Dutch phonology
For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Dutch for
Wikipedia articles, see Help:IPA for Dutch.
Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Ger-
manic languages.
1 Consonants
The following table shows the consonant phonemes of
Dutch:
1.1 Obstruents
The glottal stop [] is inserted before vowel-initial
syllables within words after /a/ and // and often also
at the beginning of a word.
Apart from /r/, all alveolar consonants are
laminal[1][2] and can be realized as denti-alveolar in
Belgium.
/b/ and /d/ are fully voiced.[1]
/a/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only
in borrowed words, like goal. In native words, []
occurs as an allophone of /k/ when it undergoes voic-
ing assimilation, like in zakdoek [zduk].
In the north, // often devoices and merges with /x/;
the quality of that merged sound has been variously
described as:
Voiceless post-velar trill fricative [] which,
before /j/, can be fronted to [];[3]
Voiceless post-velar [x ] or uvular []
fricative.[4]
In the south, the distinction between /x/ and // is
generally preserved as velar [x ] or post-palatal [x
].[4][5][6] Some southern speakers may alternate
between the velar and post-palatal articulation, de-
pending on the backness of the preceding or suc- 1.2 Sonorants
ceeding vowel. Velar, post-velar and uvular variants
are called harde g hard g, while the post-palatal
variants are called zachte g soft g. There is also a
third variant called zwakke harde g weak hard g,
in which // is realized as [] and /x/ is realized as
[h] and is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which
are h-dropping areas, so that // does not merge with
glottal variants of // and /x/.
In the Netherlands, /v/ can devoice and merge with
//.[4][7] According to Collins & Mees (2003), there
are hardly any speakers of what they call Standard
Netherlandic Dutch who consistently contrast /v/
with //.[7] In Frisian accents of Dutch, word-initial
/v/ is always realized as [].
In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch
(such as the Amsterdam accent)[7] also /z/ can de-
voice and merge with /s/.[4][7] In Frisian accents of
Dutch, word-initial /z/ is always realized as [s].
Speakers who devoice /v/ and /z/ may also hyper-
correctively voice // and /s/: concert concert
may thus be [knzrt] compared to the more usual
[knsrt].
Some speakers pronounce // as a voiceless [h]. In
Frisian accents of Dutch, word-initial // is always
realized as [h]. Some dialects, particularly those
from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping.
In the Netherlands, /s/ and /z/ may have only mid-to-
low pitched friction,[1][8] and for many Netherlandic
speakers, they are retracted.[8] In Belgium, they are
more similar to English /s z/.[8]
The sequences /sj/ and /zj/ are often assimilated to
palatalised [s z], alveolo-palatal [ ], postalveolar
[ ] or similar realisations.
The sequence /kj/ is assimilated to a voiceless post-
palatal aricate [c ].[9]
// and // are not native phonemes of Dutch and usu-
ally occur only in borrowed words, like show and
bagage baggage. Depending on the speaker and
the position in the word, they may or may not be dis-
tinct from the assimilated realisations of the clusters
/sj/ and /zj/. If they are not distinct, they will have
the same range of realisations noted above.
/m/ and /n/ assimilate their articulation to a follow-
ing obstruent in many cases:
Both become [m] before /p/ and /b/, and []
before // and /v/.
/n/ merges into // before velars (/k x /).
The realisation of //, in turn, depends on how
1
2 1 CONSONANTS

a following velar fricative is realised. For ex- The realization of // also varies somewhat by area
ample, it will be uvular [] for speakers who and speaker:
realise /x/ and // as uvulars.
/n/ may be realised as [] before /j/.[10] That
The main realisation is a labiodental approx-
occurs also before // or // and, under assim-
imant [], found particularly in the Nether-
ilation, before /sj/ and /zj/.
lands.
The exact pronunciation of /l/ varies regionally:
A number of dialects in Belgium[17][18] and the
In the North, /l/ is 'clear' before vowels and southern Netherlands use a bilabial approxi-
'dark' before consonants and pauses. Inter- mant [], which is like [w] but without strong
vocalic /l/ tends to be clear except after the velarization.
open back vowels / /. However, some speak-
ers use the dark variant in all intervocalic In Suriname and among immigrant popula-
contexts.[11] tions, [w] is usual.
Some accents, such as the Amsterdam and the
Rotterdam ones, have dark /l/ in all positions.
Conversely, some accents in the eastern re- The nal 'n' of the ending -en (originally /n/, with a
gions, along the German border (for exam- variety of meanings) is not pronounced in many areas
ple around Nijmegen), as well as some Stan- unless when one stresses the word, which makes those
dard Belgian speakers, have clear /l/ in all words homophonous with forms without the -n. It is
contexts.[11] dropped both word-nally and word-internally in com-
pound words. The pronunciation can be morphologically
The quality of dark /l/ varies; in the North it sensitive and can distinguish words, as the -n is dropped
is pharyngealized [l], but in a nal position, only when it is part of the distinct ending -en but not when
many speakers produce a strongly pharyngeal- the word has a single stem ending in -en. Thus, the word
ized vocoid with no alveolar contact ([]) in- teken ('I draw') always retains its -n because it is part of an
stead. In Belgium, it is either velarized [l] or indivisible stem whereas in teken ('ticks) it is dropped be-
post-palatalized [l].[12] cause it is a plural ending. These words are, therefore, not
The realization of /r/ phoneme varies considerably homophones in dialects that drop -n despite being spelled
from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in identically.
the same dialect area: Final -n is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and
the South West (East and West Flemish), where it is the
The historically original pronunciation is an schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic [n]
alveolar trill [], with the alveolar tap [] as or (after velars) syllabic [] sounds: laten [latn]; maken
a common allophone. [mak ]. Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pro-
The uvular trill [] is a common alternative, nunciation of // and /x/ (or one of them) also have a
found particularly in the central and south- syllabic uvular nasal, like in lagen and/or lachen [la]
ern dialect areas. Uvular pronunciations ap-
pear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.[13]
Syllable-nally, it may be debuccalized to [],
much as in German. This is more common in 1.3 Final devoicing and assimilation
the (south)eastern areas (Limburg, southeast
Brabantian, Overijssel). Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, as is
The coastal dialects of South Holland produce partly reected in the spelling. The voiced z in plural
a voiced uvular fricative [], which causes it huizen [y z] becomes huis [y s] ('house') in singu-
to merge with a uvular // and (if devoicing lar. Also, duiven [dy v] becomes duif [dy f] ('dove').
occurs) with /x/. In these dialects, schijven The other cases are always written with the voiced conso-
('discs) and schrijven ('to write') are homo- nant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the d
phones. in plural baarden [bard] is retained in singular spelling
The retroex approximant [] or bunched baard ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is
[14]

approximant is found at the end of a sylla- [bart], and plural ribben [rb] has singular rib ('rib'),
ble by some speakers in the Netherlands, es- pronounced [rp].
pecially those from the Randstad, but not in Because of assimilation, the initial /v z / of the next word
Belgium.[15] Its use has been increasing in re- is often also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is [()t fe].
cent years.[16] In the traditional Leiden dialect The opposite may be true for other consonants: ik ben ('I
it has been used everywhere in a word. am') [g bn].
2.1 Monophthongs 3

1.4 Example words for consonants

i
2 Vowels
e
Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of at
least twelve plain vowels and at least three diphthongs.
Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded
and front rounded. They are also traditionally distin-
guished by length or tenseness. The vowels /e o/ are
included in the diphthong chart further below because
many dialects realize them as diphthongs, but they be-
have phonologically like the other long monophthongs. a

2.1 Monophthongs Dutch allophones of unrounded monophthongs, from Collins &

Mees (2003:92, 130, 132 and 134). Black vowels occur before
/r/ in Standard Netherlandic Dutch and Randstad,[19] and the
red vowel occurs before the dark /l/.[20]
i,i y,y u,u

y u
, ,
o


a

Monophthongs of Netherlandic Dutch, from Gussenhoven

(1992:47)

Dutch allophones of rounded monophthongs, from Collins &

Mees (2003:92, 130, 132 and 134). Black vowels occur before
i y u /r/ in Standard Netherlandic Dutch and Randstad,[19] and the
blue vowel occurs before //.[21]
e o

sition, the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonet-
ically longer than their short counterparts. The changes

in vowel quality are also not always the same in all di-
alects, and in so dialects, there may be little dierence
at all, with length remaining the primary distinguish-
ing feature. Although older words always pair vowel
length with a change in vowel quality, new loanwords have
a reintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. Compare
zonne(n) /zn(n)/ ('suns) versus zone /zn/ ('zone')
versus zonen /zon(n)/ ('sons), or kroes /krus/ ('mug')
Monophthongs of Standard Belgian Dutch, from Verhoeven versus cruise /krus/ ('cruise').
(2005:245)
Notes:
Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive fea-
ture in Dutch phonology, because it normally co-occurs The distinction between short /i y u/ and long /i y
with changes in vowel quality. One feature or the other u/ is very slight, and it may be considered allophonic
may be considered redundant, and some phonemic anal- for most purposes. In most environments except be-
yses prefer to treat it as an opposition of tenseness. How- fore /r/, most dialects realise them as short vowels.
ever, even if not considered part of the phonemic oppo- However, some recent loanwords have introduced
4 2 VOWELS

distinctively long /i y u/, making the length dis- This swapping of realisations may also happen
tinction marginally phonemic. in some dialects of North Holland, including
notably that of Amsterdam. Fronted short []
Notes about the long close-mid vowels /e o/: occurs only before some consonants, e.g. man
They are often realized as narrow diphthongs [man].
[e o]. Dialects which use monophthon- In Low Saxonspeaking areas, the local reali-
gal pronunciations [e o] in all or most sation of /a/ may be particularly fronted, tend-
positions include most eastern and southern ing towards [].
Netherlandic ones, Standard Belgian and also
many other Belgian accents. Several dialects have retained the distinction between the
Some speakers from Leiden use a very wide so-called sharp-long and soft-long e and o, a distinc-
pronunciation of /e/, namely []. It is not tion that dates to early Middle Dutch. The sharp-long va-
used before /r/ (see below), and it does not rieties originate from the Old Dutch long and (Proto-
merge with /i/, which, for these speakers, is Germanic ai and au), while the soft-long varieties arose
realized as [] instead. from short i/e and u/o that were lengthened in open syl-
Certain dialects of southern Holland have a lables in early Middle Dutch. The distinction is not pre-
more central starting position of these diph- served in most modern Standard Dutch pronunciations
thongs, tending towards [ ]. The di- and is not recognised in educational materials, but it is
alect of Antwerp realizes /e/ as [i~~e] still present in many local dialects, such as Antwerpian,
instead.[22] West Flemish and Zealandic. In these dialects, the sharp-
long vowels are often opening diphthongs such as [] and
The long close and close-mid vowels are often pro- [], while the soft-long vowels are either plain monoph-
nounced with dierent vowel height or as centering thongs [e] and [o] or slightly closing [e] and [o].
diphthongs before an /r/ in the syllable coda:
The long close vowels become [i y u] or are 2.2 Diphthongs
allophonically lengthened to /i y u/.
The long close-mid vowels are commonly
raised to near-close [ ] or converted to
centering diphthongs [e o] or [ ],
depending on the dialect. Some speakers may
not have such allophones at all, and pronounce
[e o] in every position. Some, particu-
o
larly Netherlandic speakers have similar allo-
e
phones before coda /l/, while others may main-
tain a long monophthong or even the usual
closing diphthongs before /l/. Certain Nether-
landic speakers may also neutralize some of
i u
the tenselax vowel contrasts before coda /l/, y
similarly to neutralizations found in Cockney.
Perhaps the most common neutralization is /l/
/el/: heel [], [] ('complete'), Stan-
dard Dutch [e]. Diphthongs of Netherlandic Dutch, from Gussenhoven
(1992:47)
The long open-mid vowels / / occur only in a
handful of loanwords, mostly from French. Dutch also has several diphthongs. All of them end in a
close vowel (/i y u/), but they may begin with a variety
The open vowels // and /a/ are generally realised so
of other vowels. They are grouped here by their former
that the latter is more fronted than the former, but
element.
the exact realisations may dier by dialect.
In many southern areas, the distinction is less /i y u/ are the most common diphthongs
clear as /a/ is realised more at the back and and commonly the only ones considered true
more closely to [], especially in Brabantian phonemes in Dutch. /i/ and /i/ are rare and oc-
and Limburgish. In some subdialects, espe- cur only in a few words.
cially the city dialect of Antwerp, the back-
ing is particularly strong, and // is fronted to- The long/tense diphthongs are generally analysed
wards [] as well, so the two sounds eectively phonemically as a long/tense vowel followed by a
switch articulation. glide /j/ or //, in which the latter has the allophone
2.3 Example words for vowels and diphthongs 5

The rst element of /i/ is pronounced more open

than the short vowel // by many speakers and so
it may be more accurately transcribed as [i] . For
some Netherlandic speakers, it may be as open as
[i] or even [ai].[23] On the other hand, the dialect
of Antwerp realises /i/ as [a].[24] Many Belgians
tend to monophthongize it [].

i In most of the northern areas, /y/ is pronounced

with an unrounded onset ([y] ).[25] Some people
y u in Belgium pronounce a monophthong [] instead.
Before a vowel and sometimes also word-nally, a
glide is added as nal element: [yj] or [j].

The rst element of /u/ is often raised by many

Diphthongs of Belgian Standard Dutch, from Verhoeven speakers. In Belgium, a common pronunciation is
(2005:245) [u], but the rst element is more open: [u]. Many
Belgians tend to monophthongize it to [].[26] In
the north, it is generally unrounded, giving [u]. In
some areas, particularly in North and South Hol-
iu land, the rst element may be fully open [au].[23]
yu
The rst element of the long mid diphthongs /eu
oi/ may be raised or lowered: [u] and [i] respec-
eu tively. However, not all speakers do this. Speak-
ers who diphthongise /e/ and /o/ sometimes also do
it to the diphthong, resulting in a falling triphthong
with two closing elements: [eu]/[oi] or the more
centralised [u]/[i] .

2.3 Example words for vowels and diph-

thongs
Dutch tense backing diphthongs, from Collins & Mees
(2003:137) 3 Stress
Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocab-
ui ulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually
the rst syllable of the word. Germanic words may also
be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain un-
stressed prexes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-
oi root stress is common in loanwords, which are generally
borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. In poly-
syllabic words, secondary stress may also be present. Cer-
tain prexes and suxes will receive secondary stress:
[vorkom(n)], [erlos]. The stressed syllable of a
word receive secondary stress within a compound word:
[bmmld], [lkol prsnta].
ai
While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare, and
marking the stress in written Dutch is always optional,
Dutch tense fronting diphthongs, from Collins & Mees but it is sometimes recommended to distinguish homo-
(2003:137) graphs that dier only in stress. The most common
practice is to distinguish een (indenite article, which,
as a clitic, bears no stress) from n (the cardinal num-
[w] between vowels, and [u ] between a vowel and ber one).[27][28] It also distinguishes some verbs, as stress
a consonant. Thus, what is underlyingly /e/ is re- placement on prexes also carries a grammatical distinc-
alised on the surface as [ew] or [eu ] and likewise tion, such as in vrkomen ('to occur') and voorkmen ('to
for the others. prevent'). In vrkomen and other verbs with a stressed
6 6 SAMPLE

prex, the prex is separable and separates as kom voor /-p-/ > /-f-/: German Schaf vs. Dutch schaap ,
in the rst-person singular present, with the past partici- English sheep
ple vrgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an un-
stressed prex are not separable: voorkmen becomes /-t-/ > /-s-/: German Wasser vs. Dutch water ,
voorkm in the rst-person singular present, and voork- English water
men in the past participle, without the past participle pre-
/--/ > /-d-/: German das, Dutch dat vs. English
x ge-.
that
Dutch has a strong stress accent like other Germanic
languages, and it uses stress timing because of its rel-
Dutch generalised the fricative variety of Proto-
atively complex syllable structure. It has a preference
Germanic *// as [] or [], in contrast with German,
for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker
which generalised the stop [], and English, which lost
stress alternating between syllables in such a way that
the fricative variety through regular sound changes.
syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more
or less constant pace. Generally, every alternate syl- Dutch also underwent a few changes on its own:
lable before and after the primary stress will receive
relative stress, as far secondary stress placements al- Words with -old, -olt or -ald and -alt lost the /l/ in fa-
low: W.g.n.ngn. Relative stress preferably does not vor of a diphthong as a result of l-vocalisation. Com-
fall on // so syllables containing // may disrupt the pare English old, German alt, Dutch oud .
trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are of-
ten syncopated in speech: kn.d.rn > /kn.dr(n)/, /ft/ changed to /xt/ (North) or /t/ (South), spelled
h.ri.ngn > /ar.(n)/, vr.g.lj.king > /vr.li.k/. cht, but it was later reverted in many words by
In words for which the secondary stress is imposed lexi- analogy with other forms. Compare English loft,
cally onto the syllable immediately following the stressed German Luft, Dutch lucht (pronounced [lxt] or
syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed [lt] ).
syllable to maintain the rhythm to ensure that the stressed
syllable has more or less equal length to the trochaic unit Proto-Germanic */u/ turned into /y/ through
following it: bm..ml.ding, wr..l.z. palatalisation, which, in turn, became the diphthong
/y/ , spelled ui. Long */i/ also diphthongised
Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels to /i/ , spelled ij.
in unstressed syllables to [], as in most other Germanic
languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and
it is common to reduce vowels to [] in syllables carrying
neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in sylla- 6 Sample
bles that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic
rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be short- The sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the
ened without any signicant reduction in vowel quality. Sun.
For example, politie (phonemically /politsi/) may be pro-
nounced [poli(t)si], [pli(t)si] or even [pli(t)si].
6.1 Netherlandic

The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Nether-

4 Phonotactics landic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful
colloquial style.[29]
The syllable structure of Dutch is
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, as in En-
glish, begin with three consonants such as straat (street). 6.1.1 Phonemic transcription
Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative
adjectives. /d nord(n)nt n d zn | d(n) n dsksi ovr
d vrax | i vn n te(n) d strkst s | tun
r jyst imnt vorbi km | di n dk rm js
5 Historic sound changes ant || z sprak(n) f | dt i d vorbir dartu
zu kri(n) zn js yt t trk(n) | d strkst zu
zin || d nord(n)nt bn yt l mxt t blaz(n)
Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did | mar u rdr i blis | ds t dxtr d vorbir
not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift zn js m zx en trk || tnslt f d nord(n)nt
except for the last stage: t mar p || vrvlns bn d zn | krxtx t s-
tral(n) | n nmdlk darp | trk d vorbir zn
/-k-/ > /-x-/: German machen vs. Dutch maken , js yt || d nord(n)nt kn tun slxts bam(n) | dt
English make d zn d strkst s/
 7

6.1.2 Phonetic transcription iz zx ndfld || ytindlk f hi zin po

p || dn bn d zn t t sxin | n d iz
[d nodnt n d zn | d n dsksi ov d det mdlk sin jzyt || d nodwnt must tuev
fa | i fn n te d stkst s | tun jyst | dt zn ht stkst ws][31]
imnt fobi km | di n dk m js ant || z
spak f | dt i d fobi dtu zu ki z
js y t tk | d stkst zu zin || d nodnt 6.2.3 Orthographic version
bn yt l m t blaz || ma u d i blis |
ds t dt d fobi z jz m z en tk || De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken
tnslt f t nodnt t ma p || fflnz bn over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij
d zn | kt t stal | n mdlk dap | tk t kwam met een warme jas aan. Ze spraken af dat degene
fobi z jz yt || d nodnt kn tun sls die erin zou slagen om de reiziger zijn jas te doen uit-
bam | dt zn d stkst s][30] trekken de sterkste was. De noordenwind blies zo hard
hij kon, maar hoe harder hij blies hoe warmer de reiziger
zich induelde. Uitendelijk gaf hij zijn poging op. Dan
6.1.3 Orthographic version begon de zon hard te schijnen en de reiziger deed onmid-
dellijk zijn jas uit. De noordenwind moest toegeven dat
De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de de zon het sterkste was.[31]
vraag wie van hun tween de sterkste was, toen er juist ie-
mand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad. Ze
spraken af dat wie de voorbijganger ertoe zou krijgen zijn 7 See also
jas uit te trekken de sterkste zou zijn. De noordenwind
begon uit alle macht te blazen, maar hoe harder hij blies,
Wikipedia:IPA for Dutch and Afrikaans
des te dichter de voorbijganger zijn jas om zich heen trok.
Tenslotte gaf de noordenwind het maar op. Vervolgens Dutch orthography
begon de zon krachtig te stralen, en onmiddellijk daarop
trok de voorbijganger zijn jas uit. De noordenwind kon Hard and soft G in Dutch
toen slechts beamen dat de zon de sterkste was.[29]
Afrikaans phonology

6.2 Belgian
8 References
The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of a
highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian [1] Gussenhoven (1999:75)
Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent. Sen-
[2] Collins & Mees (2003:189202)
tence stress is not transcribed.[31]
[3] Collins & Mees (2003:191192). The source says that
the main allophone of this sound is a fricative with a very
6.2.1 Phonemic transcription energetic articulation with considerable scrapiness, i.e. a
trill fricative.
/d nord(n)nt n d zn | ar(n) ryzi an t mak(n)
| ovr i t strkst s | tun r n rizr vorbi [4] Gussenhoven (1999:74)
km mt n rm js an || z sprak(n) f | dt
[5] Verhoeven (2005:243, 245)
den di rn zu sla(n) m d rizr zin js t dun
ytrk(n) | d strkst s || d nord(n)nt blis zo rt [6] Collins & Mees (2003:191192)
i kn | mar u rdr i blis | u rmr d rizr
zx ndfld || ytindlk f i zin po p || dn [7] Collins & Mees (2003:48)
bn d zn rt t sxin(n) | n d rizr det n- [8] Collins & Mees (2003:190)
mdlk zin js yt || d nord(n)nt must tuev(n) |
dt d zn t strkst s/ [9] Collins & Mees (2003:155 and 193)

[10] Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), Dutch, Journal of

6.2.2 Phonetic transcription the International Phonetic Association 22 (2): 4547,
doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X
[d nodwnt n d zn | wa yzi an t mak | [11] Collins & Mees (2003:197)
ovr wi t stkst ws | tun n iz vobi
kwm mt n wm jzan || z sprakn f | dt [12] Collins & Mees (2003:58, 197, 222)
den di n zu sla m d iz zin js t [13] Collins & Mees (2003), p. 209.
dun ytrk | d stkst ws || d nodwnts blis so
t i kn | ma u d i blis | hu wm d [14] Segberts. The Sociophonetics and Phonology of Dutch r.
8 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

[15] Segberts. The Sociophonetics and Phonology of Dutch r. Rietveld, A.C.M.; Van Heuven, V.J. (2009), Al-
gemene Fonetiek, Uitgeverij Coutinho
[16] http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/306415

[17] Peters (2006:117)

Trudgill, Peter (1974), Linguistic change and dif-
fusion: Description and explanation in sociolinguis-
[18] Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999:155) tic dialect, Language in Society 3 (2): 215246,
doi:10.1017/S0047404500004358
[19] Collins & Mees (2003:130, 132 and 234)

[20] Collins & Mees (2003:92) Verhoeven, Jo (2005), Belgian Standard Dutch,
Journal of the International Phonetic Association 35
[21] Collins & Mees (2003:98) (2): 243247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
[22] Camerman (2007:19) Verhoeven, Jo (2007), The Belgian Limburg
[23] Stroop, Jan (October 1999). Young Womens Farewell to dialect of Hamont, Journal of the Interna-
Standard Dutch. Poldernederlands. Retrieved 31 August tional Phonetic Association 37 (2): 219225,
2012. doi:10.1017/S0025100307002940

[24] Camerman (2007:24)

[25] Rietveld & Van Heuven 2009, p.70 10 Further reading

[26] Verhoeven (2005:245)
Canepari, Luciano; Cerini, Marco (2013), Dutch &
[27] Gussenhoven (1992:47) Afrikaans Pronunciation & Accents (1st ed.), Rome:
Aracne, ISBN 978-8854867307
[28] The current collection at nl.wiktionary

[29] Gussenhoven (1999:76) Debaene, Mathijs (2014), The close front vow-
els of Northern Standard Dutch, Southern Standard
[30] Source: Gussenhoven (1999:76). Close-mid vowels are Dutch and Afrikaans: A descriptive, comparative
transcribed as diphthongs according to the same page. and methodological inquiry (PDF), Ghent: Univer-
[31] Verhoeven (2005:247) sity of Ghent Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
de Coninck, R. H. B. (1970), Groot uitspraakwo-
ordenboek van de Nederlandse taal, Uitgeverij De
9 Bibliography Nederlandsche Boekhandel

Booij, Geert (1999), The phonology of Dutch, Ox- Heemskerk, Jose; Zonneveld, Wim (2000), Uit-
ford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823869-X spraakwoordenboek, Utrecht: Het Spectrum, ISBN
90-274-4482-X
Camerman, F. (2007), Antwerps schrijven, pp. 19
24
Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003), The Pho- 11 External links
netics of English and Dutch, Fifth Revised Edition
(PDF), ISBN 9004103406
Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), Dutch, Journal of
the International Phonetic Association 22 (2): 45
47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X
Gussenhoven, Carlos (1999), Dutch, Handbook
of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to
the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 7477,
ISBN 0-521-65236-7
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), The di-
alect of Maastricht (PDF), Journal of the Inter-
national Phonetic Association 29 (02): 155166,
doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
Peters, Jrg (2006), The dialect of Hasselt, Jour-
nal of the International Phonetic Association 36 (1):
117124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
 9

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
Dutch phonology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_phonology?oldid=719222178 Contributors: Zundark, Taral, Lfh, Donar-
reiskoer, Benwing, Xyzzyva, Moyogo, Varlaam, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Florian Blaschke, Kwamikagami, JeR, Ish ishwar, Woodstone, Angr,
Rjwilmsi, Ucucha, Sango123, Cassowary, Marcus Cyron, Aeusoes1, S. Neuman, Zephalis, AjaxSmack, Poulpy, Tropylium, Smack-
Bot, Sebesta, Peter Isotalo, Rex Germanus, Afasmit, Cameron Nedland, Bombshell, Kahuroa, Soap, JorisvS, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki,
Hvn0413, Massy~enwiki, LightPhoenix, Szfski, CmdrObot, FilipeS, Wikiwow, Trlkly, Erwin85Bot, Alphachimpbot, Hamaryns, Qrcza-
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man en m, Yobot, Legobot II, AnomieBOT, Mahmudmasri, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Joaquin008, FrescoBot, Plaats~enwiki, Citation bot
1, Liquidmetalrob, Kaopsky, JaneStillman, Morgengave, KIeio, Frietjes, LiliCharlie, Cyrrk, Wbm1058, BG19bot, ,
2WR1, Victor Yus, Torvalu4, Sennoy, Andyhowlett, Fncd, Lfdder, Ahls23, Phinumu, Helloworlditsme, Monkbot, Gati123, Peter238,
JCMH1981, Martin sv 85 and Anonymous: 52

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allophones_of_unrounded_monophthongs.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work, based on the vowel charts in B. Collins &
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Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
100px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward

12.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0