Coordinates: 49N 32E

Ukraine
Ukraine (/jukren/ ( listen) yoo-KRAYN; Ukrainian: ,
Ukraine
translit. Ukrajina [ukrjin]), sometimes called the
Ukraine,[9] is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe,[10] (Ukrainian)
bordered by Russia to the east and northeast; Belarus to the Ukrayina
northwest; Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia to the west;
Romania and Moldova to the southwest; and the Black Sea
and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively.
Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the
Crimean Peninsula, which Russia annexed in 2014[11] but
which Ukraine and most of the international community Flag
recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area Coat of arms
of 603,628 km2 (233,062 sq mi),[12] making it the largest
Anthem: "Shche ne vmerly Ukrainy ni slava ni volya"
country entirely within Europe and the 46th largest country in "The glory and the will of Ukraine has not yet died" (also
the world. Excluding Crimea, Ukraine has a population of "Ukraine has not yet perished)"
about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country
in the world.[4]

The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since

32,000 BC. During theMiddle Ages, the area was a key centre
of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus'
forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its
fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested,
ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania,
Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A
Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and
18th centuries, but its territory was eventually split between
Poland and the Russian Empire, and later merged fully into
Location of Ukraine (green)
Russia.
Claimed, but Russian controlled (light green)
During the 20th century three periods of independence Capital Kiev
occurred. The first of these periods occurred briefly during and and largest city 5027N 3030E
immediately after the German occupation near the end of Official languages Ukrainian
World War I and the second occurred, also briefly, and also Recognised Belarusian, Bulgarian,
during German occupation, during World War II. However, regional languages Crimean Tatar, Gagauz,
Greek, Hebrew,
both of these first two earlier periods would eventually see
Hungarian, Polish,
Ukraine's territories consolidated back into a Soviet republic Romanian, Russian,
within the USSR. The third period of independence began in Slovak, Yiddish[1][2]
1991, when Ukraine gained its independence from the Soviet Ethnic groups (2001[3]) 77.8% Ukrainians
Union in the aftermath of its dissolution at the end of the Cold 17.3% Russians
War. Ukraine has maintained its independence as a sovereign 4.9% others/unspecified
state ever since. Before its independence, Ukraine was
Demonym Ukrainian
typically referred to in English as "The Ukraine", but sources
since then have moved to drop "the" from the name of Ukraine Government Unitary semi-presidential
constitutional republic
in all uses.[13]
President Petro Poroshenko
Prime Minister Volodymyr Groysman
Following its independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral Chairman of Parliament Andriy Parubiy
state.[14] Nonetheless it formed a limited military partnership Legislature Verkhovna Rada
with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries and a
Formation
partnership with NATO in 1994. In the 2000s, the government
Kievan Rus' 882
began leaning towards NATO, and a deeper cooperation with Kingdom of 1199
the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed GaliciaVolhynia
in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO Zaporizhian Host 17 August 1649
should be answered by a national referendum at some point in Independence from 7 November 1917
Russian Republic;
the future.[15] Former President Viktor Yanukovych Ukrainian People's
considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine Republic
and NATO sufficient,[16] and was against Ukraine joining West Ukrainian People's 1 November 1918
Republic
NATO.[17] In 2013, after the government of President
Ukrainian SSR 10 March 1919
Yanukovych had decided to suspend the Ukraine-European
Carpatho-Ukraine 8 October 1938
Union Association Agreement and seek closer economic ties Soviet annexation 15 November 1939
with Russia, a several-months-long wave of demonstrations of Western Ukraine
and protests known as the Euromaidan began, which later Declaration of 30 June 1941
Ukrainian Independence
escalated into the 2014 Ukrainian revolution that led to the
Independence from 24 August 1991a
overthrow of President Yanukovych and his cabinet and the the Soviet Union
establishment of a new government. These events formed the Current constitution 28 June 1996
background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March
Area
2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January Total 603,628 km2
2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep and (233,062 sq mi) (45th)
Comprehensive Free Trade Area with the European Union.[18] Water (%) 7
Population
Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its
2016 estimate 42,541,633 [4] (32nd)
extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the world's largest
2001 census 48,457,102[3]
grain exporters.[19][20] The diversified economy of Ukraine Density 73.8/km2 (191.1/sq mi)
includes a large heavy industry sector, particularly in (115th)
aerospace and industrial equipment.
GDP (PPP) 2017 estimate
Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system
Total $366 billion[5]
Per capita $8,656[5]
with separate powers: legislative, executive and judicial
branches. Its capital and largest city is Kiev. Taking into GDP (nominal) 2017 estimate
account reserves and paramilitary personnel,[21] Ukraine Total $104 billion[5]
maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of
Per capita $2,459[5]
Russia. The country is home to 42.5 million people (excluding Gini (2014) 24.1[6]
Crimea),[4] 77.8 percent of whom are Ukrainians "by low
ethnicity", followed by a sizeable minority of Russians (17.3 HDI (2014) 0.747[7]
percent) as well as Georgians, Romanians/Moldovans, high 81st
Belarusians, Crimean Tatars, Bulgarians and Hungarians. Currency Ukrainian hryvnia (UAH)
Ukrainian is the official language and its alphabet is Cyrillic.
Time zone EET (UTC+2[8])
The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy,
Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture,
literature and music. It is a member of the United Nations Drives on the right
since its founding, the Council of Europe, OSCE, GUAM, and Calling code +380
one of the founding states of the Commonwealth of ISO 3166 code UA
Independent States (CIS).
Internet TLD .ua
.

a. An independence referendumwas held on 1 December,

 after which Ukrainian independence was finalized on 26
Contents December.
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Golden Age of Kiev
2.3 Foreign domination
2.4 Cossack Hetmanate
2.5
19th century, World War I and revolution
2.6
Western Ukraine, Carpathian Ruthenia and
Bukovina
2.7 Inter-war Soviet Ukraine
2.8 World War II
2.9 Post-World War II
2.10 Independence
2.11 Orange Revolution
2.12 Euromaidan and 2014 revolution
2.13 Civil unrest and Russian intervention
3 Historical maps of states
4 Geography
4.1 Soil
4.2 Biodiversity
4.3 Climate
5 Politics
5.1 Constitution of Ukraine
5.2
President, parliament and government
5.3 Courts and law enforcement
5.4 Foreign relations
5.5 Administrative divisions
5.6 Armed forces
6 Economy
6.1 Corporations
6.2 Transport
6.3 Energy
6.4 Internet
6.5 IT
6.6 Tourism
7 Demographics
7.1 Population decline
7.2 Fertility and natalist policies
7.3 Urbanisation
7.4 Language
7.5 Religion
7.6 Famines and migration
7.7 Health
7.8 Education
7.9 Regional differences
8 Culture
8.1 Weaving and embroidery
8.2 Literature
8.3 Architecture
 8.4 Music
8.5 Cinema
8.6 Media
8.7 Sport
8.8 Cuisine
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Print sources
12.1 Reference books
12.2 Recent (since 1991)
12.3 History
13 External links

Etymology
There are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it
means "borderland",[22] while more recently some linguistic studies claim a dif
ferent meaning: "homeland" or "region, country".[23]

"The Ukraine" was once the usual form in English,[24] but since the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, "the Ukraine" has
become much less common in the English-speaking world, and style-guides largely recommend not using the definite article.[13][25]
, according to U.S. ambassadorWilliam Taylor.[26]
"The Ukraine" now implies disregard for the country's sovereignty

History

Early history
Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites
(43,00045,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone dwelling.[27][28] The territory
is also considered to be the likely location for the human domestication of the
horse.[29][30][31][32]

Modern human settlement in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with
evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.[33][34] By 4,500 BC,
the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished in a wide area that included
parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region.
Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece,
During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and
from a royal kurgan in Pokrov, dated
Sarmatians.[35] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom,
to the 4th century BC
or Scythia.[36]

Beginning in the sixth century BC, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and
the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia and Chersonesus, were founded on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. These
colonies thrived well into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s AD.
In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of
Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.

Golden Age of Kiev

 Kievan Rus' was founded by the Rus' people, who came from Scandinavia across Ladoga and
settled in Kiev around 880 AD. Kievan Rus' included the central, western and northern part of
modern Ukraine, Belarus, far eastern strip of Poland and the western part of present-day
Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians
from Scandinavia.

During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in
Europe.[37] It laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.[38]
Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'.

The Varangians later assimilated into the

The baptism of the Grand
Prince Vladimir led to the
adoption of Christianity in
Kievan Rus'.
Slavic population and became part of the first
Rus' dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.[38] Kievan
Rus' was composed of several principalities
ruled by the interrelated Rurikid knyazes
("princes"), who often fought each other for
possession of Kiev.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980
1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son,
Yaroslav the Wise (10191054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural
development and military power.[38] The state soon fragmented as the relative
importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of
Vladimir II Monomakh(11131125) and his son Mstislav (11251132), Kievan Rus'
finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.
Principalities of Kievan Rus', 1054
The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally 1132
destroyed in 1240.[39] On today's Ukrainian territory, the principalities of Halych
and Volodymyr-Volynskyi arose, and were merged into the state of Galicia-
Volhynia.[40]

Danylo Romanovych (Daniel I of Galicia or Danylo Halytskyi) son of Roman Mstyslavych, re-united all of south-western Rus',
including Volhynia, Galicia and Rus' ancient capital of Kiev. Danylo was crowned by the papal archbishop in Dorohychyn 1253 as
the first King of all Rus'. Under Danylo's reign, the Kingdom of GaliciaVolhynia was one of the most powerful states in east central
Europe.[41]

Foreign domination
In the mid-14th century, upon the death of Bolesaw Jerzy II of Mazovia, king Casimir III of Poland initiated campaigns (13401366)
to take Galicia-Volhynia. Meanwhile, the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, became the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,
ruled by Gediminas and his successors, after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union
between Poland and Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine was ruled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian
nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. By 1392 the so-called GaliciaVolhynia Wars ended. Polish colonisers of
depopulated lands in northern and central Ukraine founded or re-founded many towns. In 1430 Podolia was incorporated under the
Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Podolian Voivodeship. In 1441, in the southern Ukraine, especially Crimea and surrounding
steppes, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate.

In 1569 the Union of Lublin established the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, and much Ukrainian territory was transferred from
Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming Polish territory de jure. Under the demographic, cultural and political
pressure of Polonisation, which began in the late 14th century, many landed gentry of Polish Ruthenia (another name for the land of
Rus) converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.[42] Deprived of native protectors among Rus
nobility, the commoners (peasants and townspeople) began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks, who by the
 17th century became devoutly Orthodox. The
Cossacks did not shy from taking up arms
against those they perceived as enemies,
including the Polish state and its local
representatives.[43]

Formed from Golden Horde territory

conquered after the Mongol invasion the
Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest
powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th Following the Mongol invasion, much
century; in 1571 it even captured and of Ukraine was controlled by
devastated Moscow.[44] The borderlands Lithuania (from the 14th century on)
Bohdan Khmelnytsky, suffered annual Tatar invasions. From the and after the Union of Lublin (1569)
Hetman of Ukraine, was included in the Polish
beginning of the 16th century until the end of
established an independent Lithuanian Commonwealth,
Ukraine after the uprising in the 17th century, Crimean Tatar slave raiding
illustrated here in 1619.
1648 against Poland. bands[45] exported about two million slaves
from Russia and Ukraine.[46] According to
Orest Subtelny, "from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to
1647, seventy."[47] [48] The Tatar raids took a heavy toll, discouraging
In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians.
settlement in more southerly regions where the soil was better and the growing season was longer. The last remnant of the Crimean
[49] The Taurida Governorate was formed to govern this territory
Khanate was finally conquered by the Russian Empire in 1783. .

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was
formed by Dnieper Cossacks and by Ruthenian peasants who had fled Polish
serfdom.[50] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the
Cossacks to be a useful opposing force to the Turks and Tatars,[51] and at times the
two were allies in military campaigns.[52] However the continued harsh enserfment
of peasantry by Polish nobility and especially the suppression of the Orthodox
Church alienated the Cossacks.[51]

The Cossacks sought representation in the Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox

traditions, and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were rejected The Cossack Hetmanate is
by the Polish nobility, who dominated the Sejm.[53] considered as a direct ancestor of
today's Ukraine.

Cossack Hetmanate
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Petro Doroshenko led the largest of the Cossack
uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir.[54] After
Khmelnytsky made an entry into Kiev in 1648, where he was hailed liberator of the
people from Polish captivity, he founded the Cossack Hetmanate which existed until
1764 (some sources claim until 1782).

Khmelnytsky, deserted by his Tatar allies, suffered a crushing defeat at Berestechko

in 1651, and turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky signed the
The Battle of Poltava in 1709, as
Treaty of Pereyaslav, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that depicted by Denis Martens the
acknowledged loyalty to the Russian tsar. Younger, 1726

In 16571686 came "The Ruin", a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland,
Turks and Cossacks for control of Ukraine, which occurred at about the same time as the Deluge of Poland. The wars escalated in
intensity with hundreds of thousands of deaths. Defeat came in 1686 as the "Eternal Peace" between Russia and Poland divided the
Ukrainian lands between them.
In 1709, Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (16391709) defected to Sweden against Russia in the Great Northern War (17001721).
Eventually Peter recognized that to consolidate and modernize Russia's political and economic power it was necessary to do away
with the hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa died in exile after fleeing from the Battle of Poltava
(1709), where the Swedes and their Cossack allies suf
fered a catastrophic defeat.

The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk or Pacts and Constitutions of Rights and Freedoms of the
Zaporizhian Host was a 1710 constitutional document written by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk, a
Cossack of Ukraine, then within the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth.[55] It established a
standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and
judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. The
Constitution limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically
elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. Pylyp Orlyk'sConstitution was unique
for its historic period, and was one of the first state constitutions in Europe.

The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporizhska Sich abolished in 1775, as Russia
centralised control over its lands. As part of the partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793 and
1795, the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided between Russia and Austria.
From 1737 to 1834, expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the eastern Danube
The first page of the
valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy
.
Bendery Constitution. This
copy in Latin was probably Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in
penned by Hetman Pylyp
Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial
Orlyk. The original is kept in
rulings from Cracow were routinely flouted, while
the National Archives of
Sweden. peasants were heavily taxed and practically tied to the
land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each
other using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles
and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox
lesser nobility. In 1596, they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate Church; it dominates
western Ukraine to this day. Religious differentiation left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants
[56]
leaderless, as they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.

Cossacks led an uprising, called Koliivshchyna, starting in the Ukrainian borderlands of the
Kyrylo Rozumovskyi, the
PolishLithuanian Commonwealth in 1768. Ethnicity was one root cause of this revolt, which
last Hetman of left- and
included Ukrainian violence that killed tens of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare right-bank Ukraine 1750
also broke out among Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict between Uniate and Orthodox 1764 and the first person to
parishes along the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the Dnieper River in the time of declare Ukraine to be a
Catherine II set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had become more sovereign state.
Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into dependence on the Russian
Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected opposing Polish and Russian political
allegiances.[57]

After the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire in 1783, New Russia was settled by Ukrainians and Russians.[58] Despite
promises in the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were
expecting. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest Russian state and church offices.[a] At a later period, tsarists
[59]
established a policy ofRussification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print and in public.

19th century, World War I and revolution

In the 19th century, Ukraine was a rural area largely ignored by Russia and Austria. With growing urbanization and modernization,
and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged.
The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (18141861) and the political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (18411895) led the

[60]
growing nationalist movement.[60]

After the Russo-Turkish War (17681774), Catherine the Great and her immediate
successors encouraged German immigration into Ukraine and especially into
Crimea, to thin the previously dominant Turk population and encourage agriculture.

Beginning in the 19th century, there was migration from Ukraine to distant areas of
the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic
Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.[61] An additional 1.6 million
emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway
in 1906.[62] Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as
Green Ukraine.[63]
1904 map showing administrative
units of Little Russia, South Russia
Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century. Austrian Galicia,
and West Russia within the Russian
under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the centre of the
Empire prior to Ukrainian
nationalist movement. independence 19171921.

Ukrainians entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under
Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. 3.5 million Ukrainians fought with the
Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army.[64]
Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the
Russian Empire. This became the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the
Bolsheviks and Poles in the post-World War I period (191923). Those suspected of
.[65]
Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly

World War I destroyed both

empires. The Russian Revolution of Ukraine according to an old postal
1917 led to the founding of the stamp from 1919 that was reprinted
Soviet Union under the Bolsheviks, in 2008

and subsequent civil war in Russia.

A Ukrainian national movement for
self-determination re-emerged, with heavy Communist and Socialist influence.
Ukraine in 1918 Several Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the internationally recognized Ukrainian
People's Republic (UNR, the predecessor of modern Ukraine, was declared on 23
June 1917 proclaimed at first as a part of the Russian Republic; after the Bolshevik
Revolution, the Ukrainian People's Republic proclaimed its independence on 25 January 1918), the Hetmanate, the Directorate and
the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian
Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the Ukrainian lands of former
Austro-Hungarian territory.

Act Zluky (Unification Act) was an agreement signed on January 22, 1919 by the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West
Ukrainian People's Republicon the St. Sophia Square in Kiev.

This led to civil war, and an anarchist movement called the Black Army or later The Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine
developed in Southern Ukraine under the command of the anarchist Nestor Makhno during the Russian Civil War.[66] They protected
the operation of "free soviets" and libertarian communes in the Free Territory, an attempt to form a stateless anarchist society from
1918 to 1921 during the Ukrainian Revolution, fighting both the tsarist White Army under Denikin and later the Red Army under
Trotsky, before being defeated by the latter in August 1921.

Poland defeated Western Ukraine in the Polish-Ukrainian War, but failed against the Bolsheviks in an offensive against Kiev.
According to the Peace of Riga, western Ukraine was incorporated into Poland, which in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet
Socialist Republic in March 1919. With establishment of the Soviet power, Ukraine lost half of its territory to Poland, Belarus and
Russia, while on the left bank of Dniester River was created Moldavian autonomy. Ukraine became a founding member of the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republicsin December 1922.[67]

Western Ukraine, Carpathian Ruthenia and Bukovina

The war in Ukraine continued for another two years; by 1921, however, most of Ukraine had
been taken over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia and Volhynia (West Ukraine) were
incorporated into independent Poland. Bukovina was annexed by Romania and Carpathian
Ruthenia was admitted to the Czechoslovak Republicas an autonomy.

A powerful underground Ukrainian

nationalist movement arose in Poland in the
1920s and 1930s because of Polish national
policies, which was led by the Ukrainian
Military Organization and the Organisation
of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The
movement attracted a militant following Hutsuls, living in
Verkhovyna, c. 1930
among students. Hostilities between Polish
A map showing Ukraine's territory, state authorities and the popular movement
circa 1930 led to a substantial number of fatalities, and the autonomy which had been promised
was never implemented. A number of Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic
Church, an active press, and a business sector existed in Poland. Economic
conditions improved in the 1920s, but the region suf
fered from the Great Depression in the 1930s.

Inter-war Soviet Ukraine

The Russian Civil War devastated the whole Russian Empire including Ukraine. It
left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former
Russian Empire territory. Soviet Ukraine also faced the Russian famine of 1921
(primarily affecting the Russian Volga-Ural region).[68][69] During the 1920s,[70]
under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of
Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in the
Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of
Korenisation (literally indigenisation).[67] The Bolsheviks were also committed to
universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to Urban population of Ukraine in 1925
work and housing.[71] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws.[72] Ukrainian Jewish
Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early 1930s after Joseph Stalin
Russian Polish
became the de facto communist party leader.

Starting from the late 1920s with a

centrally planned economy, Ukraine was involved in Soviet industrialisation and the
republic's industrial output quadrupled during the 1930s.[67] The peasantry suffered
from the programme of collectivisation of agriculture which began during and was
part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and secret
police.[67] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and agricultural
productivity greatly declined. As members of the collective farms were sometimes
not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved
Dnieper Hydroelectric Stationunder
to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine".[73]
construction circa 1930
Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and the governments of
other countries have acknowledged it as such.[b]

The Communist leadership perceived famine as a means of class struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants
into collective farms.[74]

Largely the same groups were responsible for the mass killing operations during the civil war,
collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups were associated with Yefim Yevdokimov
(18911939) and operated in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political
Administration (OGPU) in 192931. Evdokimov transferred into Communist Party
administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. He appears
to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the
latter relied on Evdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are
known as the Great Terror in 193738.[75]

On 13 January 2010, Kiev Appellate Court posthumously found Stalin, Kaganovich and other
Soviet Communist Party functionaries guilty of genocide against Ukrainians during the
Holodomor famine.[76]

World War II
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the Two future leaders of the
territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population Soviet Union, Nikita
, the nation was united.[77][78]
became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history Khrushchev (pre-war CPSU
chief in Ukraine) and Leonid
In 1940, the Soviets annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. The Ukrainian SSR Brezhnev (an engineer from
incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and the Kamianske), depicted
Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist together

Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. These territorial gains of
the USSR were internationally recognized by theParis peace treaties of 1947.

German armies invaded the Soviet Unionon 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total
war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army.
In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its
fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western
fering severe mistreatment.[79][80]
Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suf

Marshal Timoshenko (born
in the Budjak region)
commanded numerous
fronts throughout the war,
including the Southwestern
Front east of Kiev in 1941
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet
resistance,[81] in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose
(UPA, 1942). Created as forces of the Ukrainian Government in exile,[82] it fell under the
influence of the underground (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, OUN) which had
developed in interwar Poland as a radical reaction to Polish policies towards the Ukrainian
minority. Both supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a
Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the
Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. Some UPA divisions also carried out
massacres of ethnic Poles,[83] which brought reprisals.[84] After the war, the UPA continued
to fight the USSR until the 1950s.[85][86] At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army,
another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.

In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is
estimated from 4.5 million[81] to 7 million.[87][c] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at
47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944, with about 50% being ethnic Ukrainians.[88] Generally, the
Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere
from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.[89][90]

Most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine,
with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some
western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the
Germans as liberators. Brutal German rule eventually turned their supporters against
the Nazi administrators, who made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with
Stalinist policies.[91] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried Kiev suffered significant damage
during World War II, and was
out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in
occupied by Nazi Germany from 19
Germany, and began a depopulation program to prepare for German September 1941 until 6 November
colonisation.[91] They blockaded the transport of food on the Kiev River
.[92] 1943.

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on theEastern Front.[93]
[94] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during
By some estimates, 93% of all German casualties took place there.
the war are estimated at between 5 and 8 million,[95][96] including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the
Einsatzgruppen,[97] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle
against the Nazis,[98][99][100] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.[98][100][c][d] Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian
national holidays.[101]

Post-World War II
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and
28,000 villages were destroyed.[102] The situation was worsened by a famine in 194647, which was caused by a drought and the
wartime destruction of infrastructure. The death toll of this famine varies, with even the lowest estimate in the tens of
thousands.[103][104][105] In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations organization,[106]
part of a special agreement at theYalta Conference.[107]

Post-war ethnic cleansing occurred in the newly expanded Soviet Union. As of 1 January
1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising
20% of the total.[108] In addition, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from Ukraine and more than
200,000 Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.[108]

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the
USSR. Having served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938
49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic; after taking power union-wide, he
began to emphasize "the friendship" between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the
300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated. Crimea was transferred
from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.[109]

By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.[110]
During the 19461950 five-year plan, nearly 20% of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet
Ukraine, a 5% increase from pre-war plans. As a result, the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2%
Sergey Korolyov, a native of
from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period.
Zhytomyr, the head Soviet
Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production,[111] and an important rocket engineer and
designer during the Space
centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a
Race
major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine,
most notably Leonid Brezhnev. He later ousted Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader
from 1964 to 1982. Many prominent Soviet sports players, scientists, and artists came from Ukraine.
On 26 April 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear
reactor accident in history.[112] This was the only accident to receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear
Event Scale, indicating a "major accident", until the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011.[113] At the time of the
[114]
accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.

After the accident, the new city of Slavutych was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant,
which was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization
[115]
attributed 56 direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000 extra cancer deaths.

Independence
On 16 July 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty
of Ukraine.[116] This established the principles of the self-determination, democracy
,
independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law over Soviet law. A month earlier, a
similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started
a period of confrontation with the central Soviet authorities. In August 1991, a
faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to
remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After it
failed, on 24 August 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of
Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk
Independence.[117] and President of the Russian
Federation Boris Yeltsin signed the
A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on 1 December 1991. Belavezha Accords, dissolving the
More than 90% of the electorate expressed their support for the Act of Soviet Union, on 8 December 1991.
Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk as
the first President of Ukraine. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on 8 December,
followed by the Alma Ata meeting on 21 December, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine formally dissolved the Soviet Union
and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS).[118]

Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.[119]
However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession,
Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,[120][121] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.[122] Dissatisfied with the economic
conditions, as well as the amounts of crime andcorruption in Ukraine, Ukrainians protested and organized strikes.[123]

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. After 2000, the
country enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.[124][125] A new Constitution of Ukraine was
adopted under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a
stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticised by opponents for corruption, electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and
concentrating too much power in his office.[126] Ukraine also pursued full nuclear disarmament, giving up the third largest nuclear
weapons stockpile in the world and dismantling or removing all strategic bombers on its territory in exchange for various assurances
(main article: Nuclear weapons and Ukraine).[127]

Orange Revolution
In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely
rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.[128] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate,
Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome. During the tumultuous months of the revolution, candidate Yushchenko suddenly
became gravely ill, and was soon found by multiple independent physician groups, to have been poisoned by TCDD dioxin.[129][130]
Yushchenko strongly suspected Russian involvement in his poisoning.[131] All of this eventually resulted in the peaceful Orange
Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.[132]
Activists of the Orange Revolution were funded and trained in tactics of political
organisation and nonviolent resistance by Western pollsters and professional
consultants who were partly funded by Western government and non-government
agencies but received most of their funding from domestic sources.[nb 1][133]

According to The Guardian, the foreign donors included the U.S. State Department
and USAID along with the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs,
the International Republican Institute, the NGO Freedom House and George Soros's
Open Society Institute.[134] The National Endowment for Democracy has supported
democracy-building efforts in Ukraine since 1988.[135] Writings on nonviolent
Protesters at Independence Square
struggle by Gene Sharp contributed in forming the strategic basis of the student
on the first day of the Orange
campaigns.[136] Revolution

Russian authorities provided support through advisers such as Gleb Pavlovsky,

consulting on blackening the image of Y
ushchenko through the state media, pressuring state-dependent voters to vote for anukovych
Y
and on vote-rigging techniques such as multiplecarousel
' voting' and 'dead souls' voting.[133]

Yanukovych returned to power in 2006 as Prime Minister in the Alliance of National Unity,[137] until snap elections in September
2007 made Tymoshenko Prime Minister again.[138] Amid the 200809 Ukrainian financial crisis the Ukrainian economy plunged by
15%.[139] Disputes with Russia briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in
other countries.[140][141] Viktor Yanukovych was elected President in 2010with 48% of votes.[142]

Euromaidan and 2014 revolution

The Euromaidan (Ukrainian: , literally "Eurosquare") protests started in
November 2013 after the president, Viktor Yanukovych, began moving away from
an association agreement that had been in the works with the European Union and
instead chose to establish closer ties with the Russian Federation.[143][144][145]
Some Ukrainians took to the streets to show their support for closer ties with
Europe.[146] Meanwhile, in the predominantly Russian-speaking east, a lar
ge portion
of the population opposed the Euromaidan protests, instead supporting the
Yanukovych government.[147] Over time, Euromaidan came to describe a wave of
Pro-EU demonstration in Kiev, 27
demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine,[148] the scope of which evolved to November 2013, duringEuromaidan
anukovych and his government.[149]
include calls for the resignation of President Y

Violence escalated after 16 January 2014 when the government accepted new Anti-Protest Laws. Violent anti-government
demonstrators occupied buildings in the centre of Kiev, including the Justice Ministry building, and riots left 98 dead with
approximately fifteen thousand injured and 100 considered missing[150][151][152][153] from 18 to 20 February.[154][155] On 21
February, President Yanukovych signed a compromise deal with opposition leaders that promised constitutional changes to restore
certain powers to Parliament and called for early elections to be held by December.[156] However, Members of Parliament voted on
22 February to remove the president and set an election for 25 May to select his replacement.[157] Petro Poroshenko, running on a
pro-European Union platform, won with over fifty percent of the vote, therefore not requiring a run-off election.[158][159][160] Upon
his election, Poroshenko announced that his immediate priorities would be to take action in the civil unrest in Eastern Ukraine and
mend ties with the Russian Federation.[158][159][160] Poroshenko was inaugurated as president on 7 June 2014, as previously
announced by his spokeswoman Irina Friz in a low-key ceremony without a celebration on Kiev's Maidan Nezalezhnosti square (the
centre of the Euromaidan protests[161] ) for the ceremony.[162][163] In October 2014 Parliament elections, Petro Poroshenko Bloc
"Solidarity" won 132 of the 423 contested seats.[164]

Civil unrest and Russian intervention

The ousting[165] of Yanukovych prompted Vladimir Putin to begin preparations to
annex Crimea on 23 February 2014.[166][167] Using the Russian naval base at
Sevastopol as cover, Putin directed Russian troops and intelligence agents to disarm
Ukrainian forces and take control of Crimea.[168][169][170][171] After the troops
entered Crimea,[172] a controversial referendum was held on 16 March 2014 and the
official result was that 97 percent wished to join with Russia.[173] On 18 March
2014, Russia and the self-proclaimed Republic of Crimea signed a treaty of
accession of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol in the Russian Federation. The
Pro-Russian protesters inDonetsk, 8
UN general assembly responded by passing resolution 68/262 that the referendum
[174] March 2014
was invalid and supporting the territorial integrity of Ukraine.

Separately, in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions, armed men declaring themselves as
local militia seized government buildings, police and special police stations in
several cities and held unrecognised status referendums.[175] The insurgency was
led by Russian emissaries Igor Girkin[176] and Alexander Borodai[177] as well as
militants from Russia, such as Arseny Pavlov.[178]

Talks in Geneva between the EU, Russia, Ukraine and USA yielded a Joint
Diplomatic Statement referred to as the 2014 Geneva Pact[179] in which the parties
requested that all unlawful militias lay down their arms and vacate seized
government buildings, and also establish a political dialogue that could lead to more
autonomy for Ukraine's regions. When Petro Poroshenko won the presidential
election held on 25 May 2014, he vowed to continue the military operations by the Crimea, which is under Russian
control, is shown in pink. Pink in the
Ukrainian government forces to end the armed insurgency.[180] More than 9,000
Donbass area represents areas held
people have been killed in the military campaign.[181]
by the DPR/LPR separatists in
September 2014 (cities in red)
In August 2014, a bilateral
commission of leading scholars
from the United States and Russia issued the Boisto Agenda indicating a 24-step
plan to resolve the crisis in Ukraine.[182] The Boisto Agenda was organized into five
imperative categories for addressing the crisis requiring stabilization identified as:
(1) Elements of an Enduring, Verifiable Ceasefire; (2) Economic Relations; (3)
Social and Cultural Issues; (4) Crimea; and, (5) International Status of Ukraine.[182]
In late 2014, Ukraine ratified the UkraineEuropean Union Association Agreement,
OSCE SMM monitoring the
which Poroshenko described as Ukraine's "first but most decisive step" towards EU
movement of heavy weaponry in
membership.[183] Poroshenko also set 2020 as the target for EU membership
eastern Ukraine, 4 March 2015
application.[184]

In February 2015, after a summit hosted in Belarus, Poroshenko negotiated a

ceasefire with the separatist troops. This included conditions such as the withdrawal of heavy weaponry from the front line and
decentralisation of rebel regions by the end of 2015. It also included conditions such as Ukrainian control of the border with Russia in
2015 and the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Ukrainian territory. The ceasefire began at midnight on 15 February 2015.
[185]
Participants in this ceasefire also agreed to attend regular meetings to ensure that the agreement is respected.

On 1 January 2016, Ukraine joined the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area with European Union,[18] which aims to
modernize and develop Ukraine's economy, governance and rule of law to EU standards and gradually increase integration with the
EU Internal market.[186]

Historical maps of states

Several states have existed on the territory of present-day Ukraine since its foundation. Most of these territories have been located
within Eastern Europe. However, as depicted in the maps here, they have at times extended well into Eurasia and Southeastern
Europe. At other times there has been no distinct Ukrainian state, its territories having been annexed by its more powerful
neighbours.

Historical map of Kievan The Kingdom of Galicia Historical map of Grand Proposed Polish
Rus', last 20 years of the Volhynia or Kingdom of Duchy of Lithuania, Rus' LithuanianRuthenian
state (12201240) Halych-Volynia (1245 and Samogitia until 1434 Commonwealth or
1349) Commonwealth of Three
Nations (1658)

Ukrainian Cossack
Hetmanate and territory
of Zaporozhian Cossacks
under rule of Russian
Empire (1751)

Geography
At 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi) and with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi), Ukraine is the world's 46th-largest
country (after South Sudan and before Madagascar). It is the largest wholly European country and the second-largest country in
Europe (after the European part of Russia, before metropolitan France).[e][37] It lies between latitudes 44 and 53 N, and longitudes
22 and 41 E.

The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper ('Dnipro'),
Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the
southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's various regions have diverse geographic features
ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the
highest is the Hora Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains on Crimea, in the extreme south along the
coast.[187] However Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-
Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper); to the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which
runs the border with the Russian Federation. Near the Sea of Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The
snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers, and natural changes in altitude form sudden drops in elevation and give rise to
waterfalls.
 View of Carpathian View of Carpathian Dawn on South Typical agricultural
National Park and National Park Demerdji, Alushta, landscape of Ukraine,
Hoverla at 2,061 m Crimea Kherson Oblast
(6,762 ft), the highest
mountain in Ukraine

View of "Tykhaya Bay" Kinburn sandbar, Balkhovitin, Zuivskyi

near Koktebel on Ochakiv Raion, Mykolaiv regional landscape park,
Crimea's Black Sea Oblast Donetsk Oblast
coast

Significant natural resources in Ukraine include iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulphur, graphite, titanium,
magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber and an abundance of arable land. Despite this, the country faces a number of major
environmental issues such as inadequate supplies of potable water; air- and water-pollution and deforestation, as well as radiation
contamination in the north-east from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Recycling toxic household waste is
still in its infancy in Ukraine.[188]

Soil
[189]
From northwest to southeast the soils of Ukraine may be divided into three major aggregations:

a zone of sandy podzolized soils

a central belt consisting of the black, extremely fertile Ukrainianchernozems)
(
a zone of chestnut and salinized soils
As much as two-thirds of the country's surface land consists of the so-called black earth (chornozem), a resource that has made
Ukraine one of the most fertile regions in the world and well known as a "breadbasket".[190] These (chornozem) soils may be divided
into three broad groups:

in the north a belt of the so-called deep chernozems, about 5 feet (1.5 metres) thick and rich in humus
south and east of the former, a zone of prairie, or ordinary, chernozems, which are equally rich in humus but only
about 3 feet (0.91 metres) thick
the southernmost belt, which is even thinner and has still less humus
Interspersed in various uplands and along the northern and western perimeters of the deep chernozems are mixtures of gray forest
soils and podzolized black-earth soils, which together occupy much of Ukraine's remaining area. All these soils are very fertile when
sufficient water is available. However, their intensive cultivation, especially on steep slopes, has led to widespread soil erosion and
gullying.

The smallest proportion of the soil cover consists of the chestnut soils of the southern and eastern regions. They become increasingly
[189]
salinized to the south as they approach the Black Sea.

Biodiversity
Ukraine is home to a very wide range of animals, fungi, microor
ganisms and plants.

Animals
Ukraine is divided into two main zoological areas. One
of these areas, in the west of the country, is made up of
the borderlands of Europe, where there are species
typical of mixed forests, the other is located in eastern
Ukraine, where steppe-dwelling species thrive. In the
forested areas of the country it is not uncommon to
find lynxes, wolves, wild boar and martens, as well as
The speckled ground squirrel White storks are native to
many other similar species; this is especially true of is a native of the east south-western and north-
the Carpathian Mountains, where a large number of Ukrainian steppes western Ukraine
predatory mammals make their home, as well as a
contingent of brown bears. Around Ukraine's lakes and
rivers beavers, otters and mink make their home, whilst in the waters carp, bream and catfish are the most commonly found species
of fish. In the central and eastern parts of the country
, rodents such as hamsters and gophers are found in lar
ge numbers.

Fungi
More than 6,600 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species) have been recorded from Ukraine,[191][192] but this number is
far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Ukraine, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far
higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.[193] Although
the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic
[194]
to Ukraine, and 2217 such species have been tentatively identified.

Climate
Ukraine has a mostly temperate climate, with the exception of the southern coast of
Crimea which has a subtropical climate.[195] The climate is influenced by
moderately warm, humid air coming from the Atlantic Ocean.[196] Average annual
temperatures range from 5.57 C (41.944.6 F) in the north, to 1113 C (51.8
55.4 F) in the south.[196] Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest
in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.[196] Western Ukraine,
particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 1,200 millimetres
(47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black
Sea receive around 400 millimetres (15.7 in).[196] Ukraine map of Kppen climate
classification.

Politics
Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semi-parliamentary semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial
branches.
Constitution of Ukraine

Petro Poroshenko Volodymyr Groysman

President Prime Minister
In the modern era, Ukraine has
become a much more democratic
With the proclamation of its independence on 24 August 1991, and adoption of a
country.[197][198][199][200]
constitution on 28 June 1996, Ukraine became a semi-presidential republic.
However, in 2004, deputies introduced changes to the Constitution, which tipped the
balance of power in favour of aparliamentary system. From 2004 to 2010, the legitimacy of the 2004 Constitutional amendments had
official sanction, both with the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and most major political parties.[201] Despite this, on 30 September
2010 the Constitutional Court ruled that the amendments were null and void, forcing a return to the terms of the 1996 Constitution
and again making Ukraine's political system more presidential in character
.

The ruling on the 2004 Constitutional amendments became a major topic of political discourse. Much of the concern was based on
the fact that neither the Constitution of 1996 nor the Constitution of 2004 provided the ability to "undo the Constitution", as the
decision of the Constitutional Court would have it, even though the 2004 constitution arguably has an exhaustive list of possible
procedures for constitutional amendments (articles 154159). In any case, the current Constitution could be modified by a vote in
Parliament.[201][202][203]

On 21 February 2014 an agreement between President Viktor Yanukovych and opposition leaders saw the country return to the 2004
Constitution. The historic agreement, brokered by the European Union, followed protests that began in late November 2013 and
culminated in a week of violent clashes in which scores of protesters were killed. In addition to returning the country to the 2004
Constitution, the deal provided for the formation of a coalition government, the calling of early elections, and the release of former
Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko from prison.[204] A day after the agreement was reached the Ukraine parliament dismissed
Yanukovych and installed its speaker Oleksandr Turchynov as interim president[205] and Arseniy Yatsenyuk as the Prime Minister of
Ukraine.[206]

President, parliament and government

The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head
of state.[207] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral
parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.[208] The parliament is primarily responsible for the
formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the Prime
Minister.[209] However, the President still retains the authority to nominate the
Ministers of the Foreign Affairs and of Defence for parliamentary approval, as well
as the power to appoint theProsecutor General and the head of the Security Service.

Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the
Presidential administration building
Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be
found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review.
The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed.
Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district
administrations are appointed by the President in accordance with the proposals of the Prime Minister. This system virtually requires
an agreement between the President and the Prime Minister, and has in the past led
to problems, such as when President Yushchenko exploited a perceived loophole by
appointing so-called 'temporarily acting' officers, instead of actual governors or local
leaders, thus evading the need to seek a compromise with the Prime Minister. This
practice was controversial and was subject to Constitutional Court review
.

Ukraine has a large number of political parties, many of which have tiny
memberships and are unknown to the general public. Small parties often join in
multi-party coalitions (electoral blocs) for the purpose of participating in
parliamentary elections. Cabinet of Ministers building

Courts and law enforcement

The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian
law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except in the
instance of gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for
an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their
positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have
been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is
regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled
against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out Klovsky Palace, home to the
[210] Supreme Court of Ukraine
of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.

Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater

powers than in most European countries, and according to the European
Commission for Democracy through Law 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's
Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".[211] The criminal
judicial system maintains an average conviction rate of over 99%,[212] equal to the
conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with[213] suspects often being incarcerated for
long periods before trial.[214] On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an
expert group to make recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt
National Police of Ukrainewas
a law on court organization".[214] One day later, he stated "We can no longer
formed on 3 July 2015, as part of the
disgrace our country with such a court system."[214] The criminal judicial system
post-Euromaidan reforms.
and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.

Since 1 January 2010 it has been permissible to hold court proceedings in Russian
by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a
translator.[215][216] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.

Law enforcement agencies in Ukraine are organised under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of
the national police force (iii) and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard
services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution.
Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's
authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.[217] Bloodshed was only avoided when
Lt. Gen. Sergei Popkov heeded his colleagues' calls to withdraw.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs is also responsible for the maintenance of the State Security Service; Ukraine's domestic intelligence
agency, which has on occasion been accused of acting like a secret police force serving to protect the country's political elite from
media criticism. On the other hand, however, it is widely accepted that members of the service provided vital information about
government plans to the leaders of the Orange Revolution to prevent the collapse of the movement.
Foreign relations
In 19992001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the
United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union, which had asked for
seats for all 15 of its union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has
participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet
state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UNpeacekeeping operations since 1992.

Ukraine currently considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy

objective,[218] but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the
European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European
Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into
force on 1 March 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to
implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement,
issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-
term aspirations but does not discuss association. On 31 January 1992, Ukraine
Leaders of Belarus, Russia,
joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the
Germany, France, and Ukraine at
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and on 10 March
Minsk II summit, 2015
1992, it became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine
NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual
membership.[218] This was removed from the government's foreign policy agenda
upon election of Viktor Yanukovych to the presidency, in 2010.[218] But after
February 2014's Yanukovych ouster and the (denied by Russia) following Russian
military intervention in Ukraine Ukraine renewed its drive for NATO
membership.[218] Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace
(PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the
European Union. The Association Agreement with the EU was expected to be
signed and put into effect by the end of 2011, but the process was suspended by
2012 because of the political developments of that time.[219] The Association
In January 2016, Ukraine joined the
[220]
Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014. Deep and Comprehensive Free
Trade Area (green) with the EU
Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but RussiaUkraine relations (blue), established by theUkraine
became difficult in 2014 by the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and European Union Association
payment disputes. Agreement.

Ukraine is included in the European Union'sEuropean Neighbourhood Policy(ENP)

which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer
.

Administrative divisions
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with
unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.

Including Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea that were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine
consists of 27 regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities
of special status - Kiev, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 490 'raions' (districts) and city
municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units. The average area of a Ukrainian raion is 1,200 square
[221]
kilometres (460 sq mi); the average population of a raion is 52,000 people.

Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and
urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a
generally used term). All cities have certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the
case of Kiev and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of
cities). City's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance, infrastructure
and others.

Volyn Chernihiv

Rivne
Zhytomyr
Kiev
Sumy

Lviv Ternopil
Kiev Poltava
Khmeln- Kharkiv
Cherkasy Luhansk
ytsky
Ivano- Vinnytsia
Zakarpattia
Frankivsk Dnipropetrovsk
Chernivtsi Kirovohrad Donetsk

Mykolaiv Zaporizhia

Odessa
Kherson

Crimea
Sevastopol

Armed forces
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military
force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the
world.[222][223] In May 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the
country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. Ukraine ratified the
[222]
treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became free of nuclear weapons.

Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed

Commander of the Ukrainian
contingent in Multi-National Force
Iraq, kisses his country's flag.
the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of
tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The
country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional
volunteer military.[15]

Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping operations. On

Friday 3 January 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the
European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and will be part of the EU
Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.[224] Ukrainian troops are
deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.[225] A Ukrainian unit
was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated
ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance and training battalion deployed
in Sierra Leone. In 200305, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of the
Ukrainian frigate Hetman
Multinational force in Iraqunder Polish command. The total Ukrainian armed forces
Sahaydachniy (U130)
deployment around the world is 562 servicemen.[226]

Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with

Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.[227]
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.[14] The country has had a limited military partnership with Russian
Federation, other CIS countries and a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO,
and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the
question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.[15] Recently deposed President
Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient,[16] and was against Ukraine
joining NATO.[17] During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO
when it meets the criteria for the accession.[16]

Economy
In Soviet times, the economy of Ukraine was the second largest in the Soviet Union,
being an important industrial and agricultural component of the country's planned
economy.[37] With the dissolution of the Soviet system, the country moved from a
planned economy to a market economy. The transition process was difficult for the
majority of the population which plunged into poverty.[228] Ukraine's economy
contracted severely following the years after the Soviet dissolution. Day-to-day life
for the average person living in Ukraine was a struggle. A significant number of GNI per capita in 2016
citizens in rural Ukraine survived by growing their own food, often working two or
more jobs and buying the basic necessities through thebarter economy.[229]

In 1991, the government liberalised most prices to combat widespread product shortages, and was successful in overcoming the
problem. At the same time, the government continued to subsidise state-run industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary
emission. The loose monetary policies of the early 1990s pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels. For the year 1993, Ukraine
holds the world record for inflation in one calendar year.[230] Those living on fixed incomes suffered the most.[67] Prices stabilised
only after the introduction of new currency, the hryvnia, in 1996. The country was also slow in implementing structural reforms.
Following independence, the government formed a legal framework for privatisation. However, widespread resistance to reforms
within the government and from a significant part of the population soon stalled the reform efforts. A large number of state-owned
enterprises were exempt from the privatisation process.

In the meantime, by 1999, the GDP had fallen to less than 40% of the 1991
level.[231] It recovered considerably in the following years, but as at 2014 had yet to
reach the historical maximum.[232] In the early 2000s, the economy showed strong
export-based growth of 5 to 10%, with industrial production growing more than 10%
per year.[233] Ukraine was hit by the economic crisis of 2008 and in November
.[234]
2008, the IMF approved a stand-by loan of $16.5 billion for the country

Ukraine's 2010 GDP (PPP), as calculated by the CIA, is ranked 38th in the world
and estimated at $305.2 billion.[37] Its GDP per capita in 2010 according to the CIA
was $6,700 (in PPP terms), ranked 107th in the world.[37] Nominal GDP (in U.S.
dollars, calculated at market exchange rate) was $136 billion, ranked 53rd in the
world.[37] By July 2008 the average nominal salary in Ukraine reached
1,930 hryvnias per month.[235] Despite remaining lower than in neighbouring
[236]
central European countries, the salary income growth in 2008 stood at 36.8%

As of 2016, Ukraine had average wealth per adult, at$1,254.[237]

Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft. Antonov
airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The majority of
The National Bank of Ukraine Ukrainian exports are marketed to the European Union and CIS.[238] Since
building independence, Ukraine has maintained its own space agency, the National Space
Agency of Ukraine (NSAU). Ukraine became an active participant in scientific
 space exploration and remote
sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has launched six self made
satellites and 101 launch vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.[239][240][241]

The country imports most energy supplies, especially oil and natural gas and to a
large extent depends on Russia as its energy supplier. While 25% of the natural gas
in Ukraine comes from internal sources, about 35% comes from Russia and the
remaining 40% from Central Asia through transit routes that Russia controls. At the
same time, 85% of the Russian gas is delivered to Western Europe through Antonov An-225 Mriya has the
Ukraine.[242] largest wingspan of any aircraft in
operational service.
Growing sectors of the Ukrainian
economy include the information
technology (IT) market, which topped all other Central and Eastern European
countries in 2007, growing some 40 percent.[243] In 2013, Ukraine ranked fourth in
the world in number of certified IT professionals after the United States, India and
Trends in the Human Development
Index of Ukraine, 19702010 Russia.[244]

Ukraine's 2010 GDP, as calculated by the World Bank, was around $136 billion,
2011 GDP around $163 billion, 2012 $176.6 billion, 2013 $177.4 billion.[245]
In 2014 and 2015, the Ukrainian currency was the world's worst performing
currency, having dropped 80 percent of its value since April 2014 since the War in
Donbass and the annexation of Crimea by Russia.[246][247]

The World Bank classifies Ukraine as a middle-income state.[248] Significant issues

include underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation, corruption and
bureaucracy. The public will to fight against corrupt officials and business elites
culminated in a strong wave of public demonstrations against the Victor
Ukrainian administrative divisions by
Yanukovych's regime in November 2013.[249] However, according to the Corruption
monthly salary. All figures are in the
Perceptions Index, Ukraine is still the most corrupt country in Europe being ranked
Ukrainian hryvnia.
142nd out of 175 countries on the world, in the latest CPI report from 2014.[250] In
2007 the Ukrainian stock market recorded the second highest growth in the world of
130 percent.[251] 11.8 billion.[37]
According to the CIA, in 2006 the market capitalization of the Ukrainian stock market was $1

Ukraine has managed to achieve certain progress in reducing absolute poverty, ensuring access to primary and secondary education,
improving maternal health and reducing child mortality. The poverty rate according to the absolute criterion (share of the population
whose daily consumption is below US$5.05 (PPP)) was reduced from 11.9 percent in 2000 to 2.3 percent in 2012, and the poverty
rate according to the relative criterion (share of the population below the national poverty line) decreased at the same time from 71.2
percent to 24.0 percent.[252]

The economy of Ukraine overcame the heavy crisis caused by armed conflict in southeast part of country. At the same time, 200%
devaluation of Ukrainian hryvnia (national currency) in 20142015 made Ukrainian goods and services cheaper and more
ompetitive.[253] In 2016, for the first time since 2010, the economy grew more than 2%. According to World Bank statement growth
is projected at 2% in 2017 and 3.5% in 2018.

Corporations
Ukraine has a very large heavy-industry base and is one of the largest refiners of metallurgical products in Eastern Europe.[254]
However, the country is also well known for its production of high-technological goods and transport products, such as Antonov
aircraft and various private and commercial vehicles.[255] The country's largest and most competitive firms are components of the
PFTS index, traded on the PFTS Ukraine Stock Exchange.
Well-known Ukrainian brands include Naftogaz Ukrainy, AvtoZAZ, PrivatBank,
Roshen, Yuzhmash, Nemiroff, Motor Sich, Khortytsa, Kyivstar and Aerosvit.[256]

Ukraine is regarded as a developing economy with high potential for future success,
though such a development is thought likely only with new all-encompassing
economic and legal reforms.[257] Although Foreign Direct Investment in Ukraine
remained relatively strong since recession of the early 1990s, the country has had
trouble maintaining stable economic growth. Issues relating to current corporate
governance in Ukraine were primarily linked to the large scale monopolisation of
traditional heavy industries by wealthy individuals such as Rinat Akhmetov, the
enduring failure to broaden the nation's economic base and a lack of effective legal
protection for investors and their products.[258] Despite all this, Ukraine's economy A launch of Zenit-3SL rocket from the
[259] Sea Launch platform Ocean
was still expected to grow by around 3.5% in 2010.
Odyssey

Transport
In total, Ukrainian paved roads stretch for 164,732 kilometres (102,360 mi).[37]
Major routes, marked with the letter 'M' for 'International' (Ukrainian:
), extend nationwide and connect all major cities of Ukraine, and
provide cross-border routes to the country's neighbours. There are only two true
motorway standard highways in Ukraine; a 175-kilometre (109-mile) stretch of
motorway from Kharkiv to Dnipro and a section of the M03 which extends 18 km
(11 mi) from Kiev to Boryspil, where the city's international airport is located.

. The KharkivDnipro motorway (M18)

Rail transport in Ukraineconnects all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial
centres with neighbouring countries. The heaviest concentration of railway track is
the Donbas region of Ukraine. Althoughrail freight transport fell by 7.4% in 1995 in
comparison with 1994, Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail users.[260] The
total amount of railroad track in Ukraine extends for 22,473 kilometres (13,964 mi),
of which 9,250 kilometres (5,750 mi) is electrified.[37] Currently the state has a
monopoly on the provision of passenger rail transport, and all trains, other than those
with cooperation of other foreign companies on international routes, are operated by
its company 'Ukrzaliznytsia'.
HRCS2 multiple unit. Rail transport is
Transport by air is developing quickly, with a visa-free programme for EU nationals heavily utilised in Ukraine
and citizens of a number of other Western nations,[261] the nation's aviation sector is
handling a significantly increased number of travellers. The Euro 2012 football
tournament, held in Poland and Ukraine as joint hosts, prompted the government to invest heavily in transport infrastructure, and in
particular airports.[262] The Donetsk airport, completed for Euro 2012, was destroyed by the end of 2014 because of the ongoing war
[263]
between the government and the separatist movement.

Kiev Boryspil is the county's largest international airport; it has three main passenger terminals and is the base for the country's flag
carrier, Ukraine International Airlines. Other large airports in the country include those in Kharkiv, Lviv and Donetsk (now
destroyed), whilst those in Dnipropetrovsk and Odessa have plans for terminal upgrades in the near future. In addition to its flag
carrier, Ukraine has a number of airlines including Windrose Airlines, Dniproavia, Azur Air Ukraine, and AtlasGlobal Ukraine.
Antonov Airlines, a subsidiary of the Antonov Aerospace Design Bureau is the only operator of the world's largest fixed wing
aircraft, the An-225.

International maritime travel is mainly provided through the Port of Odessa, from where ferries sail regularly to Istanbul, Varna and
Haifa. The largest ferry company presently operating these routes is Ukrferry.[264]
Energy
In 2014, Ukraine was ranked number 19 on the Emerging Market Energy Security Growth Prosperity Index, published by the think
tank Bisignis Institute, which ranks emerging market countries using government corruption, GDP growth and oil reserve
information.[265]

Fuel resources
Ukraine produces and processes its own natural gas and petroleum. However, the majority of these commodities are imported. Eighty
percent of Ukrainian natural gas supplies are imported, mainly fromRussia.[266]

Natural gas is heavily utilised not only in energy production but also by steel and chemical industries of the country, as well as by the
district heating sector. In 2012, Shell started exploration drilling for shale gas in Ukrainea project aimed at the nation's total gas
supply independence.

Following the armed conflict in the Donbass, Ukraine was cut off from half of coal and all of its anthracite extraction, dropping
Ukrainian coal production by 22 percent in 2014. Russia was Ukraines largest coal supplier, and in 2014 Russia blocked its coal
supplies, forcing 22 Ukrainian power plants to shut down temporarily
.

After that, Ukraine started to lower imports from Russia.

In 2017, Russia accounted for 55.7 percent of total coal supplies, United States at 25 percent, the second-leading supplier
.

In 2014, almost 100 percent of Ukraines natural gas supply came from Russia. From 2016, it all comes from the EU.

In 2014, all of Ukraines nuclear fuel came from Russia. By 2016, Russias share was down to 55 percent, Westinghouse supplying
nuclear fuel for six of Ukraines VVER-1000 nuclear reactors.[267]

Power generation
Ukraine has been a net energy exporting country, for example in 2011, 3.3% of
electricity produced were exported,[268] but also one of Europe's largest energy
consumers.[269] As of 2011, 47.6% of total electricity generation was from nuclear
power[268] The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhia Nuclear Power
Plant, is located in Ukraine. Most of the nuclear fuel has been coming from Russia.
In 2008 Westinghouse Electric Company won a five-year contract selling nuclear
fuel to three Ukrainian reactors starting in 2011.[270] Following Euromaidan then
President Viktor Yanukovych introduced a ban on Rosatom nuclear fuel shipments
to Europe via Ukraine, which was in effect from 28 January until 6 March 2014.[271] Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant, the
After the Russian annexation of Crimea in April 2014, the National Nuclear Energy largest nuclear power plant in Europe
Generating Company of Ukraine Energoatom and Westinghouse extended the
contract for fuel deliveries through 2020.[272]

Coal and gas-fired thermal power stations and hydroelectricity are the second and third largest kinds of power generation in the
country.

Renewable energy use

The share of renewables within the total energy mix is still very small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable
energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and as of 2012 stands at 397 MW.[273] In 2011 several large solar power stations were
opened in Ukraine, among them Europe's largest solar park in Perovo, (Crimea).[274] Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency
and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind and solar power plants in Ukraine could increase by another
600 MW in 2012.[275] According to Macquarie Research, by 2016 Ukraine will construct and commission new solar power stations
with a total capacity of 1.8 GW, almost equivalent to the capacity of two nuclear reactors.[276]
The Economic Bank for Reconstruction and Development estimates that Ukraine has
great renewable energy potential: the technical potential for wind energy is estimated
at 40 TWh/year, small hydropower stations at 8.3 TWh/year, biomass at 120
TWh/year, and solar energy at 50 TWh/year.[277] In 2011, Ukraine's Energy
Ministry predicted that the installed capacity of generation from alternative and
renewable energy sources would increase to 9% (about 6 GW) of the total electricity
Perovo Solar Park
production in the country.[278]

Internet
Ukraine has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 200708. As of June, 2014,
there were 18.2 million desktop Internet users, which is 56% of the adult population. The core of the audience is the 25 to 34-year
-old
age bracket, representing 29% of the population.[279] Ukraine ranks 8th among the world's top ten countries with the fastest Internet
access speed.[280]

IT
According to A.T. Kearney Global Services Location Index,[281] Ukraine ranks 24th among the best outsourcing locations, and is
among the top 20 offshore services locations in EMEA, according to Gartner.[282] In the first six months of 2017, the volume of
export of computer and information services reached $1.256 billion, which is an 18.3% increase compared to the same period in
2016.[283] The IT industry ranks third in the export structure of Ukraine after agro-industry and metallur
gy.

Ukraines IT sector employs close to 100,000 workers, including 50,000 software developers. This number is expected to surpass the
200,000 mark by 2020.[284] There are over 1,000 IT companies in Ukraine.[285] In 2017, 13 of them made it to the list of 100 best
outsourcing service providers in the world.[286] More than 100 multinational tech companies have R&D labs in Ukraine[287]
including Samsung, Huawei, Cisco, Oracle, Ubisoft, Rakuten, Opera, Playtech, and Ubisoft. Some of Ukraines most prominent
startups include Looksery, Mobalytics, Jooble, DepositPhotos, Petcube, Preply, TemplateMonster, CleanMyMac, Setapp, GitLab,
Invisible CRM, and Grammarly.

Ukraine ranks first worldwide in the number of C++ and Unity3D developers, and second in the number of JavaScript, Scala, and
Magento engineers.[288] 78% of Ukrainian tech workers report having an intermediate or higher level of English proficiency
.[289]

Tourism
In 2007 Ukraine occupied 8th place in Europe by the number of tourists visiting, according to the World Tourism Organisation
rankings.[290] Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for skiing, hiking and fishing: the Black Sea
coastline as a popular summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosystems; churches, castle ruins and other architectural and
park landmarks; various outdoor activity points. Kiev, Lviv, Odessa and Kamyanets-Podilskyi are Ukraine's principal tourist centres
each offering many historical landmarks as well as formidable hospitality infrastructure. Tourism used to be the mainstay of Crimea's
[291]
economy but there has been a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.

The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are the selection of the most important landmarks of Ukraine,
chosen by the general public through an Internet-based vote.

Demographics
According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, Ukrainians make up 77.8% of the
Composition of Ukraine by nationality
population. Other significant groups have identified themselves as belonging to the
nationality of Russians (17.3%), Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Ukrainians 77.8%
Russians 17.3%
Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles
Belarusians 0.6%
Moldovans 0.5%
(0.3%), Jews (0.2%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).[3] The Crimean Tatars 0.5%
industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most heavily populated, and about Bulgarians 0.4%
Hungarians 0.3%
67.2% of the population lives in urban areas.[292]
Romanians 0.3%
Ukraine has one of the most equal income distribution as measured by Gini index Poles 0.3%
Other 1.7%
and Palma ratio.[293]
Source: Ethnic composition of the
population of Ukraine, 2001 Census

Population decline
[4] The
Ukraine's population (excluding Crimea) in 2016 was estimated at 42,541,633
country's population has been declining since the 1990s because of its high death
rate and low birth rate. The population has been shrinking by over 150,000 annually
since 1993. The birth rate has recovered in recent years from a low level around
2000, and is now comparable to the European average. It would need to increase by
another 50% or so to stabilize the population and of
fset the high mortality rate.
Main ethnic groups of Ukrainian
In 2007, the country's rate of population decline was the fourth highest in the raions (2001)
world.[294]

Life expectancy is falling, and Ukraine suffers a high mortality rate from environmental pollution, poor diets, widespread smoking,
[295][296]
extensive alcoholism and deteriorating medical care.

During the years 2008 to 2010, more than 1.5 million children were born in Ukraine, compared to fewer than 1.2 million during
19992001. In 2008 Ukraine posted record-breaking birth rates since its 1991 independence. Infant mortality rates have also dropped
[297]
from 10.4 deaths to 8.3 per 1,000 children under one year of age. This is lower than in 153 countries of the world.

Fertility and natalist policies

The current birth rate in Ukraine, as of 2010, is 10.8 births/1,000 population, and the
death rate is 15.2 deaths/1,000 population (seeUkraine demographic tables).

The phenomenon of lowest-low fertility, defined as total fertility below 1.3, is

emerging throughout Europe and is attributed by many to postponement of the
initiation of childbearing. Ukraine, where total fertility (a very low 1.1 in 2001), was
one of the world's lowest, shows that there is more than one pathway to lowest-low
fertility. Although Ukraine has undergone immense political and economic
transformations during 19912004, it has maintained a young age at first birth and Population of Ukraine (in thousands)
nearly universal childbearing. Analysis of official national statistics and the from 1950 to 2012[298][299]
Ukrainian Reproductive Health Survey show that fertility declined to very low levels
without a transition to a later pattern of childbearing. Findings from focus group
interviews suggest explanations of the early fertility pattern. These findings include the persistence of traditional norms for
childbearing and the roles of men and women, concerns about medical complications and infertility at a later age, and the link
between early fertility and early marriage.[300]

To help mitigate the declining population, the government continues to increase child support payments. Thus it provides one-time
payments of 12,250 hryvnias for the first child, 25,000 Hryvnias for the second and 50,000 Hryvnias for the third and fourth, along
with monthly payments of 154 hryvnias per child.[236][301] The demographic trend is showing signs of improvement, as the birth rate
has been steadily growing since 2001.[302] Net population growth over the first nine months of 2007 was registered in five provinces
of the country (out of 24), and population shrinkage was showing signs of stabilising nationwide. In 2007 the highest birth rates were
in the western oblasts.[303] In 2008, Ukraine emerged from lowest-low fertility, and the upward trend has continued since, except for
a slight dip in 2010 because of the economic crisis of 2009 (seedemographic tables).
Urbanisation
In total, Ukraine has 457 cities, 176 of them are labelled oblast-class, 279 smaller 'raion'-class cities, and two special legal status
[221]
cities. These are followed by 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.

Language
According to the constitution, the state language of Ukraine is Ukrainian.[304]
Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.[304]
According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent of the population declared Ukrainian as
their native language and 29.6 percent declared Russian.[305] Most native Ukrainian
speakers know Russian as a second language.[304] Russian was the de facto official
language of the Soviet Union but both Russian and Ukrainian were official
languages in the Soviet Union[306] and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR learning
Ukrainian was mandatory.[304] Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional
languages entitles any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be
Percentage of ethnic Ukrainians by
declared official within that area.[307] Russian was within weeks declared as a
subdivision according to the2001
regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities.[308] census (by oblast)
Russian can now be used in these cities'/oblasts' administrative office work and
documents.[309][310] On 23 February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian
revolution, the Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages,
making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not
signed by acting President Turchynov and current President
Poroshenko.[311][312][313]

Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine.[304] In western Ukraine,

Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine,
Ukrainian and Russian are both equally used in cities, with Russian being more
common in Kiev,[f] while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities.
Percentage of native Russian
In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily used in cities, and Ukrainian is
speakers by subdivision according to
used in rural areas. These details result in a significant difference across different
the 2001 census (by oblast)[f]
survey results, as even a small restating of a question switches responses of a
significant group of people.[f]

For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s,
the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.[314] Following independence, the government of
Ukraine began restoring the image and usage of Ukrainian language through a policy of Ukrainisation.[315] Today, most foreign films
and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.

According to the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However,
the republic's constitution specifically recognises Russian as the language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage 'in
all spheres of public life'. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language of 12 percent of population of Crimea)[316] is
guaranteed a special state protection as well as the 'languages of other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming
majority of the Crimean population (77 percent), with Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4 percent and Ukrainian speakers comprising just
10.1 percent.[317] But in everyday life the majority of Crimean T
atars and Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.[318]

Religion
A 2016 survey conducted by the Razumkov
Religion in Ukraine as of 2016 (Razumkov Center)[319]
Centre found that 70% of Ukrainians
Orthodox 65.4%
declared themselves believers in any
Do not believe in one of the listed religions 16.3%
religion, while 10.1% were uncertain Simply Christianity 7.1%
whether they believed or not, 7.2% were Greek Catholicism 6.5%
Protestantism 1.9%
uninterested in beliefs, 6.3% were
Islam 1.1%
unbelievers, 2.7% were atheists, and a
Roman Catholicism 1.0%
further 3.9% found it difficult to answer the Judaism 0.2%
question.[321] The level of religiosity in Hinduism 0.2%
Ukraine is greatest in Western Ukraine Other religions 0.2%
(91%), and lowest in Eastern Ukraine
(56%) and the Donbass (57%).[321]

The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev,

a UNESCO World Heritage Site[320]
is one of the main Christian
cathedrals in Ukraine

St. Nicholas Roman Catholic

Cathedral in Kiev

Changes over time and region in the proportions of people in Ukraine identifying themselves as believers,
etc.[321]
Whether you Ukraine 2016 survey split by region
attend church
or not, who do
you think you 2000 2010 2013 2014 2016 West Centre South East Donbass
are?
Believers 57.8% 71.4% 67.0% 76.0% 70.4% 91.0% 73.5% 65.7% 55.6% 57.2%
Those who 22.5% 11.5% 14.7% 7.9% 10.1% 4.7% 7.3% 8.3% 14.2% 19.5%
hesitate
between belief
and disbelief
Not a believer 11.9% 7.9% 5.5% 4.7% 6.3% 0.9% 4.8% 7.4% 13.4% 7.2%
Atheist beliefs 3.2% 1.4% 2.0% 2.5% 2.7% 0.2% 2.6% 3.2% 3.5% 5.0%
Do not care 2.6% 4.4% 5.1% 4.9% 7.2% 1.2% 8.0% 13.0% 7.3% 9.4%
Difficult to 2.0% 3.3% 5.7% 3.9% 3.9% 1.9% 3.8% 2.3% 5.9% 1.6%
answer
Of the Ukrainian population, 81.9% were Christians, comprising a 65.4% who declared to be Orthodox, 7.1% simply Christians,
6.5% Greek Rite Catholics, and 1.9% Protestants. A further 1.1% were Muslims and 1.0% Latin Rite Catholics. Judaism and
Hinduism were the religions of 0.2% of the population each. A further 16.3% of the population did not identify in one of those listed
hitherto.[319] According to the surveys conducted by Razumkov in the 2000s and early 2010s, such numbers have remained relatively
constant throughout the last decade.[319]

A 2006 survey of the same Razumkov Centre, found that: 62.5% of all respondents were not religious, not believers or not affiliated
to any religious body, 33.6% were Christians (26.8% Orthodox, 5.9% Catholics, and 0.9% Protestants), 0.1% were Jewish, and 3.8%
were members of other religions.[322]

Among those Ukrainians who declared to believe in Orthodoxy, 38.1% declared to be members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of
the Kievan Patriarchate (a body that is not canonically recognized by the Eastern Orthodox Church), while 23.0% declared to be
members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscovian Patriarchate (which is an autonomous Orthodox church under the
Russian Orthodox Church). A further 2.7% were members of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which, like the Kievan
Patriarchate, is not recognized by the Eastern Orthodox Church.[323] Among the remaining Orthodox Ukrainians, 32.3% declared to
be "simply Orthodox", without affiliation to any patriarchate, while a further 3.1% declared that they "did not know" which
patriarchate or Orthodox church they belonged to.[324]

The second largest Christian group in Ukraine, Catholicism, is predominantly represented by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church,
an Eastern Catholic Church in communion with the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church. It recognizes the primacy of thePope as
head of the Church while still maintaining a similarliturgical and spiritual tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy.[325] Additionally, there are
a small number of Latin Rite Catholic communities (1.0%).[319] The church consists mainly of ethnic Poles and Hungarians, who
live predominantly in the western regions of the country. Protestants in Ukraine make up 1.9% of the population as of 2016.[319] A
[319]
further 7.1% of the population declares to be simply Christian.

Famines and migration

The famines of the 1930s, followed by the devastation of World War II, created a demographic disaster. Life expectancy at birth fell
to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the
period 194144.[326] According to The Oxford companion to World War II, "Over 7 million inhabitants of Ukraine, more than one-
orld War."[327]
sixth of the pre-war population, were killed during the Second W

Significant migration took place in the first years of Ukrainian independence. More than one million people moved into Ukraine in
199192, mostly from the other former Soviet republics. In total, between 1991 and 2004, 2.2 million immigrated to Ukraine (among
them, 2 million came from the other former Soviet Union states), and 2.5 million emigrated from Ukraine (among them, 1.9 million
moved to other former Soviet Union republics).[328] Currently, immigrants constitute an estimated 14.7% of the total population, or
6.9 million people; this is the fourth largest figure in the world.[329] In 2006, there were an estimated 1.2 million Canadians of
Ukrainian ancestry,[330] giving Canada the world's third-largest Ukrainian population behind Ukraine itself and Russia. There are
also large Ukrainian immigrant communities in the United States, Poland, Australia, Brazil and Argentina.

Health
The Ukrainian Red Cross Society was established in April 1918 in Kiev as an independent humanitarian society of the Ukrainian
People's Republic. Its immediate tasks were to help refugees and prisoners of war, care for handicapped people and orphaned
children, fight famine and epidemics, support and organize sick quarters, hospitals and public canteens. At present, society involves
more than 6.3 million supporters and activists. Its Visiting Nurses Service has 3,200 qualified nurses. The organization takes part in
more than 40 humanitarian programmes all over Ukraine, which are mostly funded by public donation and corporate partnerships. By
its own estimates, the Society annually provides services to more than 105,000 lonely, elderly people, about 23,000 people disabled
during the Second World War and handicapped workers, more than 25,000 war veterans, and more than 8,000 adults handicapped
since childhood. Assistance for orphaned and disabled children is also rendered.
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian
citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a
state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist
nationwide.[331] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with
those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state
employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a
regular basis.

All of the country's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the
Ministry of Health, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical The municipal children's hospital in
practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the Kremenchuk, Poltava Oblast
healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have
fallen.[332]

Hospitals in Ukraine are organised along the same lines as most European nations, according to the regional administrative structure;
as a result most towns have their own hospital ( ) and many also have district hospitals ( ). Larger
and more specialised medical complexes tend only to be found in major cities, with some even more specialised units located only in
the capital, Kiev. However, all oblasts have their own network of general hospitals which are able to deal with almost all medical
problems and are typically equipped with major trauma centres; such hospitals are called 'regional hospitals'
( ).

Ukraine currently faces a number of major public health issues and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high
death rate and low birth rate (the current Ukrainian birth rate is 11 births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 16.3 deaths/1,000
population). A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes
such as alcohol poisoning and smoking.[296] In 2008, the country's population was one of the fastest declining in the world at 5%
growth.[294][333] The UN warned that Ukraine's population could fall by as much as 10 million by 2050 if trends did not
improve.[334] In addition, obesity, systemic high blood pressure and the HIV endemic are all major challenges facing the Ukrainian
healthcare system.

As of March 2009 the Ukrainian government is reforming the health care system, by the creation of a national network of family
doctors and improvements in the medical emergency services.[335] former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko put forward (in
[336]
November 2009) an idea to start introducing a public healthcare system based on health insurance in the spring of 2010.

Education
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all
citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools
which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and
communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.[337] There
is also a small number of accredited private secondary and higher education
institutions.

Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens,
which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%.[37] Since 2005, an The University of Kiev is one of
Ukraine's most important educational
eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary
institutions.
education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education
(secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three
years.[338] In the 12th grade, students take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later
used for university admissions.

The first higher education institutions (HEIs) emerged in Ukraine during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The first Ukrainian
higher education institution was the Ostrozka School, or Ostrozkiy Greek-Slavic-Latin Collegium, similar to Western European
higher education institutions of the time. Established in 1576 in the town of Ostrog, the Collegium was the first higher education
institution in the Eastern Slavic territories. The oldest university was the Kyiv
Mohyla Academy, first established in 1632 and in 1694 officially recognised by the
government of Imperial Russia as a higher education institution. Among the oldest is
also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were
set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kiev
(1834), Odessa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher
education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally
established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute
Residence of Bukovinian and
(1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in
Dalmatian Metropolitansbuilding by
Kiev (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth
Josef Hlvka, 1882, now Chernivtsi
followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 a number of higher education institutions University
increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.[339] Most HEIs established after 1990
are those owned by private organisations.

The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under
national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.[340] The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up
in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries, as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.[341]
[342]
Ukraine has more than 800 higher education institutions and in 2010 the number of graduates reached 654,700 people.

Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduatesin Europe, while being ranked seventh in population. Higher
education is either state funded or private. Students that study at state expense receive a standard scholarship if their average marks at
the end-of-term exams and differentiated test suffice; this rule may be different in some universities. For highest grades, the
scholarship is increased by 25%. For most students the government subsidy is not suf
ficient to cover their basic living expenses. Most
universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. Also, it is common for libraries to supply required books for all
registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (56th year), in
accordance with the Bologna process. Historically, Specialist degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree
awarded by universities in the Soviet times.

The Law of Ukraine On Higher Education came into force on 6 September 2014. It was approved in Ukrainian Parliament on 1 July
2014. The main changes in the system of higher education:[343] a separate collegiate body to monitor the quality of education was
established (Ukrainian: ); each higher education institution has the
right to implement its own educational and research programs; role of the student government was increased; higher education
institution has the right freely administer own revenues; 5 following types of higher education qualifications were established: Junior
Bachelor, Bachelor, Master, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and Doctor of Science; load on lecturers and students was reduced;
academic mobility for faculty and students etc.

Regional differences
Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western Ukraine and in Central Ukraine,
while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of Eastern Ukraine and
Southern Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR schools, learning Russian was mandatory;
currently in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction
offer classes in Russian and in the other minoritylanguages.[304][344][345][346]

On the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism, opinion in

Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in
Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less Results of the 2012 parliamentary
extreme.[345][347][348][349] election Yanukovych's Party of
Regions in blue. Batkivshchyna in
purple.
Similar historical cleavages also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important
political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv, identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian
Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and
southern Ukraine, as well as Kiev, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions
(a poll by the Research & Branding Groupheld March 2010 showed that the attitude of the citizens of Donetsk to the citizens of Lviv
was 79% positive and that the attitude of the citizens of Lviv to the citizens of Donetsk was 88% positive).[350] However, all were
united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more
by culture and politics than by demographic differences.[350][351] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the
feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in theDonbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).[352]

During elections voters of Western and Central Ukrainian oblasts (provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine,
Batkivshchyna)[353][354] and presidential candidates (Viktor Yuschenko, Yulia Tymoshenko) with a pro-Western and state reform
platform, while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for parties (CPU, Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor
Yanukovych) with a pro-Russian and status quo platform.[355][356][357][358] However, this geographical division is
decreasing.[359][360][361]

Culture
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Orthodox Christianity, the dominant
religion in the country.[323] Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and
grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West. The
culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours,
reflected in its architecture, music and art.

The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.[362]
In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he
promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". A collection of traditional Ukrainian
This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced Easter eggs pysanky. The design
and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they motifs on pysanky date back to early
wanted.[363] Slavic cultures.

The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These
eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give
the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated
parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only
the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the
arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.[364] In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of
the Carpathian Mountains in 2000 was built the museum of Pysanka which won a
nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders
of Ukraine action.
Rushnyk, Ukrainian embroidery

Weaving and embroidery

Artisan textile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,[365] especially in Ukrainian wedding traditions. Ukrainian
embroidery, weaving and lace-making are used in traditional folk dress and in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies
depending on the region of origin[366] and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of
stitches.[367] Use of colour is very important and has roots in Ukrainian folklore. Embroidery motifs found in different parts of
Ukraine are preserved in theRushnyk Museum in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi.
National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in
Rivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two famous personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication. Nina
Myhailivna[368] and Uliana Petrivna[369] with international recognition. To preserve this traditional knowledge the village is
planning to open a local weaving centre, a museum and weaving school.

Literature
The history of Ukrainian literature dates back to the
11th century, following the Christianisation of the Kievan
Rus'.[370] The writings of the time were mainly liturgical and
were written in Old Church Slavonic. Historical accounts of
the time were referred to aschronicles, the most significant of
which was the Primary Chronicle.[371][g] Literary activity
faced a sudden decline during the Mongol invasion of
Rus'.[370]

Ukrainian literature again began to develop in the

14th century, and was advanced significantly in the
16th century with the introduction of print and with the
beginning of the Cossack era, under both Russian and Polish Taras Shevchenko self- Lesya Ukrainka, one of the
portrait foremost Ukrainian women
dominance.[370] The Cossacks established an independent
writers
society and popularized a new kind of epic poems, which
marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.[371] These
advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, when publishing in the Ukrainian language was outlawed and
ged.[370]
prohibited. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century modern literary Ukrainian finally emer

The 19th century initiated a vernacular period in Ukraine, led by Ivan Kotliarevsky's work 'Eneyida', the first publication written in
modern Ukrainian. By the 1830s, Ukrainian romanticism began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure,
romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Where Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the
[372]
Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.

Then, in 1863, use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively prohibited by the Russian Empire.[59] This severely curtailed
literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian
controlled Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to
power.[371]

Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years, when nearly all literary trends were approved (the most important
literary figures of that time were Mykola Khvylovy, Valerian Pidmohylny, Mykola Kulish, Mykhayl Semenko and some others).
These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by NKVD as
part of the Great Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as the Executed Renaissance.[373] These
repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the
Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works.

In post-Stalinist times literary activities continued to be somewhat limited under the Communist Party. The most famous figures of
Ukrainian post-war Soviet literature were Lina Kostenko, Dmytro Pavlychko, Borys Oliynyk (poet), Ivan Drach, Oles Honchar,
Vasyl Stus, Vasyl Symonenko.

Literary freedom appeared in late 1980s early 1990s with the process of collapse of the USSR and reestablishing of Ukrainian
independence in 1991.[370] Among the most famous writers of the post-Soviet period are Oksana Zabuzhko, Yurii Andrukhovych,
Oleksandr Irvanets, Serhiy Zhadan, Taras Prokhasko, Jaroslav Melnik, Yuriy Izdryk, Yuriy Pokalchuk, Yuriy Vynnychuk, Andrey
Kurkov.[374]
Architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures
built in modern Ukraine, and by Ukrainians worldwide. These include initial roots
which were established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus'. Since the
Christianization of Kievan Rus' for several ages Ukrainian architecture was
influenced by the Byzantine architecture. After the 12th century, the distinct
architectural history continued in the principalities of Galicia-Volhynia. During the
epoch of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, a new style unique to Ukraine was developed
under the western influences of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. After the
union with the Tsardom of Russia, many structures in the larger eastern, Russian- Traditional Ukrainian village
ruled area were built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the architecture in Curitiba, Brazil, which
western Galicia was developed under Austro-Hungarian architectural influences. has a large Ukrainian diaspora.
Ukrainian national motifs would finally be used during the period of the Soviet
Union and in modern independent Ukraine.

The great churches of the Rus', built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in
the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the Kievan state was strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern Orthodox
churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often
featured scores of small domes, which led some art historians to take this as an indication of the appearance of pre-Christian pagan
Slavic temples.

Several examples of these churches survive; however, during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, many were externally rebuilt in the
Ukrainian Baroque style (see below). Examples include the grand St. Sophia of Kiev the year 1017 is the earliest record of
foundation laid, Church of the Saviour at Berestove built from 1113 to 1125 and St. Cyril's Church, circa 12th-century. All can still
be found in the Ukrainian capital. Several buildings were reconstructed during the late-19th century, including the Assumption
Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynskyi, built in 1160 and reconstructed in 18961900, the Paraskevi church in Chernihiv, built in 1201
with reconstruction done in the late 1940s, and the Golden gates in Kiev, built in 1037 and reconstructed in 1982. The latter's
reconstruction was criticised by some art and architecture historians as a revivalist fantasy. Unfortunately little secular or vernacular
architecture of Kievan Rus' has survived.

As Ukraine became increasingly integrated into the Russian Empire, Russian architects had the opportunity to realise their projects in
the picturesque landscape that many Ukrainian cities and regions offered. St. Andrew's Church of Kiev (17471754), built by
Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is a notable example of Baroque architecture, and its location on top of the Kievan mountain made it a
recognisable monument of the city. An equally notable contribution of Rasetrelli was the Mariyinsky Palace, which was built to be a
summer residence to Russian Empress Elizabeth. During the reign of the last Hetman of Ukraine, Kirill Razumovsky, many of the
Cossack Hetmanate's towns such as Hlukhiv, Baturyn and Koselets had grandiose projects built by Andrey Kvasov. Russia
eventually conquered the south of Ukraine and Crimea, and renamed them as New Russia. New cities such as Nikolayev, Odessa,
Kherson and Sevastopol were founded. These would contain notable examples of Imperial Russian architecture.
 The Cathedral of Saints Kamianets-Podilskyi St Andrew's Church in Lviv's Old Town;
Boris and Gleb in Castle one of the Kiev, an example of architecture there is
Chernihiv dates to Seven Wonders of Baroque much influenced by its
Kievan Rus'. 1030. Ukraine history as part of Austria-
Hungary and Poland.

Vorontsov Palace, at the St. Michael's Golden- Example of early 20th Lviv. The Bernardine
foot of the Crimean Domed Cathedral in century architecture in church in the style of
Mountains, an example Kiev, an example of Lviv Italian and Dutch
of Gothic/Moorish Ukrainian Baroque mannerism
Revival architecture

Poltava museum, Central Department store Modern residential Schnborn Palace. 1895
Ukrainian Modern in Kiev, Stalinist architecture in Kharkiv
architecture example. architecture example
1908.

In 1934, the capital of Soviet Ukraine moved from Kharkiv to Kiev. Previously, the city was seen as only a regional centre, hence
received little attention. All of that was to change, at great price. The first examples of Stalinist architecture were already showing,
and, in light of the official policy, a new city was to be built on top of the old one. This meant that much-admired examples such as
the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monasterywere destroyed. Even the St. Sophia Cathedral was under threat. Also, the Second World
War contributed to the wreckage. After the war, a new project for the reconstruction of central Kiev transformed Khreshchatyk
avenue into a notable example of Stalinism in Architecture. However, by 1955, the new politics of architecture once again stopped
the project from fully being realised.
The task for modern Ukrainian architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style
and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. An example of modern Ukrainian architecture is the reconstruction and
renewal of the Maidan Nezalezhnosti in central Kiev. Despite the limit set by narrow space within the plaza, the engineers were able
to blend together the uneven landscape, and use under
ground space for a new shopping centre.

A major project, which may take up most of the 21st century, is the construction of the Kiev City-Centre on the Rybalskyi Peninsula,
Dnieper.[375]
which, when finished, will include a dense skyscraper park amid the picturesque landscape of the

Music
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences.
From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced
several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy
and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into
Western music and even into modernjazz.

Ukrainian music sometimes presents a

perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing
with chordal harmony. The most striking
general characteristic of authentic ethnic
Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of Cossack Mamay playing a kobza

minor modes or keys which incorporate

augmented 2nd intervals.

During the Baroque period, music was an important discipline for those that had received a
higher education in Ukraine. It had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the
Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian
Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being accomplished players of the
kobza, bandura or torban.

Mykola Lysenko is widely
considered to be the father
of Ukrainian classical music.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv, Ukraine in 1738 and students
were taught to sing, play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the
earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian,
having been born or educated in Hlukhiv, or had been closely associated with this music
school. See: Dmytro Bortniansky, Maksym Berezovsky and Artemiy Vedel.

Ukrainian classical music falls into three distinct categories defined by whether the
composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-
Ukrainian ethnicity who was born or at some time was a citizen of Ukraine, or an
ethnic Ukrainian living outside of Ukraine within the Ukrainian diaspora. The music
of these three groups differs considerably, as do the audiences for whom they cater.

Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity
in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player Mariana Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian dance hopak
Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and
performers like Vopli Vidoplyasova, Dakh Daughters, Dakha Brakha, Ivan Dorn and
Okean Elzy.

Modern musical culture of Ukraine is presented both with academic and entertainment music. Ukraine has five conservatories, 6
opera houses, five houses of Chamber Music, Philharmony in all regional centers.

Ukraine hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2005and the Eurovision Song Contest 2017.
Cinema
Ukraine has had an influence on the history of the cinema. Ukrainian directors Alexander Dovzhenko, often cited as one of the most
important early Soviet filmmakers, as well as being a pioneer of Soviet montage theory, Dovzhenko Film Studios, and Sergei
Parajanov, Armenian film director and artist who made significant contributions to Ukrainian, Armenian and Georgian cinema. He
invented his own cinematic style, Ukrainian poetic cinema, which was totally out of step with the guiding principles of socialist
realism.

Other important directors including Kira Muratova, Larisa Shepitko, Sergei Bondarchuk,
Leonid Bykov, Yuri Ilyenko, Leonid Osyka, Ihor Podolchak with his Delirium and Maryna
Vroda. Many Ukrainian actors have achieved international fame and critical success,
including: Vera Kholodnaya, Bohdan Stupka, Milla Jovovich, Olga Kurylenko, Mila Kunis.

Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been
characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of European and Russian influence.
Ukrainian producers are active in international co-productions and Ukrainian actors, directors
and crew feature regularly in Russian (Soviet in past) films. Also successful films have been
based on Ukrainian people, stories or events, including Battleship Potemkin, Man with a Kira Muratova
Movie Camera, Everything Is Illuminated.

Ukrainian State Film Agency owns National Oleksandr Dovzhenko Film Centre, film copying laboratory and archive, takes part in
hosting of the Odessa International Film Festival, and Molodist is the only one FIAPF accredited International Film Festival held in
Ukraine; competition program is devoted to student, first short and first full feature films from all over the world. Held annually in
October.

Media
Ukrayinska Pravda[376] was founded by Georgiy Gongadze in April 2000 (the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum).
Published mainly in Ukrainian with selected articles published in or translated to Russian and English, the newspaper has particular
emphasis on the politics of Ukraine. Freedom of the press in Ukraine is considered to be among the freest of the post-Soviet states
other than the Baltic states. Freedom House classifies the Internet in Ukraine as "free" and the press as "partly free". Press freedom
has significantly improved since the Orange Revolution of 2004. However, in 2010 Freedom House perceived "negative trends in
Ukraine".

Kiev dominates the media sector in Ukraine: the Kyiv Post is Ukraine's leading English-language newspaper. National newspapers
Den, Mirror Weekly, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus (Russian), and television and radio are largely based there,
although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in
1918. The Ukraine publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media,
newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover. Sanoma publishes Ukrainian editions of such magazines as Esquire,
Harpers Bazaar and National Geographic Magazine. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.

Ukrainians listen to radio programming, such as Radio Ukraine or Radio Liberty, largely commercial, on average just over two-and-
a-half hours a day. Several television channels operate, and many W
ebsites are popular.

Sport
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. Such policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia,
swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.[377] The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is
the Vyscha Liha ("premier league").
Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team, most notably
Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin, winners of the prestigious Golden Ball Award. This
award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union,
Andriy Shevchenko. The national team made its debut in the 2006 FIFA World Cup,
and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions, Italy. Ukrainians
also fared well in boxing, where the brothers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko have
held world heavyweight championships.

Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great Ukrainian footballer Andriy
strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on Shevchenko celebrates a goal
several occasions.[378][379] against Sweden at Euro 2012.

Basketball is becoming popular in Ukraine. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to

organize EuroBasket 2015. Two years later the Ukraine national basketball team finished 6th in EuroBasket 2013 and qualified to
FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history. Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional basketball club
in Ukraine.

Chess is a popular sport in Ukraine. Ruslan Ponomariov is the former world champion. There are about 85 Grandmasters and 198
International Masters in Ukraine.

Rugby league is played throughout Ukraine.[380]

Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994 Winter Olympics. So far, Ukraine at the Olympics has been much more successful in
Summer Olympics (115 medals in five appearances) than in the Winter Olympics. Ukraine is currently ranked 35th by number of
gold medals won in the All-time Olympic Games medal count, with every country above it, except for Russia, having more
appearances.

Cuisine
The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes, grains,
fresh, boiled or pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishes include 'varenyky' (boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes,
sauerkraut, cottage cheese, cherries or berries), nalysnyky (pancakes with cottage cheese, poppy seeds, mushrooms, caviar or meat),
kapuniak (soup made with meat, potatoes, carrots, onions, cabbage, millet, tomato paste, spices and fresh herbs),
borscht (soup made
of beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat), 'holubtsy' (stuffed cabbage rolls filled with rice, carrots, onion and minced meat) and
pierogi (dumplings filled with boiled potatoes and cheese or meat). Ukrainian specialties also include Chicken Kiev and Kiev cake.
Ukrainians drink stewed fruit, juices, milk, buttermilk (they make cottage cheese from this), mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine
and horilka.[381]

Varenyky topped with Borscht soup with sour Paska , Ukrainian Easter
fried onion cream bread

See also
 General Secretariat of Ukraine
List of cultural icons of Ukraine
Outline of Ukraine
Ukrainian karbovanets the first official Ukrainian currency
Ukrainian oligarchs

Notes
a.^ Among the Ukrainians that rose to the highest offices in the Russian Empire were Aleksey Razumovsky, Alexander Bezborodko
and Ivan Paskevich. Among the Ukrainians who greatly influenced the Russian Orthodox Church in this period were Stephen
Yavorsky, Feofan Prokopovich and Dimitry of Rostov.

b.^ Estimates on the number of deaths vary. Official Soviet data is not available because the Soviet government denied the existence
of the famine. See the Holodomor article for details. Sources differ on interpreting various statements from different branches of
different governments as to whether they amount to the official recognition of the Famine as Genocide by the country. For example,
after the statement issued by the Latvian Sejm on 13 March 2008, the total number of countries is given as 19 (according to
Ukrainian BBC: " "), 16 (according to Korrespondent, Russian edition: "
"), "more than 10" (according to
Korrespondent, Ukrainian edition: " 193233 . ") Retrieved 27 January 2008.

c.1 2 These figures are likely to be much higher, as they do not include Ukrainians from nations or Ukrainian Jews, but instead only
ethnic Ukrainians, from the Ukrainian SSR.

d.^ This figure excludes POW deaths.

e.^ Russia and Kazakhstan are the first and second largest but both these figures include European and Asian territories. Russia is the
only country possessing European territories larger than Ukraine.

f.1 2 3 According to the official 2001 census data (by nationality;[382] by language[383] ) about 75 percent of Kiev's population
responded 'Ukrainian' to the native language (ridna mova) census question, and roughly 25 percent responded 'Russian'. On the other
hand, when the question 'What language do you use in everyday life?' was asked in the 2003 sociological survey, the Kievans'
answers were distributed as follows: 'mostly Russian': 52 percent, 'both Russian and Ukrainian in equal measure': 32 percent, 'mostly
Ukrainian': 14 percent, 'exclusively Ukrainian': 4.3 percent.
"What language is spoken in Ukraine?". Welcome to Ukraine. February 2003. Retrieved 11 July 2008.

g.^ Such writings were also the base for Russian and Belarusian literature.

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380. "Legion XIII dominate Ukrainian season"(http://www.rlef.eu.com/news/article/1480/legion-xiii-dominate-ukrainian-sea
son). RLEF. 23 November 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
381. Stechishin, Savella. "Traditional Foods" (http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/T/R/Traditionalfoods.htm).
Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Retrieved 10 August 2007.
382. "About number and composition population of Kyiv city by All-Ukrainian population census'2001 data" (http://2001.uk
rcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/Kyiv_city/). State Statistics Committee of Ukraine. Retrieved
8 January 2014.
383. " 2001
About number and composition population of Kiev on the results of Census 2001" (http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/resu
lts/general/language/city_kyiv/)(in Ukrainian). State Statistics Committee of Ukraine
. Retrieved 8 January 2014.

Print sources

Reference books
Encyclopedia of Ukraine(University of Toronto Press, 198493) 5 vol; partial online version, from Canadian Institute
of Ukrainian Studies
Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1 ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC; University ofToronto Press. 1963; 1188pp
Dalton, Meredith. Ukraine (Culture Shock! A Survival Guide to Customs & Etiquette) (2001)
Evans, Andrew. Ukraine (2nd ed 2007) The Bradt Travel Guide online excerpts and search at Amazon.com
Johnstone, Sarah. Ukraine (Lonely Planet Travel Guides) (2005)

Recent (since 1991)

Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul.Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough
(2006)
Birch, Sarah. Elections and Democratization in UkraineMacmillan, 2000 online edition
Edwards Mike: "Ukraine Running on empty"National Geographic MagazineMarch 1993
Katchanovski, Ivan: Cleft Countries: Regional Political Divisions and Cultures in Post-Soviet Ukraine and Moldova
,
Ibidem-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 978-3-89821-558-9
Kuzio, Taras: Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet rTansformation, M.E. Sharpe, 1998, ISBN 0-7656-
0224-5
Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation BuildingRoutledge, 1998 online edition
Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I., Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine,
in Language Education for Intercultural Communication , By D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual
Matters, 1993, ISBN 1-85359-204-8
Shen, Raphael (1996).Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors, Lessons
. Praeger/Greenwood.ISBN 0-275-
95240-1.
Whitmore, Sarah. State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament, 19902003Routledge, 2004 online edition
Wilson, Andrew, Ukraine's Orange Revolution(2005)
Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation,2nd ed. 2002; online excerpts at Amazon
Wilson, Andrew, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith
, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-
57457-9
Zon, Hans van. The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine.2000 online edition

History
UKRAINIAN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC BETWEEN 40/10.000 BP
Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World W
ar II (Rutgers UP, 1964) online
Hrushevsky, Michael. A History of Ukraine (1986)
 Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan .Y; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine.
Second Edition. Scarecrow Press, 2013. 968 pp.
Kononenko, Konstantyn.Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia,
16541917 (Marquette University Press 1958)online
Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: AnAnthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995.
(1996)
Magocsi, Paul Robert, A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996 ISBN 0-8020-7820-6
Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine(2003) online edition
Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History, 1st edition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8020-8390-0.
Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation(Oxford University Press 2007)online

World War II
Boshyk, Yuri (1986). Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.
ISBN 0-920862-37-3.
Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule.Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
Cliff, Tony (1984). Class Struggle and Women's Liberation. Bookmarks. ISBN 0-906224-12-8.
Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's W
estern Ukraine and Western Belorussia
(1988).
Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine.U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp.
Piotrowski Tadeusz, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the
Second Republic, 19181947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3
Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 19191945.Indiana U. Press, 2002.
202 pp.
Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust In The Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp.

External links
"Ukraine". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Ukraine Corruption Profilefrom the Business Anti-Corruption Portal
Website Ukraine-CityGuide
Ukraine information from the United States Department of State
Portals to the World from the United StatesLibrary of Congress
Ukraine at UCB Libraries GovPubs
Ukraine at DMOZ
Ukraine from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Ukraine
Geographic data related toUkraine at OpenStreetMap
Ukraine travel guide from Wikivoyage
Key Development Forecasts for Ukrainefrom International Futures
Encyclopedia of Ukraine
EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Ukraine
EU Neighbourhood Library

Government

The President of Ukraine

Government Portal of Ukraine
The Parliament of Ukraine
Ukrainian art. Most famous modern painters

Trade
 World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ukraine
Trade Profile (Imports/Exports) of Ukraine

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