR4 material is also shifted and combined.
The equivalent thermal model for the half portion of the panel is shown in Fig. 7(b), the
other half being identical. Sub-section a has pure FR4 material, while sub-sections b and
c consist of copper traces and FR4 material.
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 9

F_a1_4
a

RCu_c2_3 Cu_b2_3
F_b1_4
b
d

S
Cu_d4
c
C=98mm

F_c1_4

POS/2
D
(a) (b)

Figure 7. (Colour online) (a) Panel shape after combining similar material; (b) Panel half portion simplified
model.

R1

R2
dR

Figure 8. (Colour online) Thermal resistance between two circles.

The simplified thermal model of a complete panel shown in Fig. 7 is given in

Equation (7).

thBD = EE = 2[(F _a1_4 + (F _b1_4 //Cu_b2_3 + F _c1_4 //Cu_c2_3 )

(7)
//(s //R + POS
2
))//Cu_d4 ]

3.1.3 Centre-to-edge thermal model of the CubeSat panel

The centre-to-edge thermal model is based on the thermal resistance between two circles as
shown in Fig. 8. The solar power is impinging on the circle with radius R1 and spreads to the
circle with radius R2 .
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10 The Aeronautical Journal

The solar power (P) absorbed by the circle with radius R is given by Equation (8);

P = Pd R2 , (8)

where Pd is the solar power density and is the absorption coefficient of the circle with
radius R.
The temperature difference (T) of the length dR is given by Equation (9).

dT = Pd
dT = P K2R.h
dR
Pd
dT = Pd R2 K2R.h dR
= 2Kh RdR
R2 
R2 (9)
RdR = (R4Kh
2 R1 )
2 2

dT = 2PPddKh
R1 R1
Pd
T = 4Kh
(R2 2 R1 2 )

Here, K is the thermal conductivity of the material and h is the thickness of the circular
section.
Thermal resistance of the section with length dR, as shown in Fig. 8, is given by Equation
(10).

T
 = P
Pd RT 2 (10)

 = 4Kh
Pd RT 2
= 4Kh

Therefore, the thermal resistance of a circular section depends on the thickness of that
section and the material absorption coefficient ().

3.1.3.1 Detailed thermal model

Assume the panel consists of three concentric circles with radius R1 , R2 and R3 , respectively,
with centre R0 as shown in Fig. 9. The section between the radii R1 and R0 contains FR4
material and also ground plane (extended in layer 4). The sub-section between circle R1 and
R2 contains copper traces, FR4 material, and ground plane. The sub-section between circles
R2 and R3 contains FR4 material and ground plane. The centre-to-edge detailed thermal model
is shown in Fig. 9(c). Here RiRj (i, j = 0, 1, 2, 3) represents the sub-sections amongst four
circles. For example, F_2_R1R2 represents the thermal resistance of FR4 material in layer 2
of the sub-section between circles R1 and R2. The rest of the modelling representation is
identical to the previous models.
The thermal model of Fig. 9(c) is written in mathematical form as given in Equation (11).

th_CE = S //R //F _1_R0 R3 //F _2_R0 R3 //(F _2_R0 R1

+ Cu_2_R1 R2 + F _2_R2 R3 )//F _3_R0 R1 //(F _3_R0 R1 (11)
+ Cu_3_R1 R2 + F _3_R2 R3 )//Cu_4_R0 R3 //F _4_R0 R3

3.1.3.2 Simplified thermal model

The centre-to-edge simplified thermal model is given in Fig. 10(c) which is written in
mathematical form as given in Equation (12). The thermal modelling representation is
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Solar Power Solar Power

Layer-1
Ali ET AL

Layer-1
Layer-2
Layer-2

(a)
Layer-3

(a)
Copper traces

Layer-3
Layer-4

Copper traces
Layer-4

Ground Plane

Ground Plane

identical to the previous models.

Ro
B

(b)
R
1
R3
R

D
2

(b)
R0
R1
R3

R2
S

thCE = S //R //F _4_R0 R3 //Cu_4_R0 R3

R

F_1_RoR3

//(F _2_3_R0 R1 + Cu_2_3_R1 R2 + F _2_3_R2 R3 )

S
F_2_RoR3
Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling...

Edge

R F_2_RoR1 Cu_2_R1R2 F_2_R2R3

(c)
Centre

F_4_R0R3 F_3_RoR3
Edge

Centre
Figure 9. (Colour online) Panel (a) side view (b) internal view (c) detailed model.

(c)

Figure 10. (Colour online) Panel (a) side view (b) internal view (c) simplified model.
F_3_RoR1 Cu_3_R1R2 F_3_R2R3
Cu_4_R0R3 F_2_3_R2R3
Cu_4_RoR3

F_2_3_R0R1 Cu_2_3_R1R2 F_4_RoR3

(12)
11
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12 The Aeronautical Journal

Incoming solar Reflected solar

power q_1 power
Rail-q-1 il-2 Rail_q_1

ew
_
ail

ew
Ra

cr
R

cr
Screw

S
cre

S
w
cre
4CE 4CE Rail_2 1

S
_1 q_

E
1 il_

C
S
q q_
a il _ Ra

4
R Rail-2 a il_

E
2

Rail_1
w

Rail_2
Screw R

w
_

C
w ail

cre
cre

c re
S R

S
Rail_q_1 Rail-q-1 S
cre

Rail-2
w

ew
S

th_CE
cr
cre

S
w
Rail_1

Rail_1
_q
4CE CE
2 4
_ q_
ail q
R E_
Rail_q_2 4CE_q 4CE_q Rail-q-2 4
C

th_CE

Rail_1
4CE

S
Rail_1

cr
Rail_1

Rail_2
S

ew
cre
w
ew

S
cr

_1
S

cr
Rail_2

_q
ew

a il
Rail_q_1 R
Rail_q_1

Figure 11. (Colour online) CubeSat with thermal resistances.

3.2 CubeSat thermal model

In the CubeSat thermal model, we are interested to measure the thermal resistance of the
CubeSat from the centre of the top panel to the centre of the bottom panel. To develop this
model, either the centre-to-edge thermal resistance model (CE ) or the edge-to-edge thermal
resistance model (EE ) of the CubeSat panel can be used. When two CE are added in series
results in equivalent EE . Here, CE is used to develop the CubeSat thermal model shown in
Figs. 1113.
In the CubeSat thermal modelling, it is assumed that solar power is impinging on
the panel centre on one face of the satellite and equally spread out (/6 to each panel)
to the coolest point on the opposite face of the satellite. Each panel, rail and screw has an
associated thermal resistance. CE is divided into four parallel resistances, each of 4CE which
is connected with lateral rails either direct or through screws. 4CE is in series with the parallel
combination of two screw resistance (Screw ) and one lateral rail resistance (Rail_2 ). Rail-1-q is
the aluminum rail-to-rail thermal resistance on equi-potential surface (represented with a bold
line in Fig. 12). At this point, thermal modelling of the top tile is completed. After this, the
middle four tiles and the bottom tile have their thermal resistances. In their thermal models,
the centre of each tile is represented by a circle with a cross (), i.e. six tiles have six centres
represented with letters C1 to C6. The corners of the satellite are represented by a circle with
a dot (). The centre of the rails is represented with a small circle as shown in Fig. 13. Each
tile has 4CE resistance from the centre to the rail. The next tile is connected with the previous
one through rails, and screws have resistances Rail_2 and Screw , respectively, and their parallel
combination is connected in series with 4CE . The surfaces on the CubeSat thermal model at
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 13

=PS PC - PR
/6

4CE

4CE

4CE

4CE
Centre of the top tile
(C1)
re w
S c S w S rew S
Rail_2 Rail_2

Rail_2 Rail_2
w cr e

Rail-2 Rail_2
cre cre
Sc

Rail-2 Rail_2
Sc rew
S w S c re
w
cre
w
Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1
S r ew

Rail_1

Rail_1

Rail_1
S cre
w S rew Sc re w
cre
w Sc
Sc

Equipotential surfaces
cre
w S cre
w Sc rew
Rail_1

4CE

4CE

4CE
C3 C4
4CE

C2 C5
Rail_q_2 4CE_q 4CE_q 4CE_q 4CE_q 4CE_q 4CE_q 4CE_q
4CE_q Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2 Rail_q_2

4CE

4CE
/6

4CE
/6 /6 /6
4CE

Rail-1

Rail-1
Rail-1
Rail_1

w S w Sc S w S
cre cre r ew cre
Rail-2 Rail_2

cre
Rail-2

Rail-2 Rail_2 4CE

Rail-2 Rail_2
c re cre
S w S r ew Sc w S w
Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1 Rail_q_1
Rail_2

S cre
w S cre
w Sc cre
w
S
cre
w S cre
w S rew S cre
w cre
w
S
4CE

4CE
4CE

/6

Centre of the bottom tile

(C6)

Figure 12. (Colour online) CubeSat thermal model along with equi-potential surfaces resistors.

=PS PC - PR
Centre of the top tile /6
4CE Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE

4CE Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE

4CE

4CE

w S S w S w S
c re
Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE

cre cre
cr e
w cre cre
Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE

cre cr e
S w
S w S w S w

S
cre Screw
Rail_1

Rail_1

Rail_1

S S w
cre
w
cre
w S cre w
cre
w S cre
w S cre
w
S
Rail_1

4CE

4CE

4CE

/6
4CE

/6 /6 /6
Rail_1

Rail_1

Rail_1

Rail_1

S S S S
w r ew w w
Rail_2 Rail_2

cre cre
Rail_2 Rail_2

cre cre
Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE

Rail_2 Rail_2

S cre
Sc cre cre
S w
w w S w
Rail-q-1

S cre
w S cre
w S cre
w
S
cre S cre S c re S c re w
w w w w cre
S
4CE

4CE
4CE

/6
Centre of the bottom tile

Figure 13. (Colour online) CubeSat thermal model without equi-potential surface resistors.

the same temperature level are termed as equi-potential surfaces. The resistors on the equi-
potential surfaces are represented with sub-script q. The temperature difference across the
equi-potential surfaces resistance is zero; therefore, these resistors do not contribute to the
thermal model and can be omitted from the CubeSat thermal model. The CubeSat thermal
model without equi-potential thermal resistances is shown in Fig. 13.
The only power source of the CubeSat is the six solar panels covering as many faces of the
satellite. By taking into account that only one panel is exposed at a time to sunlight, here are
two cases where the power absorbed by the panel may be different. When the solar panel is on,
it absorbs some portion of the incoming solar power (PS ) and the remaining power is reflected
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14 The Aeronautical Journal

(PR ) from the surface. The amount of absorbed power depends on the absorption coefficient
() of the exposed surface. Some portion of the absorbed power is converted to useful power
(PC ), which depends on the efficiency () of the solar panel. The remaining absorbed power
is transmitted to the satellite, which is the unwanted power (), as given by Equation (13).

 = PS PR PC PS PR = Pd S
(13)
 = Pd S (1 ) &PC = (PS PR ) = Pd S

Here, Pd is the solar power density at Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is about 1,366 W/m2 and S
is the area of the exposed surface.
When the solar panel is off, no power is converted to useful power and all the radiating
power is transferred to the satellite.

 = Pd S (14)

The unwanted power () starts flowing to the coolest point on the satellite which is the
centre point on the opposite face, as shown in Fig. 13. This power tends to increase the overall
temperature of the satellite. The unwanted power () flows to all the six faces and is equally
distributed amongst them (/6 to each face).
The thermal model of Fig. 13 can be written in mathematical form as given in Equation
(15). The symbol abbreviations used in Equation (15) are given in Table 2.

   1
4CE + Rail_2 // Screw 4 4
th = 2 2
+2 + (15)
4 4CE + Rail2 // Screw
2
Rail_1

4.0 THERMAL MODEL APPLICATION ON CUBESAT

STANDARD NANOSATELLITE ARAMIS-C1
4.1 Thermal resistance of the AraMiS-C1 panels
As already mentioned, four sides of the AraMiS-C1 are equipped with four identical
CubePMT and the remaining two sides have CubeSat Tele-Communication Tiles (CubeTCT).
In order to find the thermal resistance of AraMiS-C1, it is first required to find the thermal
resistances of the CubePMT and CubeTCT. The thermal models presented for the CubeSat
panel in the previous section are applied to the CubePMT and CubeTCT and their thermal
resistances are measured.
The CubePMT module has an almost identical structure with the CubeSat panel with just
increased number of layers, copper traces and ground planes. Changing the number of layers
and traces will modify the dimensions of the respective sub-sections which will result in
different thermal resistance values for the CubePMT as compared to CubeSat panel. The
thermal resistance model will remain the same as that of the CubeSats panel. The CubePMT
top-to-bottom and centre-to-edge thermal resistances have been measured by applying the
CubeSat panel top-to-bottom and centre-to-edge detailed and simplified thermal models
presented in the previous sections. The values for these resistances are given in Table 1.
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 15

Table 1
Thermal resistances for the AraMiS-C1 thermal model theoretical
measurements

Thermal Resistance Thermal Resistance

Symbol Name Value
CE _P centre-to-edge thermal resistance of CubePMT 3.66K/W
CE _C centre-to-edge thermal resistance of CubeTCT 0.28K/W
Al _Tile thermal resistance of aluminum tile 0.056K/W
Screw screw thermal resistance 5.64K/W
Rail_A thermal resistance of rail_A 13.23K/W
Rail_1 thermal resistance of rail_1 6.6K/W
Rail_B thermal resistance of rail_B 0.3K/W
Rail_2 thermal resistance of rail_2 0.6K/W

Figure 14. (Colour online) Measurement arrangements of AraMiS-C1. (a) Power resistor attached with
CubeTCT through aluminum tile. (b) AraMiS-C1 with four CubePMT without solar cells and two CubeTCT
tiles.

4.2 Thermal resistance of AraMiS-C1 utilising the CubeSat model

The CubeSat model presented in the previous section is used to measure the thermal
resistance of AraMiS-C1. This theoretical measured resistance is then verified through a lab
experimental set-up explained in the next section. For practical measurement of the equivalent
thermal resistance of AraMiS-C1, a heat source is required to supply thermal power to the
satellite comparable to the incoming solar power. For this purpose, a solar simulator can be
used; but these measurements were performed inside a vacuum chamber. In that case, it is
impossible to take the solar simulator inside the vacuum chamber. For this purpose, a 2.2
and 100 W resistor is used that can raise the satellite one face temperature equivalent to the
temperature increase by the sunlight at AM0. This resistor was attached with the CubeTCT
through an aluminum piece as shown in Fig. 14. Due to the addition of an aluminum piece,
a little modification is made in the CubeSat thermal model shown in Fig. 13. A thermal
resistance in the form of an aluminum piece (Al ) has been added in parallel with the top
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16 The Aeronautical Journal

=PS PC - PR
Centre of the top tile /6
4CE_C

4CE_C Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE_P

4CE_C

4CE_C
AL

AL

AL

AL
w S S w S w S
cr e
Rail_2 Rail_2
cre w cre

Rail_2 Rail_2
cre cre
cre cre S cre

Rail_2 Rail_2
S w
S w S w w

S
Screw

Rail_1
cre

Rail_1
S S w
rew S cre

Rail_1
w w
cre c cre cre S
w S w S cre
w
Rail_1

4CE_P 4CE_P

4CE_P

4CE_P
/6 4CE_P

4CE_P

4CE_P
Rail_1
/6 /6 /6
Rail_1

Rail_1
Rail_1

w S w S w S w S
Rail_2 Rail_2

c re cre cre
Rail_2 Rail_2
cre cre

Rail_2 Rail_2 4CE-C

Rail_2 Rail_2
cre cre
S w S cre
w S w S w

S cre
w S cre
w S cre
w
S
cre S cre S cre S cre w
w w w w cre
S
4CE-C

4CE-C
4CE-C

/6
Centre of the bottom tile

Figure 15. (Colour online) Equivalent thermal model of the AraMiS-C1 measurement arrangement.

tile, and the thermal resistance from centre-to-edge (CE ) has been modified with (CE_C ) and
(CE_P ), which represent CubeTCT centre-to-edge thermal resistance and CubePMT centre-
to-edge thermal resistance, respectively, as shown in Fig. 15.
The equivalent thermal model of the AraMiS-C1 satellite with the measurement
arrangement is shown in Fig. 15.

   
4CE _C //4Al + Rail_2 // Screw 4CE _C + Rail_2 // Screw
th = 2
+ 2
4 4
 1
4 4
+2 + (16)
4CE _P + Rail_2 // Screw
2
Rail_1

The thermal model of Fig. 15 is mathematically expressed in Equation (16). This model
is identical to that of the CubeSat thermal model except the aluminum resistor is in parallel
with the CubeTCT tile. In the CubeSat model, there is CubePMT thermal resistance instead
of CubeTCT and aluminum thermal resistances parallel combination.
In thermal measurements, the CubePMT was without solar cells and resins. Therefore,
these two resistors were omitted in the theoretical measurements. All the required resistors for
the AraMiS-C1 thermal model theoretical measurements are given in Table 1.
Inserting all the required resistors values in Equation (16), the equivalent thermal resistance
of AraMiS-C1 found is 2.86 K/W.
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 17

Figure 16. (Colour online) AraMiS-C1 thermal resistance measurement experimental set-up.

5.0 THERMAL MODEL VERIFICATION THROUGH

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
In the previous section, the theoretical thermal resistance value of AraMiS-C1 is found
using the thermal model presented for the CubeSat standard nanosatellite. In order to verify
the theoretical results, the practical value of the AraMiS-C1 thermal resistance was found
using the experimental set-up shown in Fig. 16. The set-up is composed of AraMiS-C1 with
measurement arrangements, temperature sensors, a data acquisition system, vacuum chamber
and vacuum pump. A power resistor is attached to the CubeTCT in order to provide power to
the top tile of AraMiS-C1 equivalent to the solar power provided by the AM0 intensity light
in LEO.
In order to find thermal resistance, power absorbed and corresponding temperature
difference values are required. For the AraMiS-C1 thermal resistance measurement, a constant
power will be provided to one side of the satellite and the corresponding temperature
difference between the tile where power is provided and the opposite side of the satellite will
be measured, inside a vacuum chamber. Power applied and the resultant temperature difference
will be recorded, and the resultant thermal resistance of AraMiS-C1 will be measured using
Equation (3). For the AraMiS-C1 solar panel exposed to the sun with an area of 0.008085 m2
(98 mm82.5 mm) and power density in LEO at AM0 is 1,365 W/m2 , the power absorbed by
AraMiS-C1 is 11W (1,365 W/m2 0.008085 m2 ).
In order to provide 11W power to AraMiS-C1, a laboratory set-up is used as shown in
Fig. 16. Constant current of 5A is drawn through a 2.2 power resistor. Three temperature
sensors are attached to the top and bottom CubeTCT tiles and the side CubePMT tile of
AraMiS-C1. Power supplies provide power to the temperature sensors and power resistor. A
data acquisition system acquires data from the sensors.
AraMiS-C1 is placed inside the vacuum chamber. After generating a vacuum inside the
chamber, a constant current of 5A was drawn through the power resistor. The top CubeTCT
tile started heating up and temperature sensors values started increasing. After some time, the
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18 The Aeronautical Journal

Figure 17. (Colour online) Thermal resistance and temperature difference between different faces of
AraMiS-C1 satellite.

Figure 18. (Colour online) CubePMT thermal resistance measurement experimental set-up.

temperature of tiles attained the steady state values, and data from the temperature sensors
became stable. All the sensors data was acquired and continuously recorded during the
experiment.
Figure 17 shows temperatures of top, middle and bottom tiles and their temperature
differences. It also shows thermal resistance between top and bottom tiles, which is 3.1 K/W.
The thermal resistance of AraMiS-C1, found through the CubeSat mathematical model and
experimental set-up, has almost the same value.
Practical resistance of CubePMT and CubeTCT modules are measured through the
experimental set-up shown in Fig. 18. Table 2 shows that there is very little difference
between the theoretical and measured values, which reflects the authenticity of the proposed
models.
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Ali ET AL Thermal characterisation analysis and modelling... 19

Table 2
Thermal model application and measurement results

Theoretical Measured
Thermal Model Resistance Resistance
S. No. Resistance Application (K/W) (K/W) % Error
1 CubePMT Detailed Model 2.07 2.12 6
Top-to-bottom Simplified Model 2
2 CubePMT Detailed Model 3.31 3.4 3
Centre-to-edge Simplified Model 3.32
3 AraMiS-C1 CubeSat Model 2.86 3.1 9

6.0 SOLAR POWER ABSORBED AND TEMPERATURE

DIFFERENCE
The only power source of AraMiS-C1 are the six solar panels covering as many faces of
the satellite. Each solar panel with two solar cells has an area of about 27040 mm2 .
Sun power density at LEO is about 1366 W/m2 . When one panel is exposed at a time to
sunlight, there are two cases where the power absorbed by the CubePMT single module will be
different.

t When the solar panel is on, it absorbs 26% of power and remaining 74% power is lost
through the CubePMT module. The power absorbed by the AraMiS-C1 is 5.1 W.
t When solar panel is off, all the radiating power is transferred to the CubePMT module.
The absorption area (A) is the CubePMT surface area (9882.5 mm2 ) and solar cell
efficiency () will become zero in Equation (2). The power absorbed by the AraMiS-C1
is 11 W.

In order to find the temperature difference (T) between different points of a spacecraft,
thermal resistance and solar power absorbed are required as given in Equation (3).
The temperature difference (T) between various sides of the CubePMT module can be
found using Equation (3) in two different cases:

t When the solar panel is on: T from the top-to-bottom layer of the CubePMT is (5.1 W
2 K/W) 10.2 K, while from centre-to-edge, the T is (5.1 W 3.2 K/W) 16.3 K.
t When the solar panel is off: T from the top-to-bottom layer of the CubePMT is
(11 W2 K/W) 22 K, while from centre-to-edge, the T is (11 W3.2 K/W) 35.2 K.

In case of AraMiS-C1, it is assumed that power is absorbed through a single CubePMT

module perpendicular to the incoming solar radiations. All the other tiles are in the dark. The
temperature difference (T) from top-to-bottom of AraMiS-C1 using Equation (3) can be
found in two different cases:

t In the case when the solar panel is on: T value is (5.1 W 3 K/W) 15.3 K.
t When the solar panel is off: T value is (11 W 3 K/W) 33 K.
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20 The Aeronautical Journal

7.0 CONCLUSION
In this paper, thermal models have been presented for the CubeSat compatible panels and
spacecrafts. The detailed and simplified models proposed for a single panel were presented.
The corresponding models were applied to the AraMiS-C1 panels (CubePMT) and the thermal
resistance values were found. The difference between the resistance values measured through
both models is low that verifies the verification of the proposed models.
The thermal resistance of the whole system was found by employing the presented CubeSat
thermal model. In order to verify the value of the thermal resistance measured through the
CubeSat model, the AraMiS-C1 thermal resistance was measured through an experimental
set-up. The minimum deviation of the theoretical and experimental results indicates the
verification of the model presented for CubeSat. In conclusion, the presented models are
reliable and can be applied to any CubeSat standard nanosatellites. The calculated and
measured thermal resistance values of our test spacecraft are very low which qualifies the
thermal design of our test spacecraft. The low thermal resistance ensures that the spacecraft
can easily dissipate heat from a hotter to a cooler surface.
The amount of power absorbed by the CubePMT module and AraMiS-C1 satellite under
different conditions is calculated. Temperature differences between different points of the
single tile and complete satellite were measured.
The presented models and measurement techniques can be used for the measurement of
thermal resistance, power absorption and temperature difference between different points of
the CubeSat standard nanosatellites.

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