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SPE 19776

Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Well Testing in the

Ekofisk Area Chalk Fields
S.E.Snow and M.H. Brownlee, PetroleumCo. NorwL,t
Phillips
SPE Members
E

Copyright 19SS, Scclely 01 Pekoleurn Enghcoers,Inc. I

This papa
waspfepmd fospresenlWon n! the S4h Annual Technlcnl Conleronce nnd Enhibillonor the SOClwyof Polmlnurn Englneom held In Son Anlonlo,TX, Otlehof R- 11, 1989.
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ABSTRACT volatile oil fields (Rdda, E ofisk,

Eldfisk, nnd Tor) (Figure 1)r. The
This paper describen pressure transient Ekofisk field was discovered in 1969 nnd
testing and analysiti procedures used in was the first major oil field discovered
the Ekofisk Area chalk fields. These in the North Sea. To date the fields have
chalks consist of low permeability, produced 1.43 BSTB of oil and 5.5 TSCF of
thick, naturally fractured formations gas.
which are stimulated by pqeudo limited
entry, massive acid fracturing. Transient The Ekofisk Area fields produce from
tests are interpreted in real time chalks of !)anian and Maastrichtian Age.
utilizing an on site portable computer. These chalks are naturally fractured,
Teat interpretation requires the use of with the natural fracture intensity
spinner and/or separator rates for varying from slight to high. All wells
normalization, superpofsitioninq, and are stimulated with pseudo limited entry,
pressure derivative data. The induced massive acid treatments. In most cases
fracture systems 83 re complex, having these fztimulations result in the
multiple fractures which are partially formation of multiple hydraulic
penetrating with limited perforation fractures, although in some cases the
height and other non-ideal charac- wells are only matrix acidized.
teristics. It has not been possible to
isolate the character of these nonideal Theoretical studies have been published
conditions through pressure transient on transient testing in both non-
nnalysis. Inetead, an equivalent fracture stimulated and stl.mu.lated, naturally
system which behaves simil~r to the fractured wells as well as on the
actual system is identified during the interpretation of transient tests for
test interpretation, Using the eql.valent wells that have been acid fractured.
fracture system concept, it has been Novtony2 studied acid fractured wells and
possible to accurately forecast found that, they exhibit finite
production, monitor well performance, conductivity behavior, McDonald3 reviewed
evaluate the need for restimulation, and pressure tests from wells which had been
optimize completion and stimulation stimulated by massive acid fracturing,
designs. The wells that he reviewed exhibited
infinite fracture conductivity and the
frac:;~lal..engthscorresponded closely to
INTRODUCTION a fracture growth model,
Gringarten, et a14 proposed thnt acid
The Ekofisk Area chalk fields, opernted fractured wells exhibited uni orm flux
by Phil @S Petroleum Company Norway, conductivity. Warren and Root& stuclled
comprise six fields in the southern part prescmre transient behavior of nnturally
of the Norwegian Sector of the North Sea, fraaturcd wells and found thnt pressure
They includa two condensate tests could exhibit two straight line
(Albuskjell and West Eko?i:k) nnd four regions: one representing mntrix drainage
and the other representing natural
References and Illustration at end of paper. fracture drainage, Yeh, et a16 studied
..
 *

2 Frncticnl.nnd Theoratfcml Ampevt.sof

Well Temting in tha Ekofiek Area-Chalk Fields SPE 1977(

the transient rna onae of hydraulically be layered, with variations in potiosity,

fractured wells /n naturally fractured ~;~e~bility, natural fracturing, mcl
formations and found that the dual stems properties occurring. Ohalk
ma , or may not, be masked by the porositie~ cnn vnry dramntfcnliy ncrons n
St!mulation. field and wi4t~;na wellbore and can be as
high as In general, matrix
While the literature contains many permeabilitie; correlate well with
theoretical studies for transient porosity and range from <0.1 to 5 reds.
pressure anal sj.s in these types ef All six fieldm have pnsmed below the dew
formations, Kt is lacking in field or bubble point resulting in increasing
histories. This paper presents a field GORs and the formation of high gas
case history documenting the practical saturations in the crestal portions of
and theoretical experiences gained in the fieldm, although a Iclassicwgas cap
conducting, transient pressure tests in has not formed.
the Ekofisk Area producing wells.
Transient tests are conducted upon Well productivity is dependent on natural
initial completion to determine formation fracturing. The natural fractures are
parameters and stimulation effectiveness short (inches to a few feet) and occur
in order to forecast production, They are frequently. As will be discussed below,
conducted periodically in producing wells dual porosity behavior is not observed in
to monitor well performance and evaluat-a well tests and the natural fracture
restimulation potential. To date several behavior in ~mn only ns nn ;ncrenee {n
hundred trnnn!cnt prmsnur$? t.est.nhnvo offoct{ve permcmbil,iky. Post-stimulation
been conducted in these fields, and over transient teet derived permeabillties are
fifty are skill conducted yearly. generally 2 to 75 times greater than
matrix permeabilities.

BACKGROUND Due to the low matrix permeabilities and

The fields produce from three fine
grained chalk horizone. The
stratigraphical.ly lowest is the Hod,
overlain by the Tor and the Ekofisk
(Figure 2). The chal)te are composed of
calcium carbonate and are extremely pure.
Impurities usually make up less than 5%
of the formation, zlthough they are
generally higher in the Upper Ekofisk and
can vary up to 45%. The Tor/Hod contact
is continuous and the hydrocarbons are
underlain by a water zone in either the
Upper Hod or Lower Tor. While some welle
do produce water, and there has been
evidence of water encroachment in a few
wells, in general the chalks tighten in
the water zones and the water
considered to be immobile. For pressure
is
drilling damage, most of the wells do not
flow without skimul~g~dn. To improve the
etfectivenees of fracturing and
diversion of stimulation flu!du over the
entire interval, the wells are perforated
with a pseudo limited entry psttorn.
Perforations are placed in 108 to 20
long clusters at 1 to 2 SPF throughout
the interval (Figure 2). The wells are
then timulated using acid pumpad at high
rates! . With this stimulation deeign, the
formations are usually fracture acidized.
Where the natural fracturing is intense
or where extensive perforating has been
done, the wells are often only matrix
acidized.

The high porosity chalks in the Ekofisk

Area undergo pore collapse and a
I
testing purposes, the bottom boundary is subsequent reduction in porosity as the
considered a no flow boundary. effective stresses increase during
depl~tion. chalk formations also tend to
The Tor/Ekofisk contact is usually be soft ;::eacid fractures can cloke up
se arated by a low permeability zone with decreasing their
whfch reaches a maximum thicknees of 90 effectiveness: However, Ekofisk Area
feet, Where this zone exists, it is a no chalks are harder and more competent than
flow boundary and in some cases most chalk formations. A typical
differential depletion resulting in production profile from an Ekofisk Field
different pressures in the Tor and the is ahown in Figure 3. As can be observed,
Ekofisk formation has occurred. The production ie stable and dramatic
fluid properties of the two formations reductions in permeability or stimulation
are similar. effectiveness due to pore collapse
chalk softness are not evidentg;
The Ekofisk is overlain by a 50 foot Reductions in stimulation effectiveness
transition zone which then becomes a cm occur gradually over a several year
thick shale sequence, This is also period due to other reaaons7 and periodic
considered a no flow boundary. restimulate.onacan be beneficial,
The Ekofisk varies in thickness up to 55o
feet and the Tor varies in thickness up OVERVIEW OF THE TESTING
to 500 feet, Within the Tor and the AND INTERPRETATION PROCESS
Ekofiuk, the entire interval is in fluid
communication. However, the intervals can Producing wells are tested tirth after

96
,
SPE 19776 S.E. SrOW & M.Il.
Completion (including new sidetracked
locations) and later during the life of
the well. In this manner, information is
gained from the initial production of the
wi!?lland changes in reservoir parnmetera
can be observed.
Wireline run surface readout bottom hole
gaugea are run with an onsike reservoir
engineer present fc)r Eill tests. These
gauges are sometimes run in conjunction
with production logging tools that have a
spinner and densitometer. The engineer
uses a portable PC based pretlsure
transient analysis package to an~lv~e
ttWtX3 in real time. This allows the
engineer to minimize production shutdown
time without sacrificing data quality.
In addition, the offshore engineer has
support from an onshore duty engineer, to
whom data is faxed twice daily. This
helps to ensure that the correct
interpretation js made Ond that each
individual segment of the test is run for
a sufficient length of time.
Testing new completions generally follows
a certain sequence [Figure 4). The well
is perforated o~ierbalanced and then
stimulated. Following the stimulation, a
CleanUp flow is conducted. Flow iS
directed to the test separator once
hydrocarbons reach the surface and
continues until the well has fully
cleaned up. Produced volumes are not
measured. Ratee at the end of the clf~anup
flow are measured and a choke setting is
determined for use in the main drawdown.
Following the cleanup flow, the well is
shut in at the surface for a pre-drawdown
buildup (PDDBU) in order to establish
semistatic conditions before the drawdown
and to run the gauges in the well. This
shut in may last up to 20 hours. A dummy
run is made prior to running the gauges
and production logs to ensure that no
fill has accumulated in the well.
Pressures are monitored until a liorner
strnight line is determined and P star is
established. During this time, the static
condition of the well is also determined
ueing the production logging tool.
With the tools set just above the top
perforation, the well is opened to flow
and the drawdown is performed. The
drawdown can last from 12 to 140 hours,
although they rarely exceed 72 hours
because of the small amount of data
obtained per unit of time that far into
the flow period, Once the flow rate
stabilizes, production logging passes are
made to determine the contribution of
individual sets of perforations.
The
choke setting is held constant during the
drawdown and rates are measured in a test
seParatOr in half hour or one hour
increments, Standard rates are converted
to bottomhole rates using a flash program
based on field meaaured PVT data and
!lrownlce 3
known fluid properties. If there is
uncertainty about the fluid roperties of
the well, n pressurized fluf d sample can
be taken and sent to the offshore
lnborntory fOr d~t~rmjllntlon Of these
properties. Spinner rates and fluid
density are also recorded when a
production log is in use.
Once the reservoir engineer onsite
decides that an acceptable interpretation
of the data can be made, the test is
over. llowever, jf the interpretation is
ambiguous or the data is questionable,
the well can be shut in once more for a
final buildup. Pressure tests which are
conducted for periodic well monitoring
generally follow the same procedure with
the following exceptions (Figure 4).
First, no cleanup flow is required. The
well has been on production for a
substantial amount of kime and js ready
to qn Immediately into n buildup.
Nowever, a dummy run must first be made
into the well, usually with a bailer, to
check for fill and obstructicw! in the
casing and tubing. Once that is done,
tools can be run in the hole. Since the
well is Rhutin orce rigu has started for
the dummy run, the i.nitnl
1 four to eight
hours of the PDDBU are not recorded and
the shut in for the first buildup cannot
be used for interpretation. For this
reason, an estimate of required time for
the PDDBU to reach pseudoradial flow is
made and the well ie shutin ahead of
timeg. This shut in lasts from 24 to 86
hours. Only the last eight to twelve
hours of the buildup are recorded, which
is sufficient to determine the Horner
(and MDl?) straight line required from
this part of the test,
I
The other difference between completion
and periodic pressure tests is the use of
production logs. Flow contributions ftom
individual sets of perforations are not
required if it is expected that the flow
profile has not changed and Lf- the
separator rates are sufficient to rate
normalize the data. In this case, surface
readout gauges (in tandem with memory
recorders) are run without a production
log
DATA PREPARATION
The pressure and rate data is modified to
account for the teat conditions before
the test can be interpreted,
For each of the gas condensate fields, an
M(P) relationship has been determined
using Constant Volume De letion Tests
from field fluid aamples. F Each M(P)
relationship has the following form:
M(P)=aO+alP+a2P2+a3P3+a4P4+n5P5 (1,)
In each of the gas condensate wells or in
high GOR oil wells, pressures are
as
 *
?wwtlnnl nnd Thoo?v?tlcn)Anpnf*tnOC
4 Well Testing in the l!kofiakArea chalk Fi@lds 8PE 19)74

converted to pseudo pressures and all rests have also been interpreted using
curves are made using this parameter. deconvoluted pressures. Deconvolution is
a more ~ig~~sitr;~emo~~r~~~~~~i~
While interesting theoretical work has technique ,
been one for lnterpleting two phase flow use than the technique presented in eqn.
tests1 1-12? for routine analyaip the 5 and it has not resulted in improved
single phase flow analog approach interpretations.
presented by Perrine13 is the most
practical to use. In this approach the Pressures measured at the end of the
well is analyzed as if in single phase predrawdown buildup and main drawdown are
flow using a total equivalent bottomhole still changing. In order to get a log-log
flow rate instead of the flashed gas plot with the correct delta pressures,
and/or oil rates individually. For low the pressures measured during the
GOR wells (<5000), a total equ?.valentoil subsequent main drawdown.and main buildup
rate is calculated using the following need, to be de-superpcsitioned and
equation: superpositioned, respectively. The
principle of superpositioning is
qot=qo(Bo+Bg (GoR-Rs))+qwBw (2) illustrated in Figure 6, and is required
to account for the non-static condition
For higher GOR wells, a total equivalent of the welllg. In most cases, pseudo
gas rate is calculated using the radial flow is achieved and the
following: superpositioning is done using the
equntjon for the ?41)11
nkrnjght1.in~.Where
qgt=qo(GEQ)+qg (3) pseudo-radial flow has not been reached,
superpositioning is done using the
<en production logs are run, large uniform flux fracture equation.
diameter spinners are also used to
calcu ate the total equivalent flow For buildup interpretation, effective
ratel/ . Total equivalent rates measured producing times are required in order to
in the test separator are used to make a Norner plot. For now wells,
calibrate~ spinner rates with the produced volumes are estimeted during %he
following equation: cleanup flow and main drawdown and those
volumes are divided by the final rate to
qt=l.40(RPS)d2(Kl) (4) determine producing time. For the PDDBU
on producing wells, the time since the
With a constant choke f3etting, the last shutdown of the well is known and
separator measured rates gradually the producing time can be calculated.
~;~ease during a drawdown. llowever,
the GOR increases and the For each drawdown, an MD1i and a log-log
calculatefltotal rate and spinner RPS are plot with derivative are made. The
nearly constant. Where these rates derivative is the pressure derivative
differ, the separator ia considered a with respect to the natural log of time
more reliable measurement of the rate. and is plotted on the same plot as the
Where the spinner rates correspond well pressure data. For a buildup, a Horner
with the separator rates, the spinner plot is also made. Plots are made with
rates are used because the spinner is an measured pressures, de-superpoaitioned or
almost continuous measurement of rate. su erpositioned pressures, pressures
Good success with spinner determined wh Tch are rate normalized with both
rates has been experienced at Ekofisk separator and spinner rates (where
under complex conditions, including available), and pressures which are both
dramatically changing GORS and highly normalized and superpositioned.
deviated wellbore conditions (Figure, ~),
TEST INTERPRETATION
Rate normalization of the pressures is
done on all tests using the total ~eoreti cal Model-Acid Fractured Well@
equivalent rate so that the test can be
treated as a constant rate test. Rate Acid fractured wells are usually
normalization techniques have been idealized as cons~st~ng of fully
presented by Winestock and colpitts15 and penetrating, two winged fractures. The
Odeh and Jones16, The basic equations for reservoir is assigned a uniform, or
normalizat on were reviewed by Fetkovich average, permeability. Production from
and Vienot\ 7 and are summarized by the one of these idealized fractures may
following: include an init~~l linear
bilinear flow period, n secon~l?ikea~
(Pi-Pwf)/qn=K2u/kh[(ln tD+().809)+2S] (5) flow period, pseudo ~adial flow, and
boundary dominated flow O*
Pressures are normalized using both
discrete measurements of and curve fitted In Ekofisk Area wells, many non-ideal
total effective rates. In general, curve conditions exist and most of the wellbore
fitted rates are sufficient to obtain and reservoir conditions speaified for
good normalization and are easier to use. the ~~ideall~
well are violated. Among the

40
non-ideal conditions*@ influencing late time data represents the effective
transient pressure response in the fracture conductivity, and the
Ekofisk Area are the following: intermediate pressures represent a
transitional period influenced by the
1. Multiple frnctures nre formal whjch non-jchnl conditions . For nxampl.e, n
are partially penetratingzlt variable conductivity fracture will have
probably bf unequal wing length~2# early time conductivity equal to near
with conver ent flow to limited wellbore conductivity and late, time
perforations Y 3 (Figure 7). conductivity equal to some average of the
actual conduct.ivities22 (Figure 8). A
2. When multiple fracturing occurs well with partial penetration (Figure 8)
from a deviated wellbore in a and a fully penetrating well with limited
naturally fractured formation, the perforations will also show this behavior
induced fractures may (Figure 8).
discontinuous
Points 11011-&r~la~%~5%r Minimum
and : Realizing the similarity in behavior
Strt3SSeS itl e~e Ekofisk A~ea fields between these factors, the concept of an
are in general horizontal, although equivalent system has been used to
th~re is evidence that in some interpret pressure tests27* The
areas the stresses are lithostatic. equivalent induced fracture system is
defined as a fully penetrating, constant
3. Because the wells are acid or variable conductivity fracture system
fractured, the induced fractures wh~ch will M?hnve similarly to the nctmt
may have n variable conductivity~6, system (F.tgure 7). With this COncCpt,
More acid will react in the near conventional type curves can be used.
wellbore region, resulting in Early time data is used to determine near
higher near wellbore conductivities wellbore fracture conductivity and late
(Figure 7). Stress dependent time data is used for determination of
induced fracture conductivity may overall equivalent fracture geometry and
also exist. conductivity, the beginning of! pseudo-
radial flow, and skin calculation.
4* The natural fractures will have two
effects on the pressure transient
behavior. In the stimulated zone, Mod el for Mattix Acitied WelLs_
live acid leaks off to the natural
fractures and stimulates them, Matrix acidizing of the Ekofisk chalks is
essentially making the natural a combination of near wellbore wormhole
fractures part of the induced growth in the matrix and acid etching of
fracture system (Figure 7). In the the natural fractures. The stimulation of
non-stimulated zone, the natural the natural trcctures is similar in
fractures enhance matrix nature, from a pressure transient
permeability. response standpoint, to matrix
acidization of sandstone formations, and
Non-darcy flow is insignificant in both results in an area of increased
the induced fractures and in the permeability in the near wellbore region
formation. Two phase flow and liquid drop which corresponds well to the claesd.c
out occur in both the formation and the model for an acidized well.
induced fractures and are handled by
Perrine?s technique.
Ww curves
Effecti v e Fracture SVS tm Log-1og type curves are c~mo&y used for
interpreting early data in
Clasei.cal approaches to define the stimulated wells in order to identify the
geometry and conductivity of the induced beginning of pseudoradial flow, to,
fracturea have been applied at Ekofisk. identify the type of stimulation that has
However, because several non-ideal occurred (induced fracture or matrix
conditions exist simultaneously, it has acid), and to identify the character of
been impossible to isolate the effect of the stimulation, such as equivalent
each factor in order to accurately define induced fracture length and conductivity.
the stimulation parameters. Even where
some of the non-ideal conditions can be
identified from other sources, such ae Four type curvee are typically used in
fracture height from a TDT log, it has the analyeis of pressure tests in the
still been difficult if not impossible to Ekofisk Area. The most common is the
come up with rigorous definitions for uniform flux fracture type curve(Figure
frauture geometry, 9)4* The majority of the initial
completions has matched this curve. The
Many of the non-ideal conditions reason for this lies in the nature of the
described above exhibit similar behavior,
This behavior can be summarized by three acid stimulations. The acid reacts
distinct flow periods: early time data quickl in the near wellbore region,
.lflacts the near wellbore conductivity, resultIng in high fracture conductivity.
As the acid penetrates the ibductxl
fracture, the etching becomes less
effective and the fracture conductivity
decreases away from the wellbore. In
addition, the non ~deal wellbore
conditions also decrease the overall
fracture conductivity, resulting in an
effective fracture conductivity in the 1
to 10 range. A uniform flux fracture is a
variable conductivity fracture with
infinite near wellbore conductivity and
an overall fracture conductivity around
4.4, which corresponds well with the
conceptual model for the Ekofisk Area
wells.
The second type curve is a finite
conductivity fracture type curve (Figure
10)20. In several cases, especially where
the well has not been stimulated or
restimulated for several years, the near
wellbore conductivity can be less than
infinite and a match 011 t}le finite
conductivity fracture curves results.
The third type curve is for a matrix
acid zed well with wellbore storage and
skin 48 (Figure 11). In some cases, such
as where low per perforation stimulation
rates (due to high perforation density)
or where high effective permeabilities
(due to intense natural fracturing) have
resulted in the formation not being
broken down, wells have been matrix
acidized.
The last type curve is for
hydraulically fractured well with
wellbore storage2g (Figure 12). Where one
zone has significantly higher pressure
than another or in wells with high GORS,
wellbore storage behavior has been
observed to last for several hours.
Occasionally it has been necessary to use
specialized type curves to obtain a good
match. For example, where perforations
have been placed especially low to avoid
gas or especially high to avoid water,
the induced fractures only penetrate a
Small percentage of the pay and type
curves to account for partial hydraulic
frLWkUW penetration are required to
obtain an acceptable match.
!ZQet Int~@
Conventional equations utilizing a match
point are used to determine kh and skin
from type curves; kh is determined from
Pd: Xf or C i8 determined from Td; and
Fed, 8, or C Is determined from the
matched curve.
Where the type curve indicates that
pseudo-radial flow has been reached,
conventional Horner or MDH equations are
used to determine kh and skin from these
plots.
The determination of the correct match
point is the most Important part of the
interpretation. Matching starts by
fitting the late time data on the uniform
flux curve (Figure 13). If both tti~early
nml lntr! time antn match on t,h.imcurve,
the derivative is checked for a unique
simultaneous match, If the early time
pressure data lies below the early time
uniform flux curve, the wellbore storage
curve j.$ evaluated. If the data lies
above the curve, the matrix acid and
finite conductivity curves are evaluated.
The difference in character between the
matrix acid and finite conductivity type
curves is generally sufficient to
differentiate a good match.
A good match will fit all of the data
from 2 to 4 hours onward to the end of
the test. An example match for each curve
is shown in Figures 9-12. Good matches
have been obtained from as early as 0.1
bourn, nlthough thin is rnre becnune
early time data (c2 hours) is influenced
by storage, afterflow, the gradual
opening up of the choke, and other
factore. Most tests require 50 to 80
hours to determine a unique match. In
most crises, a unique match can be
determined with 1 1/2 to 2 log cycles of
data.
Besides matching all of the pressure data
from 2-4 hours to the end of the test,a
good match must also satisfy the
following!
a 1. The derivative must also be
matched. Generally the derivative
data is good and can be matched
simultaneously. Where the
derivative data is erratic, the
separation between the pressure
data and the derivative data 19 a
good indicator if the match is a
good one, even if the ~ata itself
is not matched.
2* Where the match indicates that
pseudoradi.al flow has been reached,
the semilog results should match
the t pe curve results. Often tho
level rng off ot..the darivat.ive is
the best indication of the start of
pseudo-radial flow.
3. The total calculated rate, using
the calculated skin and kh and th8
transient radial flow equation,
must be close to the measured total
rate.
Pressure tests which have been conducted
before and after restimulation have
indicated that kh is dependent on
stimulation efficiency, particularly on
diversion effect~veness and on how well
the naturally fractured intervals were
stimulated. Matching techniques where it
is assumed that kh is known froEJIQ
previous test have not been effeative 0.
Where a good match cannot be made on any
4f
of the four type curves, a variable
conductivity match is evaluated. In a
variable conductivity match,
representative near wellbore and overall
conductivity nre solved for. Gujdeljncs
for determining a good variable
conductivity match are similar to those
outlinecl above. Only the general
separation on the derivative can be
matched. The test must be carried out
long enough so that the trend of the
early and late time data parallel
consta);tconductivity curves (Figure 14).
Usually only a range of interpretations
can be established, which then need to be
confirmed by an MDH plot or some other
means.
In spite of all of these criteria for
selecting the match, test interpretation
is still an art and the engineer
ultimately must decide which match is
most represent.atlve. Fl~jllCJ 011 sjte dllrtltg
the job, manipulating the data to observe
the effects of the different variables,
and trying several different matches, all
asuist the engineer to obtain
understanding of the pressure and rate
behavior in order to develop a good
conce tual model and a representat Ive
test ! nterpretation.
DISCUSSION
Pressure testing in the Ekofisk Area
fields illustrates the practical problems
associated with isolating induced
fracture and/or reservoir layer
properties from pressure tests when
complex reservoir
and stimulation
conditions exist. Many of the stimulation
treatments which are conducted in the
iiidustry result in similar non-ideal
conditions, whether it is due-toproppant
settling, fracturing out of zone, or
other reasons, and the interpretation of
many of these pressure teats essentially
utilizes the equivalent fracture system
concept.
The primary limitation with the
equivalent fracture approach is that the
engineer is never sure that his defined
match will actually match the long time
production characteristics of the well.
In spite of this limitation, good success
haa been experienced with this approach
and it is the most practical approach
available at this time for interpreting
pressure tests under these,conditions.
The skin calculated from the equivalent
fracture system is only an averaqe skin
representative of the>equivalent system.
Interpretation of p:tessure teets with
non-ideal conditions usually only resulta
in an apparent fracture geometry which
may be longer or shorter than the actual
system. In addition, where multiple
fraaturee are formed, the calculated skin
is an average of the different fracture
geometries.
a
The derived kh is also only an average
number. While varjnt.i.onsjn permeability
and reservoir pressure have been
identified from RFTs, {t has not been
possible to identify diagnostic curve
shapes on pressure tests to isolate these
effects31 Using Perrine*a approach, the
calculated kh is also a function of fluid
saturations, saturation gradients,
relative permeabll.~.ties, and flu~d
segregation. It has Lso not been
possible to isolate these effects and the
solved for kh is assumed to be some
average value representative of the total
system mobility, and that the average kh
may vary if saturations or formation
pressure differentials change
dramatically with time* changes in kh
have been observed in some weJ.]s, but j.t
hnn beelt imposr+iblc+ t.tl dntinitv(?ly
isolate the cause of these changes. This
approach has had good success in spite ef
its limitations and is the most practical
an approach available at this time.
It has also not been poss~ble to isolata
natural fracture width and conductivity
from the pressure tests. classic dual
porosity behavior is not observed because
of the high flow capacity of the matrix
permeability and because early flow is
dominated by the stimulation. AS has been
mentioned, some of the natural fractures
are stimulated and essentially become
part of the hydraulic fractures, A usable
definition of natural fracturing has been
the fracture intensity ratio, defined
~88 :
NFI=kwt/kl (6)
Despite these theoretical limitations and
the potential for changing kh values as
the mobility changes, for day to day
applications in these complex reservoir
conditions the, approach to pressure
testing outlined in this paper has
provided the required description to
allOW predictions of future behavior,
Production forecasts using pressure test
derived information are generally good
and are effective for production
monitoring. Pressure teat results have
been successfully used for optimizing
StimUlatiOll designs and for matching
fracture growth models. And periodic
pressure tests have been effective in
defining the condition of the stimulation
and the potential for restimulation.
Examples of the latter are shown in
Figures 15 and 16.
CONCLUSIONS
1 An efficient testing program has
been developed at the Ekofisk Area
chalk fields utilizing surface
.


readout of
pressures. An onsite behave as an enhanced matrix
reservoir engineer interprets the permeability.
test in real time to minimize the
length of the test and to ensure 8. Guidelines for obtaining a unique
that a unique interpretation is ob- mntch RR well m n detailed example
tained. and several typical matches have
been shown. TO obtain a unique
2. Effective test interpretation match requires use of the
requires (de)superpositionj.ng of derivative, about 1.5 to 2 log
the data, measurement of bottom cycles of data, matching of the
hole pressures, rate normalization total calculated rate, and
with spinner calculated and/or consistency between leg-log and
Separator measured rat@S, and m(p) semilog straight line results where
relationships in high GOR/con- these are available.
densate fields.
9* Using the concepts outlined in this
3* Type curve matching in these fields paper, it has been possible to use
require~ using four type curves: pressure transient analysis in a
uniform flux fracture, finite complex reservoir/stimulation
conductivity fracture, uniform flux system to effectively study
fracture with wellbore storage, and reservoir performance. Produ~tion
matrix acidiqed well with wellbore forecasting, evaluation of wells
storage. for restimulation potential, and
matching of acid fracture growth
4. Many nonidea~xi:~duced fracture models and optimization of
conditions which make stimulation treatments, have all
rigorous definition of the induced been aucornplished.
fracture ayatem impossible. These NOMENCLATURE
conditions include natural
fracturing, multiple fractures, ao-a~ Curve Fit Constants for M(P)
limited perforation and fracture Relationships
height, and others. Bg Gas Formation Volume Factor,
interpretation uses the conce~te;; RB/SCF
equivalent induced fracture. B. Oil Formation Volume Factor,
% ing this concept, the test RB/STB
interpretation results in the Water Formation volume Factor,
determination of an e~ivalenk, %
RB/STB
fully penetrating constant or c Wellbore Storage Coefficient,
variable conductivity fracture Bbl/psi
which behaves in a manner similar d Tubing Diameter, inches
to the actual induced fracture and Fcd Dimensionless Fracture
of an apparent skin which is conductivity
representative of the total system. GEQ Flash Gas Equivalent Factor,
!9WSCF/Bbl
5. Acid fracturing a thick, naturally GOR Gas Oil Ratio, SCF/STB
fractured formation often results K1 Constant=qot/1 .40(RPS)d2
in variable conductivity behavior constant
during a transient pressure test. % Permeability-l{eight,md-ft
The uniform flux fracture model is kl Log derived permeability
a good representation of this kt Well test derived permeability
system. MlP) Pseudo pressure
NFI Natural Fracture Intensity
6. Using Perrine~s approach to testing P Pressure, psi
under two phase flow conditions, Pi Initi&l pressure
an effective or average )ch Bottom hole flowing pressure
Pw f
representatj.ve of the entire qg Gas Rate, MHSCFPD
interval and of the mobility of the ~gt Total Equivalent Gas Ratel
complete s stem have been MMSCFPD
determined. Th [6 value of kh can be qn oil Rate at tima n, !3TBPD
saturation and pressure (drawdown) qot Total Equivalent Oil Rate,
dependent, but has been effeative sTBOPD
for forecasting production and qo Oil Rate, STBPD
monitoring well performance. qw Water rate, S1BPD
RPS spinner revolutions per second
7. Classiot dual porosity behavior is R8 solution Gas oil Ratio,
not observed on Ekofisk Area SCF/STB
pressure temts, The natural s Skin factor
fracturen have two effects, In the tD Dimensionless Time
near wellbore region they are acid u Vialcosity,cp
6timulated, effectively becoming Xf Fracture Half Length, Ft.
part of the induced fracture, In
the nonstimulated region, they
..
. $

.8PE 19776 S.B. Snow & M.H. Brownlea 9

AcmOttLdXXJEMENTS
B* Fetkovich, M.J., et al! Decline
The authors wish tothank Phillips Curve Analysis Using Type Curve=:
Petroleum company and it coventurers in Case Historlee, SPE Paper No.
the Ekofisk Area for permission to 13169 (1984).
present thie paper. Phillipe coventurers 9. Earlougher, R.C., Jr.: Advances in
are Fins Exploration Norway Inc., Norsk Well Test Analysis, Monograph
Agip A/S, Norsk Hydro a.m., Elf Aquitaino
Series, SPE, Dallae (1977) 5.
Norge A/S, Total Marine Norsk A/S, and
Den Norske Stats Oljeselskap as. A1-Hussany, R., Ramey, H.J., Jr.,
Unitized owner in Albuskjell is Nokske 10*
and Crawford,P.B.: ~~The Flow of
Shell. Unitized owners in Tor are Amoco Real Gases Through Porous
Norway Oil Company, Amerada Petroleum Media,l~JPT (May 1966) 624-636,
Company of Norway, Enterprise oil Norway,
and Norwegian Petroleum Consortium A/f3. 11. Jones, J.R. and Raghavan, R.:
This paper presents the views of the @Interpretation Flowing Well
af
authors and not necessarily those of the ReSPOtWSGi Gas-Condensate Wellsr,
j.n
individual owners in the Ekofisk Area SPEFE (Sept. 1988) 578-594.
Fields.
12* Serra, K.V. , Peres, A.M.M., and
M.J. Fetkovich has highly Reynolds, A.C.! Well Test Analysis
influential o in deve~oepning for Solution-Gas-llrive Reservoirs
interpretation tiechniqtlesfor the Eke;.;; Part 2: Cluildup finnlysis,w SPE
Fields. In addition, many engineers have Paper No. 17048 presented at the
interpreted tests over the years and have 1987 SPE Eastern Regional Meeting,
contributed to the development of these Pittsburg, Oct. 21-23.
concepts.
13* Perrinep R.L.: Analymis of
Pressure Build-up Curveew, Drill.
REFERENCES end Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1956)
482-509.
1. Van den Bark, E. and Thomas, O.D.:
~E)coflsk; First of the Giant Oil 14. Leach, B.C., et al: The Full Bore
Fields in Western EuropeW, AAPG Flowmeterw, SPE Paper No. 5089
(November 1081) 2341-2363. Presented at the 49th Annual
Meeting held in Houston (Oct. 6-9,
2. Novotny, E.J.: Prediction of 1974)
Stimulation From Acid Fracturing
Using Finite Fracture 15. Winestock, A.G. and and Colpitts,
Conductivityw, JPT (Sept. 197), G,P.: Advances in Estimating Gas
1186-1194. Well Deliverabj.lityll,J. Cdn. Pet.
Tech. (July-Sept. 1965) 111-119.
3. McDonald, S.W*: tEvaluation of
production Tests M~6Bf;; Wells 16. Van Everdingen, A.F. and Meyer,
Stimulated By Acid L.J. : Analysis of Buildup Curves
Fracturing Offshore Qatar@, J~ obtained After Well Treatment,w JPT
(Mar. 1983) 496-506. (April 1971) 513-524.
4* Gringarten, A., Ramey, H,J*, Jr,, 17. Fetkovich, M*J. and Vienotf M*Eo:
and Raghaven, R.: Pressure @Rate Normalization of Buildup
Analysis for Fractured Wells,rl SPE Pcessure By Using Afterflow Datawl
Paper No. 4051 (1972), JPT (Dec. 1984) 2211-2224.
5. Warren, J.E. and Roott p,J,$ @The 18. Kucuk, F. and Ay&staran, L. t
Behavior of Naturally Fractured vAnalysis of Simultaneously
Reservoirs~O,TAIME (1963), Measured Pressure and Sandfaae Flow
Rate in Transient Well Testing,w
60 Yeh, N.s., Davisoh, M.J., and SPE Paper No. 12177 presemted at
Raghavan,R. : Fractured Well the 1983 SPE Annual Meeting, San
Responses in Heterogeneous Sy8tems- Francisco (October 5-8),
Application to Devonian Shale, and
Austin Chalk Reservoirs@, JERG 19, Odeh, A.S. and Jones, L.G.:
(June, 1986). Wpressure Drawdown Analysist
Variable-Rate Camew, JPT (Jan.
7* Snow, S.E. and Hough, E,V,: ~)Field 1974) 93- 99.
and Laboratory Experiences in
Stimulation Ekofisk Area North Sea 20. c!inco-Ley, H. and Samaniego-V.F.:
Chalk Reservoirs@, SPE PaDer No. WTrans~ent pressure Analysis for
18225 presented at the 6jrd SPE Fractured !4ellew,JPT (Sapt 1981).
Annual Technical Conference
Exhibition, Houston, October 2~$ 21. Rodriquez, F., et alt Partially
1988. Penetrating Vertical maatures:

45
. 9

11Iwwrf?
1{1
10 we1.1 tlhcl Fikor

Pressure Transient Behavior of a

Finike Conductivity Fraaturen, SPE
Paper No. 13057 (1984).
22* Bennett, C.O., et all Influence of
Fracture ileterchg~neity and wing
Length on Response of
Vertically Fractured Wells~, SPE
Paper No. 9886 (1981),
23. Schulte, W.M,: Production From a
Fractured Well with Well Inflow
Li!mited to Part of the Fracture
HeightW, SPEPE (Sept. 1986).
24. Daneshy, A.A.: A Study of Inclined
Hydraulic Fracturesl~, SPEJ (April,
1973) 61-68,

25. Warpinski, N.R. and Teufel, L.W,:

tInfluence of Geologic
Disc.ontinut,ies on Hydraulic
Fracture Propagation~$, SPl! Paper
No* 13224 (1984).

26. Economies, M.J, and K,G, Nolte,

eds: Reservoir Stimulation,
~;~ice Hall, New Jersey (1989)

27. Goalan, M. and C.H. Whitson, Well

Performance, International Human
Resources Development Corporation,
Boston (1986) 409.
28. Bourdetp D.? et al: A New Set of
Type Curves Simplifies Well Test
Analysisw, World Oil (May 1983).
29. Alagoap A., et al: How to simplify
the Analysie of Fractured well
Testsn, World Oil (October 1985).
30, ~~l~o~l. R.G,, Carter, R.D. and
C.B.: Evaluation and
Performance Prediction of Low
Permeability Gas Wells Stimulated
by Massive Nydraulia Fracturing*t,
JPT (March 1979) 362-372.
31, Bennett, C,O., et al: WADvroximate
Solutions for Frackurk-d Wells
Producing Laye;ed Reservoirs~l,SPEJ
(Oct. 1985).

,.,+
-
40


m-++ N ,,:

(
DEN.!
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I

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Fig,l-Locatlon of Ekoflok Amachalkflolds,

47
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11920

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tmoo

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nla

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i O SPINNCR (RPS x200] F .-. -.-. ----------------

~:::--
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1 MSASUR2D PRESSURE TIME

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3 SUPSRPOSITIONCO PRESSURE
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Fig, S-t%mpwlsoti of WInncf oabulatodand WPDmlorIWOUmd lotd mtco.

,I ACTUAL \\ I

Mo, T-ldodlzellon 01 gkotlokArm nom wollbommglon,

FIR,G-TypQ wrw nwtahlngof thfw nonldoolInduoodfrMtum eondltlonom vwlablo

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Fig, 13-Data from Fig.. 10 to 12 mstchod on unltorm flux haoturs typo curve. I

1000
PRESSURE OWRALL XWCCTIVC
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.

Flgt 14-Exsmpl. vwlabk conductivity frseturs mstoh on flnlto conduotlvlty Wscturs typs WV..

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fig, 1s-l+istorlod tmn$lontdotAhom @@l showingGdoclirn In 1~ lmotumcandwAIvlly,

10

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Fig, 16-Hl-lorlod trmwlonttide from a WCIIohowlngno doolhwIn Induoodkaotum oonduotlvlty,

52