RURAL MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION EVOLUTION OF BUILDING MATERIALS

BUILDING materials and technologies, and building practices

have evolved through ages.
Stones, mud, thatch/leaves and timber represent the earliest
building materials used for the construction of dwellings.
Hardly any energy is spent in manufacturing and use of these
natural materials for construction.
Discovery of natural inorganic binders like pozzolanic materials
lead to the use of lime-pozzolana (LP) cement for construction
purposes.
Portland cement and steel brought revolutionary changes in the
construction practices from early part of 20th century.
Then plastics and plastic products entered the construction
industry.

Historical development in building materials

MATERIAL PERIOD
Mud, stones, wood/thatch Prior 8000 BC
Sun dried bricks 6000 BC
Pottery products 40008000 BC
Burnt bricks 4000 BC
Lime 3000 BC
Glass 1300 BC
Iron products 1350 BC
Lime-pozzolana cement 300 BC476 AD
Aluminium 1808 AD
Portland cement 1824 AD
Plastics 1862

PREVAILING ISSUES ON ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABLE

CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDINGS

Production of building materials has slowly and steadily moved

from highly decentralized and labour-intensive methods and
processes to centralized, machine-dependent industry mode.
Centralized mode of production necessitates hauling of raw
materials and distribution of finished materials over great
distances.
These activities again require expenditure of fossil fuels for
transportation.
 Transportation of raw and finished building materials is another
key issue that can contribute to cost of materials, increased
energy requirements and environmental issues.
Sustainability of the present mode of production, consumption
and distribution of building materials and currently adopted
construction practices is questionable.

NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVES

Steel, cement, glass, aluminium, plastics, bricks, etc. are energy-
intensive materials, commonly used for building construction.
Generally these materials are transported over great distances.
Extensive use of these materials can drain the energy resources
and adversely affect the environment.
On the other hand, it is difficult to meet the ever-growing
demand for buildings.
Hence, there is a need for optimum utilization of available energy
resources and raw materials to produce simple, energy efficient,
environment friendly and sustainable building alternatives and
techniques to satisfy the increasing demand for buildings.
Some of the guiding principles in developing the sustainable
alternative building technologies can be summarized as follows:
o Energy conservation; Minimize the use of high energy
materials;
o Concern for environment; Environment-friendly
technologies;
o Minimize transportation and maximize the use of local
materials and resources;
o Decentralized production and maximum use of local skills;
o Utilization of industrial and mine wastes for the production
of building materials;
o Recycling of building wastes and Use of renewable energy
sources.
Building technologies manufactured by meeting these principles
could become sustainable and facilitate sharing the resources
especially energy resources more efficiently, causing minimum
damage to the environment.

IDEAL BUILDING MATERIAL

The ideal building material would be borrowed from the

environment and replaced after use.
There would be little or no processing of the raw material and all
the energy inputs would be directly, or indirectly, from the sun.
 This ideal material would also be cheap.

MUD AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION MUD

In contrast to other construction materials, including cement and

steel, mud does not demand imported commercial energies and
is therefore a favored material for those desirous of living
sustainably.
Contrary to popular perception, mud houses are affordable to all
classes and can be designed to suit different tastes and fancies.
They are environmentally virtuous and can face the elements
with as much hardiness as supposedly stronger constructions
made from concrete.
For those not yet fixated on the inevitability of the use of modem
materials and on their much vaunted strength, mud houses can
be a liberating way to meet housing needs, private and public,
without extravagance but with elegance.
More people in India today live in houses constructed out of mud
than out of any other material.
This is also the situation in countries like Australia and even
many of the other so-called advanced countries.
Many of these houses are 50 - 100 years old.

OBJECTIVES OF MUD BUILDINGS

To upgrade the rural traditional Kutcha houses.

To introduce cost-effective and durability houses an alternative
of burnt bricks.
To demonstrate and popularise the technology of mud blocks
using locally available soils/muds.
To uplift the poor people with standard houses of the technology
To impart the technology to rural artisans for socio-economy
upliftment.

MUD CONSTRUCTION

There are several techniques of house construction using mud

which have been tested over centuries.
 The Mud construction begins with first with the process of
selecting the soil for the proposed house and describes how to
arrive at the best possible mixture of sand and clay.
There are methods available which use stabilizers to help
stabilize weak soils.
For example, lime manufactured through village-level processes
is a good stabilizer and can be safely used in place of cement.
And there are others - straw, cowdung, tannic acid, oil, sugar and
plant juices and bitumen and so on - all available within the
village environment.
But generally in many parts of India, soils are strong enough not
to require stabilizers of any kind.

Different indigenous systems of constructing the most

important part of the mud house, that is, the walls. Several
systems are described:

The cob system

Large lumps of mud are moulded in the shape of a huge
elongated egg, about 6 inches in diameter and about 12 to 18
inches in size.
Rows of cobs are placed over each other to make a wall. Gaps
and holes are filled and the wall is slammed down at the sides.
The cob system is the easiest for those constructing a mud
house for the first time and no special tools, equipment or
moulds are required.

The system of constructing walls by ramming

Here, one requires wooden equipment, because the principal
merit of the system is that the earth is packed hard by ramming,
making the walls exceedingly strong.
Basically, the process involves two parallel planks held firmly
apart with metal rods and bolts. Mud is thrown into the space
between the planks and then rammed down with either a
wooden or a metal ramrod.
Once a layer is completed and has hardened, the planks are
released, taken high up and the next layer is installed.

Adobe or sun-dried brick systems

Moulds of brick are filled with the right mix of wet mud. The
mould is then removed and the brick dried in the sun.
This is the most popular form of brick-making since it uses only
solar energy, which is free. Recently, developers have invented a
machine which can be used to produce compressed mud bricks.
However, the machine is quite exhausting to operate as one
must use muscle power to do the compression.
 However, the bricks that come out of the process have a fine
smooth finish and walls using such bricks can take the load of a
three-storeyed house.

Wattle and daub methods

This is used particularly for meeting housing requirements in
areas prone to cyclones or earthquakes.

LIMITATIONS OF MUD CONSTRUCTION

It is easily eroded by water

It has a low tensile strength
It is susceptible to mechanical damage
Mud does not adhere to wood properly
Mud soaks up water and becomes very heavy
High maintenance requirements

These defects are overcome by introducing stabilizer to the

soils. Hence soil stabilization is one solution.
The input of soil stabilization allowed people to build higher with
thinner walls, which have a much better compressive strength
and water resistance.

SOIL STABILISATION
Many stabilizers can be used. Cement and lime are the most
common ones. Others like chemicals, resins or natural products
can be used as well.
The selection of a stabilizer will depend upon the soil quality and
the project requirements:
Cement will be preferable for sandy soils and to achieve
quickly a higher strength.
Lime will be rather used for very clayey soil, but will take a
longer time to harden and to give strong blocks.

STABILIZED MUD BLOCKS

These are dense solid blocks compacted using a machine with a
mixture of soil, sand, stabilizer (cement/lime) and water.
After 28 days curing, the stabilized mud blocks (SMB) are used
for wall construction.
Two block sizes (305 143 100 mm and 230 190 100
mm) have been standardized.
 These blocks are 2.5 to 2.8 times bigger in volume when
compared with locally available conventional burnt clay bricks.
Compressive strength of the block greatly depends upon the soil
composition, density of the block and percentage of stabilizer
(cement/lime).
Sandy soils with 7% cement can yield blocks having wet
compressive strength of 34 MPa.
Higher strength for the block can be obtained by increasing the
quantity of stabilizer

Advantages of SMB
Energy efficient, do not require burning, 70% energy saving
when compared to burnt bricks,
Economical, 2040% savings in cost when compared to brick
masonry
Plastering can be eliminated, and
Better block finish and aesthetically pleasing appearance.

FILLER SLAB ROOFS

Filler slab roofs are basically solid reinforced concrete slabs with
partial replacement of the concrete in the tension zone by a filler
material.
The filler material could be cheaper or cheaper and lighter.
A number of alternative materials can be thought of: (a) brick or
brick panel, (b) Mangalore tile, (c) stabilized mud block, (d)
hollow concrete block, (e) hollow clay tile/block, etc.
Ceiling of a typical filler slab roof using SMB filler. Quantity of
concrete in the tension zone of the slab that can be replaced by
a filler material depends upon the shape of the filler material and
the thickness of the solid slab.
For example in a solid concrete slab of 125 mm thickness, a filler
block of 6070 mm thickness can be easily accommodated. In a
 typical situation, by using a stabilized mud block, 25% of the
concrete can be replaced by a material, which costs one third the
cost of concrete.
This means that 1520% of the cost of concrete can be saved by
this operation.

SOIL SUITABILITY AND STABILIZATION FOR S.S.BLOCK

Not every soil is suitable for earth construction and Stabilized Blocks in
particular. But with some knowledge and experience many soils can be
used for producing S.S.Blocks.
Topsoil and organic soils must not be used.
Identifying the properties of a soil is essential to perform, at the
end, good quality products.
A soil is an earth concrete and a good soil for S.S.Block is more
sandy than clayey.
It has these proportions:

According to the percentage of these 4 components, a soil with

more gravel will be called gravely, another one with more, sand,
sandy, others silty or clayey, etc.

Soil identification
A very few laboratories can identify soils for building purposes. But soil
identification can be performed by anybody with sensitive analyses.
The main points to examine are:
Grain size distribution, to know quantity of each grain size
Plasticity characteristics, to know the quality and properties of
the binders (clays and silts)
 Compressibility, to know the optimum moisture content, which
will require the minimum of compaction energy for the maximum
density
Cohesion, to know how the binders bind the inert grains
Humus content, to know if they are organic materials which
might disturb the mix

TYPICAL BLOCKYARD ORGANISATION

The production of S.S.Block is based on the principle of densification of
raw earth mixed with stabilizer (cement or lime) in small quantities
ranging from 5 -10% by weight of the mix. The production process
incorporates 3 main stages.
Sieving: Filling the mould. Humid and wet curing
Batching: Moulding final stage
Mixing: Block ejection, transportation and stacking.

ENERGY EFFECTIVENESS
Costs are too often limited only to a monetary value. Another
important aspect is the energy consumption involved in the material.
The production of earth-based materials consumes much less energy
and pollutes much less than fired bricks. S.S.Block and stabilized
rammed earth are much more eco-friendly.
They have these advantages compared to fired bricks:
Pollution emission (Kg of CO2 /m2) Energy
consumption (MJ)
2.4 times less than wire cut bricks 4.9 times less than wire
cut bricks
7.9 times less than country fired bricks 15.1 times less than
country fired bricks
COST EFFECTIVENESS
CSEB are most the time cheaper than fired bricks. This will vary from
place to place and specially according to the cement cost.
 The cost break up of a 5 % stabilised block would depend on the
local context. It would be within these figures, for manual
equipment with an AURAM press 3000:
o Labour: 20 - 25 %
o Soil & sand: 20 - 25%
o Cement: 40 - 60 %
o Equipment: 3 - 5 %
The strength of a block is related to the level of compression and
to the quantity of stabilizer.
This implies that to reduce the cost of a block one should try to
reduce the quantity of cement but not the cost of the labour with
unskilled people.
One should also not cut down the cost of the press with cheap
quality machines, which would not last and would not give strong
blocks.
A finished m3 of S.S.Block masonry is always cheaper than fired
bricks: 19.4% less than country fired bricks and 47.2 % less than
wire cut bricks

ADVANTAGES OF CSEB
A local material
Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in the nearby
area. Thus, it will save the transportation, fuel, time and money.
A bio-degradable material
Well-designed S.S.Block houses can withstand, with a minimum
of maintenance, heavy rains, snowfall or frost without being
damaged.
The strength and durability has been proven since half a century.
But lets imagine a building fallen down and that a jungle grows
on it: the bio-chemicals contained in the humus of the topsoil will
destroy the soil cement mix in 10 or 20 years and S.S.Block will
come back to our Mother Earth!
Limiting deforestation
Firewood is not needed to produce S.S.Blocks.
It will save the forests, which are being depleted quickly in the
world, due to short view developments and the mismanagement
of resources.
Management of resources
Each quarry should be planned for various utilisations:
Water harvesting pond, wastewater treatment, reservoirs,
landscaping, etc. It is crucial to be aware of this point:
Very profitable if well managed disastrous if unplanned!
An adapted material
 Being produced locally it is easily adapted to the various needs:
technical, social, cultural habits.
A transferable technology
It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get.
Simple villagers will be able to learn how to do it in few weeks.
Efficient training centre will transfer the technology in a week
time.
A job creation opportunity
S.S.Block allow unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill,
get a job and rise in the social values.
Market opportunity
According to the local context (materials, labour, equipment,
etc.) the final price will vary, but in most of the cases it will be
cheaper than fired bricks.

Reducing imports
Produced locally by semi skilled people, no need import from far
away expensive materials or transport over long distances heavy
and costly building materials.
Flexible production scale
Equipment for S.S.Block is available from manual to motorized
tools ranging from village to semi industry scale.
The selection of the equipment is crucial, but once done
properly, it will be easy to use the most adapted
Energy efficiency and eco friendliness
Requiring only a little stabilizer the energy consumption in a m3
can be from 5 to 15 times less than a m of fired bricks.
The pollution emission will also be 2.4 to 7.8 times less than fired
bricks.
Cost efficiency
Produced locally, with a natural resource and semi skilled labour,
almost without transport, it will be definitely cost effective
Social acceptance
Demonstrated, since long, S.S.Block can adapt itself to various
needs: from poor income to well off people or governments.
Its quality, regularity and style allow a wide range of final house
products.

SOME LIMITATIONS OF CSEB

Proper soil identification is required or lack of soil.
Unawareness of the need to manage resources.
Ignorance of the basics for production & use.
Wide spans, high & long building are difficult to do.
Low technical performances compared to concrete.
 Untrained teams producing bad quality products.
Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying
Outrageous costs.
Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.
Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.
Low social acceptance due to counter examples
(By unskilled people, or bad soil & equipment).

DIVERSITY AND SELECTION OF THE PRODUCTS

The development of CSEB proposes nowadays a wide range of
products, from different size and shapes.
To select the most adapted product to ones need, one should
pay specially attention to these factors:
Module of the block: It is the block size plus the mortar thickness.
Choose preferably an easy module.
Possibilities of different wall thickness: According to the module
of a block, which thickness of wall can be achieved with easy
bonds? According to the thickness, one can know if a block can
be load bearing or not.
Area of the block: The bigger it is, the weaker the block will be. A
large area will require great compaction
Energy: a manual press with 15 T. capacity will not be able to
compress properly more than 600 cm.
Plain, hollow or interlocking blocks? Each of them has different
possibilities: plain ones will be laid with a thick mortar (1 to1.5
cm); hollow ones will be laid with a thin mortar (0.5 to 1 cm); the
interlocking blocks will require a thin mortar (0.5 cm) and very
special details.

DIVERSITY AND SELECTION OF THE EQUIPMENT

Many attempts were tried to use concrete equipment to produce
S.S.Block. All failed, as the requirements of the materials and the
working conditions are different.
Today, available on the market are a wide range of specialized
equipment adapted to each need and scale of production.
Today one can find manual presses, light or heavy, motorized
ones where the compression energy is given by an engine.
One can also find mobile units, which also integrates a crusher
and a mixer in the same machine.
A cheap manual press, thus light and attractive in price, will not
be so long lasting.
A motorized press will present the advantage of a high
productivity, with a better and more regular quality.
But it will require energy and a more complicated maintenance,
and its cost will have no comparison with a manual press.
 Besides a press, one should not forget all the other equipment
required: sieve, maybe a crusher, wheelbarrows, maybe a mixer,
quality control devices, all small tools, PVC sheets, etc.
Therefore, it appears that in the Indian context, manual and
heavy presses are better adapted than motorized ones, as they
would employ more people and would produce quality materials
at cheaper rates.

Applications
The compressed Earth building system can be used in a variety
of ways to construct buildings that are aesthetic, efficient and
easy to build.
The basic design principles of a good S.S.Block building are:-
Strong foundation with sufficient plinth height.
Sufficient roof overhang and a strong wall finish.
Careful detailing of joints and use of concrete elements where
tensile
Stresses are active.
In India more than 5 million stabilized earth blocks have been
used to build residential and community buildings in both urban
and rural areas.