Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ORG
International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116
Vol.13 No.4
PUBLISHER International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
London Consulting Ltd Educational Research
District of Flacq
Republic of Mauritius
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and Educational Research is an open-access
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Venezuela, Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of field of education, learning and teaching. IJLTER
welcomes research articles from academics, ed-
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Prof. Cecilia Junio Sabio ucators, teachers, trainers and other practition-
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VOLUME 13 NUMBER 4 Special Issue
Table of Contents
Does Body Awareness Influence Visual Spatial Intelligence? .......................................................................................... 1
Sandra Kaltner and Petra Jansen
The Digital World of Education in Mauritius: Adapting the Mauritian Education System with the Pace of
Technology ........................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Leena Subrun and Veerunjaysingh Subrun
Human Capacity Development of Igala Youths in Higher Institution in Igala land for Skill Acquisition and
Empowerment ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Joy U ETUBI
Effects of a One-Hour Creative Dance Training on Mental Rotation Performance in Primary School Aged
Children ................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Petra Jansen and Stefanie Richter
On the Way to Phronesis: Delving into Stories of School Based Experiences of Pre-Service Teachers .................... 58
Swaleha Beebeejaun-Roojee and Nathalie Congo-Poottaren
School Leaders as Progress Makers: Opening a New Vista for School Leadership in Mauritius ............................. 69
Nathalie Congo-Poottaren and Swaleha Beebeejaun-Rojee
Exploring the potentials of Intercultural Education in sustaining Social Cohesion in Small Island Developing
States ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 81
Jabeen Bibi Soobratty
1
Introduction
Mental rotation
1. Elite athletes show a better mental rotation performance than the control
group either due to their motor activity or their positive body awareness.
2. Patients with Anorexia Nervosa show a worse mental rotation
performance then the control group due to their negative body
awareness.
3. Furthermore an interaction with the type of stimuli is expected. It is
assumed that participants with a higher body awareness show a better
mental rotation performance with egocentric compared to objectbased
transformations.
Methods
Participants. Fifty-six females between 16 and 30 years of age participated in the
study. There were 19 elite athletes (mean age: 22.84, SD = 2.61), 20 patients with
Anorexia Nervosa (AN; mean age: 22.50, SD= = 4.49) and 17 healthy control
women (mean age: 22.88, SD = 2.50). In this study, Elite athletes were defined by
at least 4 sport units per week and the patients with Anorexia Nervosa
participated in a therapeutic programme for eating disorders. The elite athletes
differed with 4.78 sport units per week significantly from the patients with AN
and the control women, see Table 1. However, it should be noted that the sports
behaviour of the patients with AN was limited and controlled by the therapists.
The groups did not differ in their age, but in the IQ and the BMI as noted in
Table 1. The IQ was measured with the Number Connection Test, ZVT
(Zahlenverbindungstest, ZVT; Oswald & Roth, 1987) by measuring cognitive
speed. This test consists of four sheets of paper. On each sheet, the numbers 1 to
90 are presented in a mixed order in a matrix of 9 rows and 10 columns. The
participants had to use a pen to connect the numbers as fast as possible in
ascending order. The number of correctly connected numbers was analyzed for
each participant.
ZVT-scores were converted into IQ values. The correlation between the
ZVT and standard IQ tests is about r = .60 to .80 (Vernon, 1993). The ZVT is the
equivalent to the Trail Making Test A (Reitan, 1956). The test administration,
including instructions and practice matrices, takes about 20 minutes. The BMI,
which was calculated for each female, is defined as the body mass [kg] divided
by the square of the body height [m]. Participants were recruited through
advertisements in the local newspapers and at the campus. The patients with
Anorexia nervosa were recruited by contacting a therapeutic centre for eating
disorders. All participants gave informed consent for participation according to
the declaration of Helsinki.
Table 1: Univariate F-tests for the factor group (Mean RT and SD) concerning age,
IQ, BMI and sport units.
Group
Elite athletes Patients with AN Control group
M SD M SD M SD F p p2
Age 22.84 2.61 22.50 4.49 22.88 2.50 0.05 .950 .00
BMI 20.98 1.74 18.08 2.09 22.69 3.28 8.22 < .001 .40
Sport units 4.79 0.37 1.40 1.69 0.53 0.72 25.28 < .001 .49
1) 2) 3)
Figure 1: Examples of the three different stimuli, 1) body figures object based (BFO),
2) letters, and 3) body figures egocentric (BFE)
In the letter and BFO condition two drawings of the same kind of stimuli
were presented simultaneously with an angular disparity of 0, 45, 90, 135 or
180. The right stimulus was rotated compared to the left stimulus, the so called
comparison figure. Half of the trials were pairs of identical objects and half
were mirror-reversed images. The letters were black and the human figures
were wearing black clothes. Contrary to the letter and BFO condition in the BFE
condition only one figure was presented in the rotation angles mentioned above.
This figure raised either the left or right arm. All stimuli were rotated in the
picture plan.
Procedure
The individual test sessions lasted about 60 minutes in total. They took
place in a laboratory at the University of Regensburg or at the therapeutic centre
for eating disorders (TCE) in Munich. Instructions of the mental rotation tests
were standardized. In the BFO and letter conditions participants had to decide
as quickly and as accurately as possible if the stimuli were either the same that
means not mirror-reversed, or different, which means mirror-reversed to the
comparison stimulus (shown on the left side). Participants had to press the left
mouse button (left-click) when the two stimuli were same and the right mouse
button (right-click) when the two stimuli were different. When the stimuli
from the BFE condition were presented, participants had to decide if the figure
raised the right or the left arm. Participants had to press the left mouse button
(left-click) when the figure raised the left arm and the right mouse button (right-
click) when the right arm was raised.
Each trial began with a fixation cross for 1 second. After that, the pair of
stimuli appeared and stayed on the screen until participants answered. Feedback
was given for 500ms after each trial: In the case of a correct response a +
appeared in the centre of the screen and in the case of an incorrect response a -
appeared. The next trial began 1500ms thereafter. Each type of stimulus was
presented in a separated block which was preceded by eight practice trials.
There were 80 trials in each of the three blocks (without practice trials). After
every ten trials within each block a pause of 15 seconds was given before the
next ten trials were administered. The next block started after a break of around
one minute. The presentation of the three blocks was randomized.
Statistical analysis
patients with Anorexia Nervosa) and angular disparity (0, 45, 90, 135, 180)
as factors and reaction time (RT) and accuracy rate as dependent
measurements.
Results
The analysis of variance showed a main effect for the factors stimulus
type, F(2,106) = 16.41, p < .001, p2= .24, angular disparity, F(4,212) = 316,329,
p < .001, p2= .856, and group, F(2,53) = 5.88, p < .01, p2= .182. Furthermore
there were significant interactions between the factors group and angular
disparity, F(8, 212) = 3.85, p < .001, p2= .127, as well as an interaction between
stimulus type and angular disparity, F(8, 424) = 6.29, p < .001, p2 = .106.
The interaction between group and angular disparity is displayed in
Figure 2. It shows that the three groups did not differ at an angular disparity of
0, but with all other angular disparities. Multiple t-tests with a Bonferroni
corrected significance level were performed. They showed that at an angular
disparity of 45 both the patients with AN (M=836.88ms, SD= 125.65),
t(35)=2.681, p=.011, and the elite athletes (M=813.36ms, SD=210.03), t(34)=-2.404,
p=.022, differed from the control group (M=970.54ms, SD=175.93), whereas elite
athletes and patients with AN did not differ significantly, t(37)=-.416, p=.680. For
an angular disparity of 90, the reaction times of elite athletes (M=897.36ms,
SD=226.22) and the patients with AN (M=919.11ms, SD=140.60) differed from
the ones of the control group (M=1132.56ms; SD=278.01), t(34)=-2.798, p=.008,
and t(35)=-3.015, p=.005. Concerning the angular disparity of 135, compared to
the control group (M=1071.43ms; SD= 168.59), there was a significant difference
between both the patients with AN (M=1288.44ms; SD=271.34), t(35)=-2.296,
p=.005, and the elite athletes (M=1053.01ms; SD=294.25), t(34)=-2.486, p=.018,
whereas patients with AN and elite athletes did not differ, t(37)=-.241, p=.811. At
an angular disparity of 180 there was only a significant difference between elite
athletes (M=1372.99ms; SD= 329.45) and the control group (M=1767.84ms, SD=
436.35), t(34)=-3.084, p=.004. There was no difference between the performance
of the elite athletes and the patients with AN (M=1563.42ms; SD=223.95),
t(37)=.437, p=.935.
Figure 2: Mean reaction times and standard deviations (error bars) dependent on
group and angular disparity.
The analysis of variance showed a main effect for the factor angular
disparity, F(4,212) = 29.53, p < .001, p2 = .358, and a significant interaction
between the factors angular disparity and stimulus type, F(8,424) = 2.92, p =
.003, p2 = .052. There were no other significant main effects or interactions. The
interaction between angular disparity and stimulus type was due to the fact
that the decrease of accuracy between 0 and 180 was significantly stronger in
the letter-condition (MDiff=13.39%, SD= 18.59) compared to the BFO-condition
(MDiff=5.15%, SD= 13.07), t(55)=.740, p=.463, and the BFE-condition (MDiff=6.91%,
SD= 12.81), t(55)=.740, p=.463, whereas between the human figure conditions
there was no significant difference regarding this specific response pattern,
t(55)=.740, p=.463. Because this interaction was not in our main focus, it will not
be analyzed further.
Further analysis showed that the overall mean reaction time was not
correlated with the overall accuracy rate (r=-.109, p = .424), but with BMI (r=.266,
p<.05) and IQ (r=-.331, p<.01). A stepwise regression analysis showed that IQ
and BMI explained 17.7% of the variance in the mean reaction time (R = .421),
F(2, 53)=5.71, p= .006), see Table 2.
Table 2: Final stepwise multiple regression model for the mental rotation performance
in the mean reaction time based on the following predictors: group, BMI and IQ.
Predictor Regression T p
coefficient
Discussion
One reason for the relation between body weight and cognitive performance
might be that young adults with a lower BMI have a higher sensitivity for
physical activity and that this higher physical activity leads to a better motor
performance. This better motor performance then relates to a higher cognitive
performance (see for example Pietsch & Jansen, 2012). In other words a
decreased motor ability relates to an impaired visual spatial intelligence (Jansen
et al., 2011). But the relation between body weight and motor ability is only one
possible mediator. Another one might be that the weight relates to body esteem
and that this body esteem influences cognitive processes. A third explanation
might be the socio-economic status. Because it is well known that in the
development of overweight the socio-economic status plays an important role
(compare Jansen et al., 2011) this variable might have mediated this results. We
could not exclude this assumption because socio-economic status was not
investigated, but even if it was controlled as in our former study (Jansen et al.,
2011), the relation between body weight and visual-spatial intelligence was
visible.
Although this study is surely limited by several points, it gives a hint that
cognitive processes could not be isolated from other human body and soul.
Mind, soul and body are integrated parts of each individual. To investigate one
part in isolation is sometimes necessary for conducting controlled experiments.
But this study shows that the conclusions that can be drawn are limited. In
practice every human being has to be seen individually, but in his or her
wholeness. This is a high demand for every school- and educational setting, but
is necessary for every system which wants to educate young people for a human
world.
Conclusion
To conclude, this study gives support to the assumption that body awareness
plays a role in cognitive processes. Further studies are needed to investigate this
relation in more detail and make it useful for school context. Regarding future
research directions it would be interesting to find out if this relation contributes
to other cognitive tasks as well as emotional parameters.
Acknowledgment
We are very thankful to Yvonne Steggemann who gave the stimuli to us
and to Roman Wittig, Johanna Hofmeister, Maria Staudigl and Barbara
Drechsler who helped during data acquisition and to Stefanie Richter who
helped in writing the paper.
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Education
Education can be considered as the key to a successful future of any country.
The report Meeting Basic Learning Needs- A vision for the 1990s on the world
conference on education for all, held at Jomtien in 1990, stated that education
refers to the provision of learning opportunities in a purposeful and organized
manner through various means including, but not limited to school and other
has been a great impact on the educators and the heads of schools. The school
curriculum has to witness a great change and to implement the change the
government policies is being modified. The Education and human resources
strategy plan 2008-2020 stated that the strategy plan is mutable and the
Education and training sector has never been always dynamic. The potential to
mutate the policies has provided the space for inculcating latest technology in
the school curriculum.
The MOEHR aimed improving the ZEP school, by setting up of computer rooms
with the help of sponsors through the Corporate Social Responsibility
(Education Reform in Action 2008-2014).
In 2010, the ministry of education introduced the National Assessment at the
Form III level and the private colleges joined in the program in 2013. The aim
was to measure the attainment levels of learners in subjects like mathematics,
French, computer studies/ literacy, biology, chemistry and physics.
(Education Reform in Action 2008-2014). Thus, the mission of the government
was to embed the computer studies in the Mauritian school curriculum.
The ministry also aspired to transform schools by integrating different activities
in the national curriculum to create a sense of balance with academic studies, to
unleash the ability of students and to provide them the chance to build up their
hidden talents and their multiple intelligences. Clubs such as the science club,
UNESCO club, integrity club, sports club, IT club, cinematography club, Arts
and craft club, Drama club, Music club, etc have been introduced in the school
curriculum through the activity periods in the school. The activity periods in the
secondary school have been introduced since 2009 and the IT club also flashes as
one of the activity to be carried out. This was another successful attempt of the
government to inculcate the use of IT among the students. The students are thus
groomed to master the technology at an early age.
The Vision of the MOEHR is to exploit Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) with the idea to improve the operations and service delivery
of the Education sector with the emphasis of improving quality of the
pedagogical processes as well as to boost the efficiency and effectiveness of
school management. In the quest to promote IT literacy, the ministry has
embarked and invested on a number of ICT projects. The ICT infrastructure has
been improved in the school. Educators have been trained in basic IT so that the
IT literacy can be introduced in the school program. One hundred and twenty
eight public pre-school have been equipped with the computer facilities
(Education Reform in Action 2008-2014). In addition to this, laptops and
projectors also have been provided to all primary school in view to improve the
teaching and learning process.
Since 2011, the ZEP schools have been equipped with WIFI facilities, with the
help of the CSR program where the private sector/companies invest a
percentage of their revenue in the upliftment of the society. The survey report on
the practical implementation of CSR under the new legislation (2011) pointed
out that all companies must compulsorily invest two percent of their profit.
Thus, through the SANKORE Project in 2011 the Mauritian education
curriculum has benefited a lot. The project had the objective to provide an
Education for all through digital empowerment and the use of innovative
technology. The schools were provided with 1615 interactive projectors and
laptops to the Standard IV to standard VI students. This has marked a new
horizon in implementing technology in the Mauritian education system
(Education Reform in Action 2008-2014).
Today all the primary schools possess an ICT laboratory with at least 10
computers and 2 printers and a Scanner. Training sessions of educators have
been carried out to equip the educators to teach and make full use of ICT. In
addition to it the senior educators, rectors and ICT educators have been trained
to use tablet PC.
An attempt to introduce computer programming has been carried out in five
state secondary schools on the pilot basis in 2013 in view to prepare the learner
to master the digital world. About 26100 tablets PC have been distributed by the
Mauritian Government to the students and educators. SMS E-Register system
has been introduced in 85 state secondary school and 40 private schools.
Moreover, today 19 State Secondary Schools have been equipped with smart
interactive whiteboard and the school library is equipped with access to the
internet facilities to the students (Education Reform in Action 2008-2014).
The Mauritians education ministers of successive Governments have tried to
carry our Educational planning through different educational reports; Master
Plan 1991, White paper 1997, Action Plan 1998, Ending the Rat Race 2001,
Education and Human Resources Strategy Plan 2008-2020,and Education
Reforms in Action 2008-2014. It has been noted that educational reforms have
been the priority of each and every Government. The international agencies are
giving the education sector a major concern, innovative training programs have
been initiated, social scientists are carrying out an intensive research work on the
subject, and as a result a large innovative professional literature is rising. The
Education and Human Resources Strategy Plan 2008-2020 have been able to
implement the vision of the Government of embedding technology in the
curriculum. The success of the attempt may be justified by the election of the
same Government for successive two mandates, thus the minister had ample of
time to implement the Strategy plan 2008-2020.
Recommendation
The need for ICT in education should be reworked so that it can be refurbished
at all level of the school curriculum. The students must compulsorily go for ICT
till Form III and then they have to opt for or drop ICT in upper forms. The ICT
must be made compulsory up to a certain level so that the learners may acquire
sufficient knowledge to apply it in the day to day life and the work place. The
different stakeholders of the education sector need to have a consensus in
providing an equal and fair chance to each and every citizen of Mauritius by
providing a fair access to the digitalized world as only some schools possess the
equipments such as interactive whiteboard, laptops, WIFI connections, printers,
computers, PC Tablet and interactive projectors.
The PC Tablet programs should start from the Form I level and not at SC level as
these students were potential voters for the upcoming elections. The PC Tablet
program should be reviewed and necessary accessories such as WIFI
connections, subject content platform and an interactive platform for students
must be provided along with the PC Tablet so that the educators and as well as
the students can make maximum use of it. The latest technology such as LCD
projectors, printers and scanners must be made available in all classes so that the
educators can deliver judiciously a proper education within the limited time
frame. Finally, the educational report published by the successive Government
must be reframed in such a way that the objective is achieved within the time
frame and more precisely within the laps of the government mandate.
Conclusion
The Government has made a great step by infusing technology in school.
However, the ministry must keep an eye on the schools and must make sure that
the schools make full use of the accessories provided. Moreover, a committee
must be set up to train and evaluate the educators on how effectively the digital
technology is being applied in the teaching and learning process. Given that
education is free for all and the Government adheres to the principle of
providing free education to the learners, therefore all schools must be similarly
well equipped so that a uniform type of education is dispensed in all the
Mauritian schools. Since the last decade tremendous amount of money have
been inserted in Mauritian education system in view of embedding technology
in the school curriculum. Despite many changes in curriculum, many schools are
not making full use of technology. The Mauritian education has succeeded in
embedding a certain level of digital technology but there are much more to
achieve as the digital technology is a dynamic system which keep on evolving
with new features every day.
Moreover, a standardized digital curriculum must be provided in all schools and
they must keep abreast with the innovative changes. The school must properly
disseminate the ICT and technology in view to provide a World Class Quality
Education in the context of globalization. This will enable young Mauritians to
achieve moral, intellectual and physical development to achieve high academic
standards. Thus, finally we can conclude that the Mauritian government is in
quest of imparting a world class digital education and this has been achieved up
to a certain level and yet new avenues must be tapped.
References
ABS (2011), Schools, Australia 2010. Canberra, Australian Bureau of Statistics
Aikaman and Unterhalter (2005). Beyond access: Transforming policy and practice for
gender equality in education. London: Oxford.
Armoogum Parsuramen (2001) Achieving Education for All The experience of Mauritius
Fuchs and Woessmann (2004). Computers and student learning: Bivariate and
multivariate evidence on the availability and use of computers at home and at
school.
Master Plan 1997: Master Plan for Education for the Year 2000: The Mauritian experience
World conference on education for all(1990): Meeting Basic Learning Needs- A vision for
the 1990s.
Mikre, F (2011). The roles of Information Communication Technologies in education
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2009): Education and Human Resources
Strategy Plan 2008-2020
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2014): Education reform in action 2008-
2014: Survey report on the practical implementation of CSR under the new
legislation (2011)
Syed Zubair Haider and Azra (2015): Analysing the role of private colleges in
developing the effective education system in pakistan
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White paper(1984). White paper on education, Ministry of Education
Joy U ETUBI
Kogi State College of Education
Ankpa, Nigeria
Abstract. Education is the building block of any nation and the greatest
legacy for any individual. Igala is one of the ethnic groups in Nigeria
that has not received much attention from the Federal government in
regard to human capacity development as compared to other ethnic
groups in Nigeria. The Federal Government has not given attention to
the high poverty level of Igalas that has made the needed educational
training of their youths very difficult. Consequently, hundreds of these
youths drop out of school every year and thousands of them take to
socially unacceptable acts in order to survive the hardship of schooling.
The paper discussed the concept of capacity development, overview of
capacity development in selected institutions in other countries, high
poverty level of Igala people as compared to other ethnic group in
Nigeria and capacity development in vocational technical education
with regard to rubber technology in higher institution in Igala land. The
paper suggested among others that the Federal government via the State
Ministry of Education should encourage human capacity development
in tertiary institutions in Igala land by providing funds and
interventions toward human capacity development initiative especially
in rubber technology.
Introduction
Higher educational institutions in Nigeria are tasked with the responsibility of
providing students with knowledge and advanced skills to enhance the
economic growth of individuals and the nation which will invariably promote
the standard of living amongst its people. The Federal government of Nigeria
indicated in the National Policy on Education (2004) that higher education
provides opportunity for students to be trained in different careers. In other
words, for any institution to provide a measurable transformation in training
students in different careers it must ensure quality and standard education,
Higher institution in Igala land is faced with the challenge of equipping students
with these advanced skills that can address the urgent need for change in
vocational technical education with regards to rubber technology in order to
reduce the high poverty level that is endemic in the land. Experience has shown
that Igala youths are full of potentials that can be harnessed in this area. There is
the need for movement from training painters, bricklayers, auto mechanics
which has not made any recognizable impact on the life of the Igalas to
producing students who can become builders of industries either in mini or
large scale using locally available natural resources where they can become
manufacturer of goods such as rubber and plastics to boost individual and
national economy. This can only be achieved if attention is given to the issue of
capacity development of students in higher institutions in Igala land. It is
worthy of note that Igala land is a fertile ground for the cultivation of rubber
(Heveabrasiliensis) which is the raw material for the making of rubber products.
This is evident in some villages where there is rubber plantation such as
Egabada-Idah, Igoti-agojeju,Oganeaji-Anyigba,Okura, Ofejiji and Dekina.
The fact remains that for any higher institution to operate with an improved
standard, the government where the institution is situated must arise to become
a positive force of transformation. The Nigerian government has not keyed into
the interest and encouragement in capacity development as emphasized in the
commitment seaied in millennium declaration by the United nations in
September 2000 which is the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. The
statement therein revealed the urgent need particularly for developing countries
to effectively respond to the current global economic recession that affects two
billion people (Igalas inclusive) living in poverty.
It is without doubt that the Nigerian government has not yet made any tangible
support in the area of capacity development initiative in higher institutions in
Igala land. The worry of this paper therefore is the lack of governments
attention on human capacity development of youths in igala land for skill
acquisition.
This paper is organized under the following sub- heading; the concept of
capacity development, an overview of capacity development in rubber
technology in some selected institutions in other countries, the high poverty
level of the Igala people, and capacity development in vocational technical
education with regard to rubber technology in higher institution (university) in
igala land.
The above definition by the Food and Agricultural Organization (2004) brought
about the recognition of four levels of capacity development- (i) individual, (ii)
organizations (iii) sector/networks and the (iv) broader enabling environment.
To Working Party, the overall capacity is not just the sum of individual,
institution and sector but also includes the process which enables people to
acquire and extend their skills within a conducive environment. FAO reiterates
further that, human capacity development takes place not just within
individuals but between them and the institutions and that/ any initiative
within this context must take a holistic view of the environment in which
individuals operate. Second, capacity development process includes identifying
needs, building knowledge and skills that can be implemented through practice
and experience which leads to sustainable change of an individual. FAO also
opined that capacity development is a two way process through which an
individuals capacity developmental needs, and experience would determine the
content of training offered by the institution.
The Accra Agenda Action (2008) indicated in their report that the three not
independent. In their words, capacity The Accra Agenda Action in their report
illustrated the inter-connectedness of levels of capacity development which was
borrowed from the justice system thus; a well functioning and capable justice
system needs to have skillful and professional judges, prosecutors, attorneys and
court secretaries. Using the above example, the report further illustrated the
three levels thus: the need for good court procedures to be put in place and a
body of law and redress mechanism is at the individual level of capacity
development formal justice system well functioning police force is at the
institutional level and a well functioning police force with a strong value
system based on what is right and wrong as well as on citizenry responsibility is
at the societal level.
Rita (2013) stated that the requirement for capacity development includes: (i)
Teaching and learning; New forms teaching and learning for learners with
good curricula and relations with employing organizations (ii) Student
experience in research and community service; this includes university linkages
This Institution has the department of Rubber and Plastic Technology which
offer two year degree programme in Rubber and Plastics Technology that
certify graduates as bachelors in technology ((B.Tech), four year degree
program in Masters. in Rubber Technology (M.Tech) and Ph.D program in the
field of Polymer Science and Technology.
Semester 1
Code No Course title L T P C
Theory
HS9111 Technical English I 3 1 0 4
MA9111 Mathematics I 3 1 0 4
PH9111 Engineering Physics 3 0 0 3
Semester 2
Code No Course title L T P C
Theory
HS 9161 Technical English II 2 0 2 3
MA 9161 Mathematics II 3 1 0 4
PH 9164 Physics of Materials 3 0 0 3
GE 9261 Environmental Science & Engineering 3 0 0 3
GE 9151 Engineering Mechanics 3 1 0 4
PR 9151 Basic Machining Processes 3 0 0 3
RP 9152 Basics of Electrical Engineering 3 0 0 3
Practical
GE 9161 Unix Programming Lab 0 0 4 2
RP 9153 Machining Process Lab. 0 0 3 2
Total 20 2 9 27
Semester 3
Code No Theory L T P C
Theory
MA 9211 Mathematics III 3 1 0 4
AE 9201 Engineering Fluid Mechanics 3 1 0 4
EI 9211 Electronics and Instrumentation 3 0 0 3
RP 9201 Physical and Organic Chemistry 3 0 0 3
AU 9201 Thermodynamics & Thermal Engineering 3 1 0 4
AU 9202 Solid Mechanics 3 1 0 4
Practical
PR 9202 Computer Aided Parts & Assembly Drawing 0 0 3 2
PR 9203 Mechanical Sciences Laboratory 0 0 3 2
Total 18 4 6 26
Semester 4
Code No Theory L T P C
Theory
MA 9262 Numerical Methods 3 1 0 4
PR 9251 Theory of Machines 3 1 0 4
RP 9251 Basics of Polymers 3 0 0 3
Semester 5
Code No Theory L T P C
Theory
PR 9303 Machine Design 3 1 0 4
RP 9301 Plastics Materials 4 0 0 4
RP 9302 Rubber Processing and Machinery 3 0 0 3
RP 9303 Rubber Compounding 3 0 0 3
RP 9304 Latex Technology 3 0 0 3
Elective 1 3 0 0 3
Practicals
RP 9305 Rubber Processing Lab 0 0 3 2
RP 9306 Rubber Materials Lab 0 0 3 2
RP 9307 Technical Seminar 0 0 2 1
PR 9306 Computer Aided Design Lab 0 0 3 2
Total 19 1 11 27
Semester 6
Code No Theory L T P C
Theory
RP 9351 Testing of Rubber and Plastics 4 0 0 4
RP 9352 Plastics Processing and Machinery 3 0 0 3
RP 9353 Product Design & Engg. Application of Polymers 4 0 0 4
RP 9354 Polymer Characterization Techniques 3 0 0 3
Elective II 3 0 0 3
Elective III 3 0 0 3
Practical
GE 9371 Communication Skills and Soft Skills Lab 0 0 2 1
RP 9355 Plastics Processing Lab 0 0 3 2
RP 9356 Rubber Testing Lab 0 0 3 2
RP 9357 Design & Drawing of Moulds and Dies Lab 0 0 3 2
Total 20 0 11 27
Semester 7
Code No Theory L T P C
Theory
RP 9401 Polymer Composites 3 0 0 3
RP 9402 Technology of Tyres and Tubes 3 0 0 3
RP 9403 Polymer Recycling 3 0 0 3
Elective IV 3 0 0 3
Elective V 3 0 0 3
Practical
RP 9404 Design Project 0 0 4 2
RP 9405 Industrial Training * - - - 2
RP 9406 Plastics Testing Lab 0 0 3 2
RP 9407 Comprehension and Seminar 0 0 4 2
Total 15 0 11 23
Semester 8
Code No Theory L T P C
THEORY
1. Elective VI 3 0 0 3
Practical
1. RP 9451 Project Work - - 12 6
Total 13 0 12 9
List of electives
activities focus on hands-on learning, using the same type of equipment that is
currently used in industry
The curriculum content includes Mixing and testing rubber compounds for
industry standards and processing these compounds into finished products,
internship for a minimum of 10 weeks each rubber product design, computer-
aided design Manufacturing processes, material formulation Mould
construction, supervision and management Algebra and trigonometry, electrical
and hydraulic controls, chemistry and physics. In this innovative program,
students learn to mix and test rubber compounds for industry standards.
What is rubber?
Rubber is a polymer with the property of elasticity and there are two categories
of rubber; natural rubber obtained from the rubber trees such as
Heveabrasiliensis; and synthetic rubber derived from petrochemicals. Natural
rubber is made from runny, milky white liquid called latex that oozes from
certain plants with a deep cut into the tree. Although there are about 200 plants
in the world that produce latex, over 99 percent of the worlds natural rubber is
made from the latex that comes from three species called heveabrasilliensis,
widely known as rubber tree. Synthetic rubbers are made from chemical using
petrochemicals. This paper concentrates on natural rubber.
Igala is the major ethnic group in kogi state with a population of two million.
They can also be found in Delta, Anambra and Edo state in Nigeria. The Igala
are found east of the river and are bounded o the east by Enugu state, to the
Despite the fact that the cost of living in Igala land is relatively low, very few of
the people can boast of good standard of living. Most of the communities lack
basic amenities and infrastructures that most average societies are 13 expected to
have e.g. good schools, hospitals, roads, electricity, water supply etc. It will not
be a surprise to mention here that kogi state has just one university which is
located in Igala land and it still needs further development and upgrade for
optimum performance to meet competitive standard. The area occupied by the
Igala people is part of the most fertile lands in the region and it holds great
potential for economic activities especially agriculture. The land is also endowed
with various mineral resources that if properly harnessed can be of tremendous
economic benefit. In terms of human resources, Igala land witnesses low rate of
infant mortality and Average life expectancy (ALE) in the area is not less than 70
years, this gives it a reasonably large population. In addition to this, most
families in Igala land are large ones due to polygamous marriage, the absence of
epidemics in the area accounts for a healthy population of young people with
potential. Furthermore, Igala land is not susceptible to natural disaster like
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions etc. This is an indication that the land is very
favourable for any form of economic activity. The absence of crisis such as inter-
communal war and terrorist activity in the area makes the environment friendly
for economic and human development. However all these notwithstanding,
more than half of the lgala people are living in poverty despite the natural
endowments upon the land such as rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) which is found
in large quantity in the following villages; Okura, Ofejiji, igoti, Dekina, Egabada-
Idah. To substantiate this claim Abubakar (1990) in Edimeh (2013) stated that the
output of rubber in its market from Igala land in 1905 was 14.5% of the total
value of Nigeria rubber export. Up to 1910 Igala accounted for 70% of the
valuable export in rubber from northern Nigeria.
Today, in Igala land rubber is used mainly for roofing houses for lack of
knowledge of its importance. The rhetoric question that could come to ones
mind is why has Igala land remained at the bottom of the ladder of development
with the presence of such natural resource that can be utilized for the making of
rubber products for the consumption of not only the people of Igala land but the
state and the country at large. Even though the causes of their high poverty level
can be traced to many other factors, it is crucial to note that this natural resource
which if put into use could have alleviated some level of poverty and yet is left
untapped is another contributory factor The people are impoverished, her
youths largely unemployed and engage in menial jobs with crude, obsoletes
tools (carpentry, mechanics, block moulders etc).
Okorocha and Duru (2014) further maintained that graduates from technical and
vocational education are also found in design, construction and operation of
industries including oil, agriculture, forestry, petro-chemicals, mineral and
water resources, electrical power generation and distribution, textile, iron and
steel, automatic and plastics and distribution, textile, iron and steel, automatic
and plastics.
Okorie (2001) stated that some aim of technical education includes; Providing
skills, knowledge, and attitudes that will prepare individuals for employment in
occupation for nation development, Helping young people to develop
occupational competencies for industrial work, Making individuals to uphold
the dignity of labour and right attitudes to real work situations, Inculcating
innovative techniques and necessary skills for employment in the formal sectors
of economy.
Several researches has indicated that one tool for capacity development is
training and it can be the best for targeting the individual level of human
capacity development. But another work by the Capacity for Disaster Reduction
Initiative (2014) shows that it is not enough that training results in participatory
learning but it must be relevant to the need and goal of targeted organization. It
is pertinent to note that training in rubber production in higher institution in
Igala land can be delivered through different methods:
1. Face to face classroom learning- there should be rubber training for skills
acquisition by experts
Experience has shown that majority of Igala youths that possess technical ability
for practical work graduate from higher institutions with just theoretical
knowledge due to lack of guidance and availability of important areas in
technical courses such as rubber technology.
One essential reason for the advocacy in human capacity development in rubber
technology by this paper is due to its numerous applications in the production of
materials such as: Rubber hose, wires and cable, automobile tires, fuel pump,
vehicle parts, gloves, shoes, balls, belts, rubber bands, adhesives, toys etc.
Rubber Technologist and job prospects New horizons have opened up for those
specializing in rubber technology..
Graduates can work in electrical and electronic industries that deal with
rubber application.
Graduates can work in a rubber factory which produces rubber and supplies
it to the electronic industry.
Rubber technologists can become one of the following: Test technicians; the duty
is to analyze systems and perform a variety of production tests on equipment
used in production. They work primarily in engineering and quality control
arenas
Intervention
1 Staffing: Institutional set-up should consist of professionals with advanced
skills in different aspects of rubber technology.
Conclusion
The paper has discussed capacity development in vocational education with
focus on rubber technology. Emphasis was made on higher institution
particularly the university as a place to train and develop competent manpower
in area of rubber technology for employment to alleviate poverty among the
Igala people in Kogi State. Also, the paper made some highlights on the need to
encourage the use of natural resources that are locally available in the
production of rubber materials to avoid waste and economic loss.
Recommendations
1. In view of the skilled labour shortage in this area and with the numerous
applications of rubber, the training of needed manpower in rubber engineering
technology should be given priority by the federal government of Nigeria.
References
Accra Agenda Action (2008). Report on capacity development initiative. Accra Ghana.
Afeti G (2014). The paradigm shift in technical and vocational skills development.
Association for the Development of Education in Africa.
http://www.adeanet.org/portalv2/en/blogs/skilling-africa-the-paradigm-
shift-to- technical-and-vocational-skills-development
Capacity for Disaster Reduction Initiative CADRI (2014). Capacity Development of the
Vulnerable. http:www.cadri-net/en/area
Chris Woodford. (2015). Rubber.- A simple introduction. Retrieved on 20/07/2015
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/rubber.html
Edime, F.O (2013). British imperialism and the reign of Attah Ameh Oboni: The
Inevitable clash. Paper Presented at the Igala Studies Foundation [IGSA] Annual
Conference. History Department, Kogi State College of Education, Ankpa.
Food Agriculture Organization (2004). Working party on Human Capacity
Development. Advisory Committee on Fisheries Research, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/3/a-y5568e.pdf
Learning Network on Capacity Development (2015). USAID definition of Capacity
Development. http://www.lencd.org/learning/capacity-development
Oguagha, P.A (1981). The history of Igala Kingdom. Available at -
https://profcollinson.wordpress.com/2013/03/12/the-history-of-igala-
kindom/
Okorie J.U (2010). Vocational teachers education, Bauchi: League of Researchers in
Nigeria.
Okorocha, C. N and Duru,F. C.[2014]. Technical and vocational education and training
for industrial development and economic growth. International Journal of
Innovative Resource Education, Technology Education Department, AlvanIkoku
Federal College of Education, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
Rita, V.D. (2013). Capacity development in health education institution in developing
countries.? Maastricht school of management-the Maastricht, the Netherlands.
http://www.msm.nl/resources/uploads/2014/02/msm-wp2013-30.pdf Rubber
Engineering Technology Degree at Ferris State University. Available at
http://www.ferris.edu/rubber-engineering-degree.htm
Sam, I. O. (2014). Achieving sustainable poverty reduction and rural development in
nigeria through development strategies. American Journal of Rural
Development 2(1), pp 13-19. Department of Agricultural Technology, Science
and education publishing. Rufus Giwa polytechnic, Ondo state.
United Nations Development Programme (2009). Capacity Development: A UNDP
Primer. Wikipedia the Encylopedia 2015. The Igala people. Avialable
atenwikipedia.org/wiki/igala- people
World Bank Organization (2011). Measuring Poverty on Country level.
http/go.worldbank.org/77LE40.
Introduction
With advent of technology, e-learning has rapidly grown from being just
another term or concept into a hard reality. It is now available in organizations
in various forms be it online learning, computer-mediated learning, blended
learning, web-based learning, or mobile learning and they all have one thing in
common, i.e. ability to use a device connected to a network. E-Learning is a
concept that helps learners learn from the learning materials from anywhere, at
any time and any liked pace in which they want to learn. It is a form of social
learning, focused at answering the needs of learners. It is a tool supported by
latest technology to make the learning process more flexible, innovative, learner-
centered (Demiray 2010, Ozuorcun & Tabak (2012). It is a special method of
collaborative learning process, conducted online through Internet technology
where the teacher and the student are not required to be present at the same
place at the same time (Yucel 2006). It is becoming popular during various
spheres of life e.g. in higher education, industry and government organizations.
Internet based instructional program uses the technology of World Wide Web to
create a proper learning environment. As the new economy requires more and
more people to learn new knowledge and skills in a timely and effective manner,
the advancement of computer and networking technologies are providing a
diverse means to support learning in a more personalized, flexible, portable, and
on-demand manner (Dongsong et al., 2004). The technology enables the
education providers to update, share and distribute the learning resources.
According to State of the Industry survey conducted by American Society for
Training and Development (ASTD), the percentage of companies using
technology-delivered training increased from 8% in 1999 to 27% in 2004, and
about 75% of the technology-delivered courses in 2004 were online (Sugrue B,
Rivera RJ 2005). Newman and Scurry (2001) identified that over 1,100
institutions of higher education in the United States offer online courses.
Symonds (2003) found that the Army also uses online instruction as a retention
tool, with over 45,000 soldiers in 50 odd countries pursuing advanced degrees
online.
Dimension of e-Learning
The extent of e-learning technology use in course delivery varies widely.
The variations in the configuration of e-Learning offerings can be described
through a number of attributes, as mentioned in below table (Wagner, N.,
Hassanein, K., & Head, M. (2008).
The Docebo Report (2014) revealed that the worldwide market for self-paced e-
learning reached $35.6 billion in 2011. It also estimated that the revenues should
reach some $51.5 billion by 2016. With the aggregate growth rate of 7.6 per cent,
several world regions seem to have significantly better growth rates. The report
further pointed out that the highest growth rate is in Asia at 17.3 per cent,
followed by Eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America at 16.9 per cent, 15.2 per
cent, and 14.6 per cent, respectively.
by 2018, while some highly optimistic sources claim that the market is much
bigger, sizing up at $40-60 billion by 2018. Regardless, its generally agreed that
with current annual growth rates of 17-20 per cent, the industry is poised for
significant growth. Already, India is a major source of e-Learning content and
development for the world market, thanks to our low-cost and highly educated
workforce in higher education.
1000
800
600
400
200
0
The one Year Virtual Interactive Learning (VIL) programs are challenging
courses that demand focus and dedication because of the curriculum design and
teaching platform. Professionals with at least two years of work experience post
their full-time graduation (10+2+3 format or equivalent diploma) degrees are
eligible for admission into these programs. Selection is through personal
interviews where academic and professional background along with Statement
of Purpose (SOP) is taken into consideration. The program has been designed to
expose participants to relevant trends and practices in business and
management. In conjunction with its technical partners, XLRI has created a
virtual learning environment, one that allows students from various cities across
India to interact with the faculty, to learn from them, and to gain their quest for
higher education through these long duration programs.
Campus Component and Graduation Ceremony are the integral parts of the
Programs. Every student has to attend campus classes for five days and imbibe
the culture of the Institute. Certificates are awarded to the students during the
Graduation Ceremony, which is held at the XLRI Campus.
800
600
400
200
0
Over the years, the careers of around 5000 working professionals have been
shaped and enhanced by the dint of quality learning and knowledge, gained
through this medium. Thirteen years of market dominance, speak volumes
about the acceptability of the programs and reach. The institute keeps on
reviewing and redesigning the course content based on the industry inputs and
participants feedback.
The technical partners played a pivotal role for the successful delivery and
offering of such programs. The technical collaboration over the years grew
stronger in numbers and its services. From HGEIL (2002), to Reliance
Communications (2005), UCS (2014), Tech Mahindra (2015), Talentedge (2015),
NIIT Imperia (2015) and ICICI Direct Center for Financial Learning (2015), all
have outgrown the expectations of the participants. The technical partners have
helped to create an environment that resembles the regular classrooms, with
students able to interact among themselves and with the teaching professors,
asking and answering questions.
The constant up gradation of technologies, have provided the opportunity to cater to the
ever changing need of the students. HGEIL, formerly known as Hughes
Communication India Ltd. (HCIL) is an advanced platform that combines the
critical aspects of verbal and visual communication two-way video and audio
synchronized with rich content, collaboration, discussion groups, application
sharing and live interaction. The communications platform reaches large
numbers of people in real-time. Live sessions become highly intuitive and
effective, as video and rich interactive content are delivered directly to the
desktop of the student. Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a
communications technology that enables reliable two-way transmission of data
via satellite. The platform is a scalable application that combines quality video
with two-way audio and data transfer to enable live delivery. It offers live
collaboration tools such as application sharing, whiteboard annotations,
discussion groups, chats and guided browsing.
On the other hand, UCS offers the unique high definition video conference based
technology. The experience, delivered over a 50 HD LED TV provides a simulation of
real time classrooms, unprecedented in the Indian executive education space.
Apart from imparting education through the online/virtual mode, the upgraded
technologies have helped the Institute to deal with the strategic challenge of
participants retention and engagement. The initiatives to engage the
participants towards the program have been enhanced through hosting couple
of contests, celebrating the years of our VIL Journey virtually, interactive
sessions by faculty, alumni and industry experts and through social medium
(Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, You tube).
Time, being the major constraint in todays era, has compelled the corporates
and individuals to go for accelerated programs which demands less time. To
serve this need, we have designed and offered couple of short duration, e-
Management Development Programs (e-MDPs). Initially, a short duration
program was designed and delivered for the employees of Nigeria. To continue
with the legacy of such programs in India, the Institute has designed and
delivered short duration programs in specialized areas and domains such as
Human Resource management, Human Resource Development, Corporate
Finance, and Strategic Management. These short duration programs are run in
collaboration with several technical partners which offer a comprehensive
direct-to-device or direct-to-desktop education suite with real-time interactive
and participative virtual classroom sessions. Its beneficial for the participants as
it offers them flexibility and eases out learning, from anywhere.
Today's dynamic business environment is competitive, far-reaching,
transcending boundaries whilst seamlessly connecting economies across the
globe. Pursuit of excellence in academics, personal values and social concern has
been the goals of XLRI and the students truly share this vision. As a consequence
of the academic rigor at XLRI, it strives to shape thoughtful leaders who will
create value for their organizations and their communities without
compromising on their professional and personal lives.
implications and serve the students with the most sought after cases, for their
better understanding.
Designing the learning content and pedagogy
The traditional form of education has the scope to study students behavior (like
reaction, understanding and acceptability etc.) and design/re-design the
pedagogy and contents whereas for online/virtual education the scope is limited
which intends to reduce the quality of online pedagogy and curriculum. This
issue is addressed through regular participants feedback. Using this input
learning content and pedagogy are reviewed and redesigned.
Interpersonal connect with the students
The culture at XLRI promotes a friendly atmosphere among the professors and
students which is difficult to replicate through the online / virtual mode. To
address this issue, professors and academic and non-academic personnel contact
details are made available to the participants. They can interact with them
through e-mails or phones or forums. The campus visit adds to the idea of
building the rapport among students and professors through one to one
interactions.
Assignments and Tests
Assignments/projects through online mode may tempt the students to indulge
in unfair practices whereas the traditional form of education encourages the
students to work and report the progress made and review periodically. To
address this issue the bars to evaluate the assignments have been raised by the
usage of software named Turnitin to scan assignments which compels the
students to work for the assignments. Third parties are deployed, along with the
installation of proper surveillance cameras to keep a strict check on the way
students are appearing for their assessment tests. Of course, the students
manual clearly defines unfair practices and appropriate punishments.
Dependence on the technology
With online/virtual mode of education, students are bound to depend on
technology which may affect the quality of program delivery. Connectivity,
system failures can be termed as some of the challenges related to technology.
As a remedial measure, the institute migrated from the technology of VSAT for
online education to VC and now to web based technologies which reduces the
challenges to a great extent, if not totally eradicates it. Students facing technical
issues during the sessions are also given the opportunity to avail the archives
(recorded sessions) for their perusal.
Time Management
Online education gives the scope to procrastinate, hence the students can learn
only through proper time management whereas the traditional form of learning
provides very little scope for the students to procrastinate as there is a possibility
of constant follow-up. Scheduling of multiple assessments and assignments at
regular intervals infused the sense of responsibility within the students to work
on deadlines.
Isolation
Virtual mode of education brings in isolation among students as they are
remotely located, taking up sessions and misses the classroom environment and
experience of peer discussions etc. Incorporating compulsion for students to
attend the online sessions by introducing a mandatory component for
attendance [Technology in the form of pop ups at regular intervals along with
tapping the Log in and Log out time of the participants is used to maintain the
attendance logs] and group assignments and projects are introduced to help the
students interact with their peers, and share their experience.
Study materials
Soft copies of the study materials are uploaded in AIS for the benefit of the
participants. In addition to soft copies of the study materials, the participants are
given printed text books. Sending the printed material to all participants across
India on time is a challenge. A long term contract with a courier company
helped in resolving this issue.
Natural calamities
Natural calamities such as like heavy rains affect the quality of online delivery of
the programs. Upgraded the technology from VSAT to Internet based
technologies reduced the concerns to some extent.
Conclusion
Though the Institute took specific actions based on the issues cropped up time to
time, it is always possible that students will have some issues given the large
number of students spread across India. Therefore, it is always desirable to have
a dedicated team of academic and technical personnel with the traits of good
communication, both written and oral, a passion to serve the executive students
with compassion coupled with sincerity and honesty. The timely redressal of
participants grievances would help in the long-term success of the program.
References
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learning and national development: Institutional Studies and Practices, VOLUME:
I, Anadolu University, Eskisehir-Turkey.
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national development: Institutional Studies and Practices, VOLUME: II,
Anadolu University, Eskisehir-Turkey.
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REPLACE CLASSROOM LEARNING?. Communications of the ACM, 47(5), 75-79.
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Infosoft Limited-UK, Parinama Group Company (Monday, June 15, 201).
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The Chronicle of Higher Education, 47, B7B10.
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supporting each other? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 299 305.
Sugrue B, Rivera RJ. (2005). State of the industry: ASTDs annual review of trends in
workplace learning and performance. Alexandria, VA: ASTD.
Symonds WC. (2003). eArmyU. Business Week, 106.
Wagner, N., Hassanein, K., & Head, M. (2008). Who is responsible for E-Learning
Success in Higher Education? A Stakeholders' Analysis. Educational Technology &
Society, 11 (3), 26-36
Yucel, A. S. (2006). E-learning approach in teacher training. Turkish Online Journal of
Distance Education-TOJDE, 7(4), 123-131.
Retrieved from www://hugheseducation.com
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Retrieved from http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/future-for-e-learning/1/379729.htm
Education
Education has been the priority of the successive governments in Mauritius.
Almost all the governments are investing massively in educating their citizens.
Education plays an essential role in the development of the countrys younger
Years after years the Mauritian government has invested massively in the
education sector so as to produce a highly educated nation. The Mauritians
Government is creating the enabling conditions for a high-quality learning
environment that will transform the existence of the students by ensuring their
well-being and livelihood while facilitating their transition to responsible adult
citizenship (Education reform in action). The Special Education Needs and
Inclusive Education in Mauritius of MOEHR 2006 stated that the Government is
committed to leaving no child of our Republic behind and this is shown through
the National Policy and strategy Paper on Special Education Needs. The
Government of Mauritius had a vision to convert Mauritius into an education
hub and today in the year 2015, the vision has been realized with the
implantation of many universities Mauritius. In the venture to change the world
into a better place to live, new ideas have been challenged by the Governments.
Thus the ever fast changing world of education has witnessed major changes.
The MOEHR in 2014 in the report Education reform in action stated that
education helps in coping with adversity and contributes to the common good;
our students need to be imbued with a sense of values, ethics and nationhood,
thus empowering them to adopt the right attitude at the right moment and at the
right place. This proves that the Government is concerned with the future of
education system and they started to ask many pertinent questions about the
future of the education sector. The process of devising new plans in education to
meet the requirement of the job market has turned up to a new tenure called
educational planning. Today, educational leaders and responsible governments
have dedicated themselves to the new thought of moving towards educational
planning. The Mauritians education ministers of successive Governments have
tried to carry our Educational planning through different educational report;
Master Plan 1991, White paper 1997, Action Plan 1998, Ending the Rat Race 2001,
The first Prime Minister of Mauritius, Sir Seewoosagar Ramgoolam came with a
vision of free education in 1976; his aim was to educate his people so that they
can progress by facing the new technological world. He was a farsighted person
and an excellent education planner as his strategic planning has brought a lot of
prospect to the present nation. Today Mauritius has witness a considerable
investment of resources, made by the government, on both human and material.
This has in turn resulted in an impressive progress achieved in terms of free
education up to the age of 16. Free textbooks, free transport and even free meals
are being provided in some areas so as to attract children to school. A fairly wide
range of higher education courses at the University of Mauritius and Mauritius
Institute of Education are also being provided to the Mauritians. The
Government aimed to provide an inclusive educational system, starting in the
early years of development, and aimed at responding to the educational needs of
each and every child through a child-centered pedagogical approach and a
flexible and adjusted curriculum that will help each child to develop his or her
potential (Special education needs and inclusive education in Mauritius).
Quality
The term quality is a universally used, but, it has a wide range of interpretations.
Even if the term quality is used across the world, it does not have a common
definition since it cannot be describe as it is a dynamic term. The definition of
expression quality depends upon the situation and upon the person who is
using it.
sometimes it is confusing since all individuals are different from each other and
it also depends upon the different circumstances.
The concept of quality goes parallel with excellence and it satisfies the standards
and norms. Horine, Hailey and Rubach (1993), pointed that the most crucial
element of quality is fitness for purpose. While, Willis and Taylor (1999),
stated that customer satisfaction is the most crucial element of quality. Fitness of
purpose and customer satisfaction are both considered as the backbone of
quality, they walk hand in hand most of the time.
Since time immemorial the need for quality has always been present. Human
beings have always searched for things of beauty and quality and like to be well
treated.
At the beginning of this new search for quality, quality education was only being
looked at from the managements point of view. The quality of educated people
to be produced for the job market was usually determined by the universities
and the education sector without taking the needs of the job market into account.
The job market did not have lot of choice in some field and they had employed
people with alternative qualifications. But today new courses are being
embedded in the school curriculum so that educated citizens can fit into the job
market. New subjects like travel and tourism, twenty first century science and
recently entrepreneurship have penetrated the secondary school curriculum of
Mauritius.
The educational world has witnessed many drastic changes, throughout the last
few decades. The social changes have a great impact on the whole system of
education. Pisa 2000 pointed out that management strategies are easily amenable
to policy makers to produce the best performance. Thus, more responsibilities
have been added on heads of schools to strive for the provision of a quality
education. The school leaders have to develop and enhance their leadership and
management skills such as delegation, negotiation, team-building and
counselling skills so as to provide quality education to the population at large.
The strategy plan 2008-2020 of MOEHR aims to build a system that ensures a
supply of quality personnel that work collegially with a strong management and
quality assurance system to improve and support learning achievement and
overall development of all learners
Quality Education
The Government of Mauritius is investing massively in the education system as
there has been a growing concern for imparting quality education in Mauritius.
The Education Reform in Action 2008-2014 of the MOEHR is to provide a quality
education for all and a Human Resource Development base to transform
Mauritius into an intelligent nation state in the vanguard of global progress and
innovation. Since 2012 the MOEHR is allocating a monthly per-capita grant of
Rs200 to children of age 4+ and 3+ and about 22360 children attending private
Pre-Primary school are benefiting from the per capita grant yearly (Education
reform in action 2008-2014).
The objective behind the quest for imparting quality education is that education
occupies a fundamental position in the development of decision makers,
professionals and the workforce which the country needs for its new economic
trajectory. Colossal investment and tremendous efforts are being made by the
Government to produce educated people so that they can in return produce
quality products and services to the nation. In view of retaining the children in
pre-school not only free education and free transport are provided but also a
daily meal, school materials and psychological support services are offered
freely by the Mauritian Government (Reform in action 2008-2014). Quality
education will bring a better life (Master Plan, 1991), better prospects and higher
status for everyone. Public and private schools are being called upon to perform
better and to continuously improve and turn into learning organizations. The
The Pay Research Bureau report in 2008 recommended for the setting up of a
New Quality Assurance Division and Inspection Division at the MOEHR for the
educational sector to cater for Quality Education in the Mauritian educational
Sector. The aims of these Divisions are to ensure quality audit of human
resources, curriculum, infrastructure and equipment thus ensuring quality in
education at large. The Mauritian Government aimed to provide an equitable
access to quality education, by ensuring that all learners attain high levels of
achievement in Literacy, Numeracy, Information, and Communications
Technology and such essential Life Skills as sound human values, healthy
lifestyle and so forth as the basis for lifelong learning and good citizenship
(strategy plan 2008-2020, 2009). The ultimate vision is to transform Mauritius
into a highly intelligent island, a hub of knowledge which will serve the Region.
Furthermore, it will act as a Centre of Higher Learning and Excellence by
constructing an innovative and knowledgeable Human Resource base so that
Mauritius can adapt with the rapidly changing world for a sustainable national
development.
The Mauritian Government has always believed that the only key to success is to
educate his people. Thus the unending investment on the Mauritian education
system has made Mauritius to shine among the African countries and even
among some European countries. Recently in 2014 the previous Government
came forward with the idea to modernize the education system by introducing
e-learning through PC tablet. The present Government is walking in the same
pathway to provide each and every student of form five a tablet. This is a new
era of modernisation in the Mauritian education system.
Today the present Government is laying more emphasis in the planning and
introducing the concept of nine years schooling in the Mauritian education
system. The nine years schooling aims at eradicating the stress of CPE exam. The
Government aims to retain the students in the system till they attain the basis
education to fit the job market and thus the child will be better equipped to face
the future world. The education system will then guide them toward either the
vocational system or the main stream. But this report is still under the scrutiny
and construction of the Ministry of Education and Human Resource.
The Quality Assurance Division Team has been recommended by the PRB 2008
and it has been set up by the MOEHR to monitor and improve teaching in the
State Secondary School.
Recommendation
The term quality education needs to be well redefined by the MOEHR. The
different stakeholders of the education sector need to have a consensus on the
definition of the term quality since it can be interpreted in different ways.
The different standards for the provision of quality education must be
standardised by the MOEHR so that all the stake holders abide to the
standardisation. The Quality Assurance Division of the MOEHR must check and
take necessary actions so that the colleges abide to the standardisation in the
provision of quality education. New educational leaders must be formed so that
the educational system develops new avenues in the education system.
Moreover the leaders of school must be formed by the government.
Realisable reports must be published because the future government may not
work in line with the present government. Thus the law must be amended in
such a way that the report published must be to a certain percentage. Moreover
the report must be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, and Realistic
within a Time frame. The time frame must be within the mandate of the present
Government.
Conclusion
The Government must ensure that all schools adopt and work in line with the
mission and vision statement of the MOEHR. They must try to provide a World
Class Quality Education and Education For All, which is the vision and mission
of the MOEHR. The term quality education must be well defined and
standardized so that all schools can keep abreast with the innovative changes
and use proper leadership skills to provide a World Class Quality Education in
the context of globalization to enable young Mauritians to achieve moral,
intellectual and physical development to achieve high academic standards. To
achieve this goal, a sound atmosphere of leadership and management must
prevail in the schools. Steenkamp (1998) stated that a good school culture
enhances the quality of work-life for school teachers and other stakeholders as it
provides a safe working environment, fair supervision of the rector,
participation in decision making processes, opportunities for advancement,
growth and cooperation. The educational report published by the successive
Government must be reframed in such a way that the objective is achieved
within the time frame.
References
Aspin, D, Chapman, J & Wilkinson, (1994): Quality Schooling. A pragmatic approachto
somecurrent problems. London: Cassell
Evelyn Chiyevo Garwe, The effect of institutional leadership of higher education
provision
Freed, J.E., Klugman, M.R. and life, J.D. (2000), A culture for academic Excellence:
Implementing the Quality principles in Higher education, Jossey Bass, san Francisco,
CA.
Horine, JE; Hailey, WA and Rubach, L(1993): Transforming schools quality. Quality
Progress. Vol. 26, No.7.
Karani, Sharon R. (2011): Effects of Total Quality Management implementation on
business performance in service institutions: A case of Kenya Wildlife Services
Master Plan 1997: Master Plan for Education for the Year 2000: The Mauritian experience
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2001): Ending the rat race in the primary
education and breaking the admission bottleneck at secondary level
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2006): Special Education Needs and
inclusive Education in Mauritius
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2009): Education and Human Resources
Strategy Plan 2008-2020
Ministry of Education and Human Resource (2014): Education reform in action 2008-
2014
Pisa (2000),School factors related to quality and equity
Pay Research Bureau report 2008
Steenkamp RJ (1998): A quantun leap needed for quality protection. Pretoria: Van Schaik
Syed Zubair Haider and Azra (2015): Analysing the role of private colleges in
developing the effective education system in pakistan
Willis, Th and Taylor, AJ 1999: Total Quality Management. Vol 10, No.7
Introduction
Western society is changing. Children spent more time using media and sitting
in front of a computer or TV screen. Those western culturally conditioned
positions lead to a decrease of energy (Peper, 2012). One might assume that due
to the reduced time of movement, motor abilities get worse over time. Besides,
the pressure gets higher to perform well in school to receive good jobs in later
life. Thus, both motor and cognitive performance should be promoted to
counteract frequent and long sedentary activities and foster academic
achievement. The present study concentrates on the effect of a specific motor
activity, i.e., creative dance training, on a specific cognitive ability, i.e., mental
rotation. It expands our former study where we have shown that a creative
dance training over five weeks ameliorates mental rotation performance (Jansen,
Kellner, & Rieder, 2013).
Mental rotation is defined as the ability to rotate quickly and accurately two-
and three-dimensional figures in imagination (Voyer et al., 1995, p. 25). It plays
an important role in science and some work contexts, for example air traffic and
pilots (Dror, Kosslyn, & Waag, 1993), but also in education, for instance
mathematics (Hegarty & Kozhehvnikov, 1999). Furthermore, it was shown that
the mental rotation performance in second graders correlates with the maths
grade (Blchel, Lehmann, Kellner, & Jansen, 2013). According to this it seems
promising to look for methods to improve mental rotation performance. One of
these methods is physical activity or motor performance:
in the mental rotation performance from the pre- to the posttest was much
higher for the manual rotation group than for the control group. This result was
confirmed in training studies with children who learned to juggle over a period
of three months (Jansen, Lange, & Heil, 2011) and with children who received a
two weeks coordinative training designed for the school context (Blchel et al.,
2013).
Up to now there is only one study, which investigates the effect of creative dance
training on mental rotation performance. The results show that five weeks of
creative dance training improve mental rotation. This result is in line with
studies with adults who show the beneficial effect of dance on cognitive
performance (Coubard, Duretz, Lefebvre, Lapalus, & Ferrufino, 2011;
Kattenstroth, Kolankowska, Kalisch, & Dinse, 2010) or other kinds of visual-
spatial skills (Keinnen, Hetland, & Winner, 2000). The relevant factor
underlying this positive effect is that in dance training, orientation in space and
spatial awareness-two of the main cognitive abilitiesare trained (Blsing &
Schack, 2012).
Beside the positive effect of motor activity on mental rotation there are a lot of
studies showing a benefit of a single intervention of motor activity, especially
aerobic exercise, on executive functions (Best, 2010). Best has reviewed studies,
which differentiated between a single bout of an aerobic and complex exercise
intervention with cognitive engagement (ball games) on the one side and studies
with aerobic exercise only. The effect was smaller with less complex forms of
aerobic exercise. These results provide a hint that a complex activity like creative
dance enhances complex cognitive functions like mental rotation after one single
bout of exercise only. Until now this was not investigated for the mental rotation
performance in school-aged children, which is the goal of this study and an
extension of the previously mentioned study (Jansen, Kellner, & Rieder, 2013).
Participants
Sixty-four first and second grade pupils (30 girls and 34 boys) participated in
this study. The children were between 6 and 9 years old (mean age: 7.09 years,
SD = 0.73) and were recruited from a primary school in Bavaria, Germany.
Because the children were tested in their school context, two classes (35 children)
received a creative dance lesson. Two other classes (29 children) were assigned
to the control group (CG), and took part in the regular physical education at
school. Parents were informed and gave their written consent. Data was
collected anonymously. The experiment was conducted according to the
guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Measures
Mental rotation performance was tested with the picture mental rotation test.
The Picture Mental Rotations Test (PMRT, Neuburger, Jansen, Heil, & Quaiser-
Pohl, 2011) is a paper pencil mental rotation test with animal pictures as stimuli.
Each row has one target item on the left side and four comparison items on the
right side. Two of the four items on the right side were identical (non-mirrored)
but picture plane rotated versions of the target item on the left side (45, 90,
135, or 225 rotated compared to target item). The other two items were
mirrored versions (see Figure 1). The childrens task was to cross out the two
correct items on the right side. There was a time limit of two minutes. There
were two items provided as examples and two more items for practice before the
test began. Rotation performance was defined as the number of correctly solved
items in the PMRT.
Intervention
Creative dance training was taught in one single session of one hour. In the
training, children got the possibility to express oneself by moving in accordance
to the music instead of just reacting and repeating formerly learned moves. The
session started with a short warm-up phase by trying to wake up sleeping
limbs, i.e. shaking their limbs at their own choice. After this a short story was
narrated about the wind blowing and becoming a hurricane. Several other
elements followed. For example, children had to imagine wearing a crown on
their head and balancing through the room, or they were taught some rotational
movements. At the end of the lesson children were narrated a story of a
bewitched garden where strange things happen. All children were prompted to
move according to this story. The lesson ended with a short relaxing phase. The
theme of the physical education lesson was throwing and catching. To make it
comparable to the creative dance lesson regarding the fun factor, the children
got different tasks where they had to hit small buckets with the ball, or hit
different objects on a cabinet. At the end of the lesson a ball game with two
teams was established.
Procedure
Children were tested with the PMRT in their classroom during regular school
time. Training started immediately after fulfilling the PMRT. The experimental
group received the dance training; the control group took part in the regular
physical education lessons. The mental rotation performance of all children was
tested again immediately after the training.
Analysis
An analysis of variance was conducted with the dependent variable mental
rotation difference which was defined as the difference between the pre- and
posttest in mental rotation performance (value of posttest values of pretest).
The independent variable was the factor group (experimental group, control
group). Furthermore, to find out if groups initially differed in their mental
rotation performance, a univariate analysis of variance was calculated with
group as independent and pretest PMRT-scores as dependent variable.
Results
Effect of training on mental rotation performance
There was a significant main effect of group [F(1,61)=5.14, p<.05, partial eta2
=.08] on the difference score in mental rotation, which was higher for the
children in the experimental group (EG) compared to the children in the control
group (CG; EG: M=3.00, SD=2.02; CG: M= 1.79, SD=1.87). The EG (M=3.17,
SD=3.60) and the CG (M=5.10, SD=4.33) did not significantly differ in their
mental rotation performance in the pre-test [F(1,62)=3.79, p=.056]. However, the
difference favoring the control group failed to reach significance only barely. To
find out if initial performance in the PMRT was associated with the degree of
improvement after training, we calculated a correlation between the pre-test-
score and the difference score, which did not reach significance (r=.117, n.s.).
Figure 2 illustrates the mean changes from pre- to posttest in the experimental
and control group.
Figure 1: Mean changes in PMRT-score from pre- to posttest and standard errors of the
mean in the experimental and control group.
Discussion
The results of the present experiment showed that mental rotation performance
could be improved by a single physical education lesson and a single creative
dance-training lesson. The improvement was higher for the creative dance
training compared to physical education lesson. Children of both groups
received the same amount of attention so that the higher improvement of the EG
The enhancing effect of dance on the visual-spatial task can also be inferred from
other studies with older participants (e.g. Kattenstroth et al., 2010) or through
the comparison of novice and experienced dancers (Overby, 1990). In the latter
study it was shown that experienced dancers showed better spatial imagery
ability. Furthermore, the literature is growing that dance, in this case Tango,
might improve spatial cognition in patients with Parkinson`s Disease (McKee &
Hackney, 2013). In addition, the results of the present study are important for
the educational setting due to the positive relation between spatial ability and
mathematical ability, especially mathematical word problem solving (e.g. Casey,
Nuttal, Pezaris, & Benbow, 1995). The theoretical link is that children with good
spatial skills are better at making visual schematic representations, which is
positively related to the solution of mathematical word problems (e.g. Van
Garderen, 2006). According to this, creative dance may also improve
mathematical word problems solving. This assumption has to be investigated in
further studies.
Finally, the study has some limitations, which should be investigated in more
detail in further studies. First, it has been shown that the relation between motor
behavior and mental rotation performance might be mediated by working
memory (Lehmann, Quaiser-Pohl, & Jansen, 2014), so the influence of creative
dance has also to be investigated with reference to working memory. Second, we
did not control for intelligence and general motor ability in this study, assuming
that the semi-randomization of the four classes to the two conditions eliminates
possible differences. Thus, the influence of these three aspects working
memory, intelligence and general motor ability should be considered in future
studies to provide a more accurate picture about the origins of mental rotation
performance.
Conclusion
To conclude, this study gives support to the assumption that only one lesson of
creative dance training in primary school-aged children can enhance mental
rotation performance, and that this kind of training is more effective than
regular physical education lessons. Future studies are needed to disentangle the
reasons why dance ameliorates spatial ability more than regular physical lesson
is it the rotation of one`s own body, the moving through space or the coupling
of action and expression to music? Regarding future research directions, it
would be interesting to find out if this effect transfers to cognitive, social, and
emotional skills, such as a possible enhancement of self-esteem.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Kathrin Hommer and Franziska Pohl for the data acquisition
and the children for their participation.
References
Anguera, J.A., Reuter-Lorenz, P.A., Willingham, D.T, & Seidler, R.D. (2009).
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Neuroscience, 22, 1917-1930. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21351
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Coubard, O.A., Duretz, S., Lefebvre, V., Lapalus, P., & Ferrufino, P. (2011). Practice of
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Swaleha Beebeejaun-Roojee
Doctoral student, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
Nathalie Congo-Poottaren
Doctoral student, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
1. Introduction
The novice teacher sat in my office with shoulders
drooped and a forlorn face. Nothing workedI do not
want to go back in that school, maybe I need to change
school were the first few words she muttered.
knowledge and phronesis. The common denominator here being that learning
takes place as a result of personal involvement in direct experiences which are
related to real world problem and situations. What is crucial in experiential
learning is that the phases of experiencing (doing), reflection and applying are
present. In addition, the stages of reflection and application are what make
experiential learning different and more powerful than the models commonly
referred to as learn-by-doing or hands-on-learning" (Kolb & Kolb, 2007).
as to enhance the educational experience for the student learner (Moon, 2004).
Experiential learning experiences help to complete students preparation for
their chosen careers by bridging the gap between theory (course content) and
practice. Students learn through experiences by doing, discovering, reflecting
and applying. Such kind of interactions with the social world help students to
develop an internal knowledge help improve their communication skills, gain
self-confidence and strengthen decision-making skills by responding to and
solving real world problems and processes (Korthagen, 2001).
ones actions and behaviours, and answers the question, "what must I do?"
The answer to this question should cause a person to act. This study claim
that if we want to create better teachers with knowledge relevant to their
profession the TE programme proposed should provide scope for the
practical wisdom to emerge.
2. Background
phase is when trainees are called to teach in classes. Mentors are identified to
guide trainees in schools. There are specific tasks that trainees need to
complete for each phase and trainees are expected to submit a portfolio at
their end of the SBE. The compilation of the SBE Portfolio is a professional
development process through which trainees document their progress,
accomplishments as well as reflections on their learning. During each SBE
period, three Sharing Experience Seminars (SES) are conducted for the three
phases. The Sharing Experience Seminars (SES) complement the SBE. These
are scheduled at regular intervals after each phase of SBE where trainees
discuss, narrate, and share their lived experiences in schools with their
tutors. This present article originated from the stories that the pre-service
student teachers shared with us during the seminars.
There are three main reasons for venturing in this study. Firstly it is
our personal interest. We have been involved in School based experience
since the past seven years. At first there was the assumption that there is a
whole drama which is staged when tutors go for school visits. After the SES
sessions we realised that there are more to this staged drama and what we
tutors see is only the tip of the iceberg.
Our second motivation was to showcase the stories from the trainees
which would provide insight on the type of landscapes prevailing at schools
in relation to what is learnt at the university. We had the assumption that
after following the education as well as the subject didactics, students should
be able to teach without much difficulty. Here we were struck at the layers of
complexities involved as there was no linear equation and instead a lot of
voids and swampy lands.
to present the challenges and tensions that trainee educators face during
their school based practicum.
to gain insight on how theory and practice reconciliation is negotiated
during school based experiences.
3. Methodology
Bearing in mind the purpose of this research, which is to gain insight on
pre-service teachers lived experiences of their school-based practicum in
relation to the knowledge acquired during their training, the narrative method
has been adopted. As expressed by Clandinin & Connelly, (2000) Experience
happens narratively Therefore, educational experience should be studied
narratively, (p. 19) .They further stated that Narrative inquiry is a way of
understanding experience. It is a collaboration between researcher and
4. Data collection
Trainee telling their stories were the data collection method used. Stories
are presumed to provide a holistic context that allows individuals to reflect and
reconstruct their personal, professional and social experiences (Gill, 2001).
Capturing these untold stories and analysing them will lead to a better
organisational understanding and yield a far deeper insight into the complexity
of life within the organisation. Initiating trainees to such community of sharing
stories from the field give them a platform to reflect upon how field experience
connects training with practice. The stories were tape recorded during the SES
sessions. The stories were about the experiences that trainees had encountered in
their respective schools. Trainees were encouraged to add on or reflect on the
stories. Stories were collected during the sharing experience seminars. Each
seminar lasted for two hours and was led by both tutors, namely one from the
Subject Area and one from the Education Department. A total of six hours of
seminars was held.
People tell stories, but narratives come from the analysis of stories
(Frank, 2000). As Frank states that, the researcher's role is to interpret the stories
in order to analyze the underlying narrative that the storytellers may not be able
to give voice to themselves (p. 4). Therefore in order to illuminate how the
stories about school experiences relate to or are in dissonance with the theories
we had to opt for a framework so as to present a coherent picture. We decided to
use Haynes (2007) Key Steps. This framework which has its roots in Schon (1983)
work will allowed for reflections, self-reflections and applications.
The stories were transcribed. Data were coded using the axial coding system
under themes pertaining to the research objectives and analysed using Haynes
(2007) Key Steps. Learning content is important, learning from
the process is at the heart of experiential learning. During each step students will
engage with their experiences following the Haynes (2007) key steps :
Experiencing/Exploring Doing , Sharing/Reflecting What Happened?,
Processing/Analyzing Whats Important?, Generalizing So What?,
Application Now What? .The first two steps (Experiencing/Exploring
Doing , Sharing/Reflecting What Happened? ) were used to encourage
Preservice teachers to tell/share their stories and to self-reflect as well as get
feedback from peer reflection .The third and fourth steps (Processing/Analyzing
Whats Important?, Generalizing So What?) were used to analysed what
they have learned and to relate these to future learning experiences. Students
were also encouraged to discuss how specific problems or issues were
addressed. The last step (Application Now What?) aimed at helping to make
connection with what they learned in the School Based Experience and the
knowledge gained at University .Students were encouraged to discuss how
issues raised can be useful in future situations and how more effective future
behaviors can be established from what they have learnt.
PST1- I can still remember the first day at school. Everybody was busy with their own
thing. The Rector was not available and I was told that my Mentor was on sick leave. I
was on my own. I stayed in the lobby and after sometimes I went in the library .I had
prepared for this day for so long. I was at a loss. I had not slept on the eve.
PST2: I was introduced as a trainee teacher to the class. I think the students are aware
that I am here to learn and as such do not take my class seriously. They kept talking and
disturbing the lesson. This annoyed me and I complained to my mentor. Instead of
listening to me, the mentor was not helpful at all, she told me that they were very good
students and that I needed to change the way I did things. I do not what I how I am
going do when my tutor will come to visit me.
PST3: I am completely shattered. So far I thought I was doing well. I had my lessons
well planned, I used different teaching strategies. After a class test, my mentor called me
and asked me to explain why there are so many failures. I could not understand, why is
she was blaming me of students performance. I had done only 2 lessons with them.
During this stage student teachers were encouraged to help each other by
proposing alternatives and solutions to problems. What emanated from these
sessions is the way each of them were able to demonstrate empathy. We tutors
could only admire the burgeoning of a community of practice among the pre-
service teachers. They were actively reflecting and encouraging their colleagues.
There was no one way of dealing with these experiences and we tutors did not
have answers for their queries. Our courses are mostly focused on empowering
trainees with content and pedagogical knowledge and theories which clearly fall
short when one has to deal with the routine of school life. How do we boost
teachers morale and self-confidence? How do we sustain this community of
practice? What is the role of the teacher educator? There stories raised questions
for our own practice and propelled us to reflect on what kind of teacher
education we need to impart.
PST2: I was scoffed by the senior teachers who told me that lesson plans are not needed
here and what is needed is to learn the survival techniques. I was preparing my lessons
and had my things on the table. In fact the school where I am posted most of the teachers
did not have their lesson plans
PST1: I noticed that teachers were mostly using the chalk and talk methodseven my
mentor. When I asked her if we could try the socio-constructivists methods, she just
smiled and told me that these should be done at University and not in schools (same
scenario for narrator 2 and 3).And my struggle is to use as many studentcentered
strategy .even the students are so used with the traditional method of teaching that I
am faced with a lot of resistance when I try using strategies like group work, roleplay
..What will I do when my tutors will come for teaching practice?
PST3: I find the introductory part of the lessons most difficult. Gaining students
attention and sustaining it was most difficult. Sometimes I asked questions and I did not
get the answers as expected and then I am at a loss. I am worried what if I do not finish
on time. I need to complete what I had planned to do.
What was obvious from the stories was that the pre-service teachers were
confronted with the proverbial clash between theory and practice at a very early
stage of their SBE. You will learn theory during lectures and will then apply it
in practice simply does not work. Throughout their stories it became clear to us
that the knowledge acquired in teacher training did not help them to handle the
uncertainty, the complexity and the instability of actual situations prevailing in
practice. Over the last few years a number of researchers have brought up the
problem of the relationship between theory and practice. Many solutions has
been proposed to overcome
PST 1: The school I am posted for SBE is a co-educational institution. I feel really at a
loss as I had been to a girls school and I do not really know how to cope with the boys. I
feel very uncomfortable and they never listen to me. I am trying to cope with the
situation by asking help from senior teachers who talk to the boys before I
start my lesson. I am happy that they are helping me out, but I do feel embarrassed. The
different teaching strategies learnt at the university are helping to keep the boys engaged.
I am also reading on how to teach in boys schools.
PST2: Students are so used working individually, when I put them in groups there are
many problemssuch as the grouping itself, classroom management issues and they did
not like group work , they want me to give notes and tips for the test. However I was
determined to make them learn how to work in groups. So I decided to bargain and
negotiate with themyou know kind of if you do this for me I will give you some
tipsthis sounded unethical but it worked..
PST3: Another issue is the administrative part of the job. I never knew that I had to be
very careful of students attendance. what to do if someone is sick in the class, how to
cope with situation of lateness, cheating, indiscipline, fights, bullying This is too much
as I had a lot to do with the SBE itselfI remember one day I was summoned in the
Rectors office. One of the students who was supposed to be in my class was caught at the
bus-stop. Now I know that to be a good teacher is not only doing lesson plans and
reflecting on how to improve, but it is also knowing my students, their lives, what is
troubling them.
The above extracts clearly showed that students were able to demonstrate
a practical wisdom which had emerged through reflections. Frank (2004) work
revealed that such kind of practical wisdom developed during reflections cannot
be fully articulated but is the guiding force (p.57). Such unanswered dilemmas
and uncertainties has been often referred as an inherent characteristic of the
work in professional practice. The novice teachers were trapped in a theory
practice gap, which shows their restlessness. Kemmis, (2005) referred to this as a
negative spacea longing for something else that is not currently present
(p. 157). To some extent the SES provided a positive space that could address
this void, however to be able to sustain such community of sharing is yet
another debate.
and teaching lessons during Peer/micro teaching module where their main task
is to identify their weaknesses and strengths in a simulation class. The sharing
experience seminars sessions after their on-job placement provide a very rich
space where students come and share their lived experiences and build a
community of practice.
However from the study it is clear that most of the preservice teachers do not
receive much feedback and support from their mentors. It was noted that when
they tried to discuss issues with their mentors, the latter often took a defensive
stance saying that they were novice teachers and they should know that what is
true for the university is not necessarily applicable to real life situation.
Experienced teachers routinise much of their practice, making it customary,
programmed and ritualised (Eraut 2000; Oliveira, (2005).). This can be
detrimental to novice teachers who need to learn from their practice and be
engaged with their workplace (Abadzi, 2006).
The study has shed light on various idiosyncrasies of school life which should
not be ignored as these are the concerns and realities of the pre-service teachers.
It is important to empower trainees to create their own practical knowledge
(phronesis), knowledge that will have meaning for them and will help them to
act successfully in confusing and perhaps ambiguous situations. Meetings with
school mentors and rectors is crucial to help novice teachers deal with
workplace situations. These would give students the confidence and security to
try out ideas, to ask questions and to seek answers and elicit their support. The
scope of future research on workplace learning should be widened by
investigating further how workplace learning (practice) relates to teacher
education (theory) or else we teacher educators, become mere accomplices in
the system and therefore help promote the staged drama when we go to visit
our trainees for their teaching practice sessions.
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Abstract. This small scale study aims at exploring how far school leaders
consider themselves progress makers. This is felt important as there is
now much emphasis on schools to be more successful in terms of both
academic and socio-economic outcomes. The challenge lies in knowing
how to make it happen. A qualitative research was conducted.
Furthermore, this article expands current knowledge on school
leadership by reporting data gathered from a group of school leaders
(n=6) who were mandated during their course in educational leadership
to explore new vistas in school leadership and be pioneers as progress
makers. Data gathered by means of a semi-structured interview, was
analysed using the conceptual framework developed by Clampitt and
DeKoch (2011)1 on transforming leaders into progress makers. The main
findings illustrate how school leaders struggle to come to terms with the
various strategies and tactics associated with progress makers. The
studys implications for future practice and training of school leaders are
also considered. The authors hint that school leaders can become
progress makers, that is, that metamorphosis can occur, if they consider
leading differently and use new leadership practices.
Introduction
Mauritius is an island state 2040 kilometers square with a population of
approximately 1.2 million people. It is a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country.
As far as the economy goes, Mauritius is economically competitive, and has a
friendly investment climate. Its Gross Domestic Product was $ 22.05 billion and
Gross Domestic Product per capita income was $ 16, 820 in 2014. There are 168
secondary schools in Mauritius. 63 are run by the state and 103 are run by the
private sector but heavily subsidised by the Ministry of Education. In some
schools, because of their size there is only a rector, or a rector and one or two
deputy rectors. There is approximately a dozen of co-educational schools and
the rest is either for boys or for girls. The statistics available indicate that in 2013,
there were 7795 educators for 113, 872 students in secondary education. In all for
that year, there were approximately 245, 000 in the pre-primary, primary and
secondary. Education is free and compulsory from 3 to 16 years old. Hence this
study which is contextualised to our local realities is an attempt to explore how
far school leaders behave as progress makers.
Historically, school leaders were seen as those who would attend to the day to
day running of schools in a rather routine way. Nowadays, things have changed
and the role of school leaders has expanded. But one element which has come
out strongly is that the school leader is central to the success of a school. School
leadership strongly affects student learning. Principals are central to the task of
building schools that promote powerful teaching and learning for all students
(Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005, p.3). Findings from studies conducted
later also came to the same conclusion (Leithwood, 2005; Masumoto & Brown-
Welty, 2009; Reardon, 2011; Robinson, 2011; Sebastian & Allensworth, 2012).
School leaders are also seen as change leaders as they are no longer expected to
maintain the status quo (Peterson, 2002).
At the same time it is now recognised that school leaders have a daunting role to
play n bringing about increases in school achievement (Leithwood et al. 2004).
Contemporary school administrators play a daunting array of roles, ranging
from educational visionaries and change agents to instructional leaders,
curriculum and assessment experts, budget analysts, facility managers, special
program administrators, and community builders (Davis, Darling-Hammond,
LaPointe, & Meyerson, 2005). Running of a school is also seen as stressful,
political, complex, and time consuming (Duke, Grogan & Yucker, 2003). At the
same time, there is growing evidence of intensified accountability (Starr &
White, 2008). There is furthermore more focus on results. Consequently, Heads
of Schools are expected to be able to use data to drive decision making and
assessment (Hellsten, Noonan, Preston & Prytula, 2013; Renihan & Noonan,
2012).
Hence we find that while the job becomes more demanding, we can query if
there is time to innovate and meet the new challenges with new, more adapted
solutions. Consequently, the need arises to find out more from Heads of Schools
themselves.
Research question
How far do school leaders consider themselves as progress makers?
Literature review
Clambitt and DeKoch (2011) developed a framework to define leaders who are
progress makers. They found that there are seven strategies that these leaders
adopt which make them progress makers.
ideas, nurture those they feel are right and evaluate them. All ideas which are
accepted become actionable ideas.
Methodology
For this study, as already indicated, qualitative method will be used. It was felt
appropriate for this study because, as Rossman and Rallis (1998) have noted,
there are few truths that constitute universal knowledge; rather, there are
multiple perspectives about the world (p. 29). The qualitative method is
relevant because it can express a richness and intensity of detail in a way that
quantitative research cannot. Qualitative research methods allow for much more
detailed investigation of issues - answering questions of meaning, such as why.
More and more recognition is being given to the individual in the process, not
just the observable effect of strategies upon a particular element. By exploring
the Heads of Schools who have had leadership experiences, it will be possible to
obtain multiple perspectives that further our understandings of this
phenomenon. Each individual ascribes certain characteristics and attributes to
any given situation.
Also there exists little research on the topic; therefore, qualitative methods are
suited for this study (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Since this study is exploratory in
nature, the process of allowing the data to speak for itself further supports a
qualitative method of inquiry. Given that qualitative methodology uses context,
individual experience, and subjective interpretation, generalizability is not
possible, nor is it a goal (Heppner, Kivlighan, & Wampold, 1999). This method is
also congruent with the nature of the research problem.
It is important to choose a data production approach which will invite
participants to offer a rich, detailed, first person account of their experiences
(Smith et al (2009, p.56). Accordingly the present study has used in-depth
individual semi-structured interviews (Coolican, 2004). The choice of semi-
structured interviews permits a degree of structure to an interview where pre-
identified issues can be explored and discussed (Denscombe, 1998).
These participants were interviewed. Cannell and Kahn (1968) have defined
research interview as a two-person conversation initiated by the interviewer
for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information , and focused
by him on content specified by research objectives of systematic description,
line with principles of confidentiality and ethics, the participants have not been
referred by their own names, but as Participant A, B, C, D, E.
their contribution. They miss the opportunities to judge the talents of their staff
and collaborators. They are not able to fully foster the growth of investment of
worthy employees. At the same time, school leaders do not eagerly seek, nurture
and evaluate actionable ideas.
Procrastinate
On the other hand, though it might look contradictory, participants also
mentioned that they tend to procrastinate at times. Participant A explained that
there are some decisions that are hard to take because of the consequences they
might have on the school and on their careers. So some of them might
procrastinate because they are unsure about what they have to do. Participant
F is more direct in his answer, since he stated that at times, we procrastinate
because of we do not know how to complete certain tasks. Yet when prompted
further, the participant does not seem to put time aside to reflect on the issue
and consider other options. They tend to focus on saving face and thus inhibits
acknowledging mistakes. School leaders thus do not engage in correcting errors.
they came back to school with new ideas. Participant C explained that following
one of these workshops he has tried to adopt a new idea in his school. He added
that at the beginning his staff adopted the initiative and they got on board, but it
was difficult to sustain the momentum. Follow up efforts were laborious. After
some time the initiative has had to be abandoned. Participant D mentioned that
he too has tied new initiative but had to carry it alone. He had to back pedal as it
was not feasible to lead the project alone. Consequently, although their
experienced are different both school leaders felt that before they decide to
embark on a new initiative they tend to be held back by their past unsuccessful
experience. This tends to act as a potential drawback which keeps them from
leading differently. This shows that the school leaders are not able to enlarge the
circle of engagement.
Prejudice
On the other hand, participant E explained that he does not believe in the new
wave. He feels that in the workshops he has attended the speakers do not seem
to be in touch with the realities of the audience. They tend to propose initiatives
which are not feasible in the local context. The idea was also taken up by
Participant D who felt that outsiders cannot know better than us. Participant F
felt that the strategies which were proposed even if contextulised, will not be
appropriate. It would seem that this group of school leaders come with the
preconceived idea that they will not learn anything worthwhile. Their prejudice
seems like a major stumbling block which prevents them from taking advantage
of new ideas. This is also related to their ego and ultimately they are not able to
enlarge the circle of engagement.
Where to start
Another issue which crops up is linked to knowing where to start. Participant E
mentioned that when embarking on a change journey, the most important thing
is to know where to start. He added that not knowing where to start or starting
at the wrong moment might negatively impact on a new initiative. Furthermore,
Participant B talked about when he started a new project, he wanted to bring
everyone on board. But this was overwhelming and proved distressful. He
explained that he thought he communicated well but the others always
complained about not having been properly informed. It was a bad experience.
Participant F felt that tasks can look so complex. Hence it would seem that not
knowing where they should start impacts on their willingness to embrace
change. School leaders cannot envision the future with calculated boldness.
Additionally, they have not adopted a very effective communication strategy.
Realise that school leaders are vital to the core purpose of schools.
When school leaders engage in various strategies which they feel will be
beneficial for the schools, it is important for them to realise that the relationship
between them and the student achievement has long been established. They are
an important element in building the success of the school so that they need to
come up with initiative which they can handle. There is need to maximise the
effectiveness of the role of the school leaders.
Conclusion
Hence, we find that there is need to have an inspiring training programme for
school leaders. But there are also strong claims for continued professional
development as the school system is dynamic. In the future, there is need to
include knowledge and information on a variety of issues impacting the
education sector. School leadership cannot be considered in isolation. There are
other issues which are impacting on schools and school leaders must be able to
see how to handle these issues simultaneously. The school leaders need to be
empowered so that they dare to venture on new paths. School leaders are
expected to redesign the existing organisational structures. Furthermore, we also
find that they also have to redefine and redistribute leadership across the
organisation. This will promote greater engagement and ownership from the
staff. This in turn will promote student achievement. We also find that a change
in the roles and responsibilities of school leaders. They would need to have more
lines of communication with the different stakeholders.
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Introduction
The process of globalization has changed the world into an increasingly
diversified one. That diversity - in term of cultures, nationalities, faiths and
ethnic backgrounds - has become a remarkable characteristic of almost all
societies around the world, and this diversity has led to the rise of
multiculturalism as a key factor to understanding and addressing any societal
problem facing any country.
Small island developing states (SIDS) are a particular case in this regards, as
their societies are mainly built on multicultural pillars. The multiculturalism is a
building block of the society rather than a result of external changes in the
surrounding conditions. In the relevant literature, it has been noticed that one of
the conceptual problem underlying the definition of SIDS depends on how to
define smallness. The most commonly used criterion, in recent years, has been
a population of 1.5 million or below, specifically 52 islands, which have an
extremely fragile ecosystem, social fabrics and economic backwardness. In SIDS,
people from different continents have migrated and lived for centuries in the
majority of cases with the island indigenous population creating natural cross-
cultural bridges through marriages, language, and other social immersion
mechanisms. Multicultural policies have been introduced in the late years of the
1
Bleszynska, Krystyna. "Contructing intercultural education." Intercultural Education, Vol. 19,
No.6, December 2008: 542.
2
Intercultural education is proposed by UNESCO(2006)as a response to the challenged offered
by the rapid changing world leading to multicultural societies.
Available at:http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf
colonial periods and during the early stages of the independent, to conciliate
with the diversified society to ensure social cohesion and stability. However, the
intrinsic disadvantages of SIDS, namely the environmental, social fragility and a
high degree of economic vulnerability have made social cohesion more
important than ever to survive in the rapid global change. A stable social order
is of particular importance for small states to ensure peace and progression.
This research paper will focus on and develop the current interest to work
towards the integration of intercultural education within SIDS educational
system. There is little discussion within the social science literature, on the
effects of intercultural education in sustaining social cohesion in SIDS. However,
there exists an abundant amount of literature based on intercultural education in
multicultural societies aside of SIDS (Portera,1998; Gundara,2000 and
Coulby,2006), which can provide a framework for this research paper. In other
words, examining the application of intercultural education in the educational
field can provide the ground and rationale upon which this research will be
based. The fact that this paper is exploring new grounds, namely the potentials
of intercultural education in sustaining social cohesion in SIDS, the methodology
for this study will based on a desk review of the academic literature, policy
documents and reports which are related to this research topic.
After this introduction, section one will highlight the main sources of the
vulnerability of SIDS. This section is trying to answer the crucial question of;
Why social cohesion is vital to SIDS ? In section two, the emergence of
interculturalism and intercultural education in multicultural societies will be
discussed. While the third section will be focusing on the possibilities of
implementing intercultural education in the educational system of SIDS. The
paper will conclude with the discussion of the centrality of the social cohesion in
SIDS to build their resilience in response to their vulnerabilities. And
intercultural education has the potentials of fostering sustainable social cohesion
in SIDS.
This paper is leading the efforts in addressing the unique correlation between
intercultural education and the vulnerable situation of SIDS, and it paves the
road for further future research to be enriched in this field.
The 52 small islands states are mainly located in two regions, 23 in the Caribbean
Ocean and 20 in the Pacific Ocean. While 9 are scattered across Africa, Indian
Ocean, Mediterranean and the South China Sea. Small islands states are
described as low-lying coastal countries that generally share similar sustainable
development challenges namely; small but growing population with limited
resources, remoteness, prone to natural disasters, high dependency on
international trade and a fragile ecosystem. Indeed the future of Islanders is
insecure due to several factors like the climatic threats, threats of coastal
erosion, the economic decline in the world upon which small island states
depend on and their dependence resulting from the interconnections of the
world.
Since the 1970`s there has been a remarkable interest in small island developing
states. The broad focus of the SIDS literature 3 according to Crosslay and
Sprague (2013) can be presented in three stages: First in the 1970s, the focus was
on the socio-economic development (Benedict 1967; Selwyn 1975; Shand 1980;
Dommen 1980; Jalan 1982;). Secondly in the 1980s there is an emerging concern
with SIDS geopolitical security (Cohen 1983b; Commonwealth 1985; Harden
1985; Clarke and Payne 1987). Thirdly, in the 1990`s the main focus has been on
the vulnerability of SIDS economies and environment (Atkins et al; 2000; Biagini
and Hoyle 1999; Briguglio 1995; Commonwealth Secretariat-World Bank 2000).
However, It was at the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED)4, where SIDS were recognized as a special case both for
their environment and development. This was the beginning of acknowledging
the threats faced by SIDS related to current global environmental and
development challenges.
3
From the outset, it is important to point out that SIDS literature have been promoted by
international institutions like UNESCO, UN and Commonwealth Secretariat. Such institutions
have brought experts in economic, social, governance and environment field to raise international
awareness of SIDS vulnerabilities and their sustainable development needs. There is a limited
literature on SIDS which is not part of the above mentioned institutions. SIDS are extremely
reliable on these institiutions.
4
Also known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (3-14 June 1992),
5
Reported by the Central Bank of Seyechelles
On the other side, a few SIDS like Singapore have managed to generate high
income per capita in spite of its vulnerability. In the related literature, Singapore
is referred to as the Singapore Paradox(Briguglio:1995) which indicates a small
island state like Singapore can be exposed to economic vulnerabilities but yet
manage to attain high level of capital. The reason for this is that it is possible for
SIDS, under specific conditions, to build up their resilience to improve their
ability to cope with vulnerability. Professor Briguglio has explained through the
illustration below(Table1) how small state when exposed to external shocks is
able to absorb, meet or bounce back from adverse shocks. For instance,
Singapore through a good governance, sound macroeconomic management,
market efficiency and social cohesion have made use of its strategic geographic
position within the global trading system to build its resilience.
One of the major environmental problems facing SIDS - being island states by
definition - is the threatening rise of sea level due to the global warming.
Maldives, for example, located to the west of India, consisting of over 1,100
islands is considered by experts as the world's lowest-lying nation (Ghina:2003).
On average the islands are only 1.3 meters above sea level. As indicated by
Ghinas research, the situation in the country is very alarming. Due to significant
beach erosion and its low-lying elevation, a rise of just three feet in sea level
would submerge Maldives and make the island uninhabitable 6. Other island
states in the Pacific Ocean, like Kiribati and Tuvalu, are also at the risk to
disappear due to rising sea levels.
6
Ministry of Home Affairs,Hus.&Envt,Republic of Maldives,First National Communication of
the Republic of Maldives to the United Nations framework Convention on Climate Change
2(2001), available at http://unfccc.int/resource/ docs/natc/maldnc1.pdf.
7
The Institute for economics and growth has rated, Mauritius, according to the Global Peace
Index(2014) as the the most peaceful African country in 2014 and it ranked 24 th globally
8
Bunwaree, S. "Economics, Conflicts and Interculturality in a Small Island State: The case of
Mauritius." Polis/R.C.S.P.?C.P.S.R. Vol.9,Numero Special, 2002: 1.
believes that In the process of channeling its energies towards the consolidation
of its economy, Mauritius has benefited from the emergence of some form of
economic nationalism and has perhaps ignored the need to develop a strong
sense of interculturality. In other words, social stability is not well established
in the island. Fiji and Solomon Islands have an important lesson to share with
other SIDS, as they have gone through problems that threatened their social
cohesion due to ethnic or religious affiliation. For examples: violent conflict in
Fiji between indigenous Fijians and Indian migrants and in the Solomon Islands
between natives of Guadalcanal and Malaita Islanders have undermined the
social cohesion. Such islands have undergone social conflicts or riots, which in
turn impact negatively on productivity and sustainable development in general
(Briguglio: 2003). The negative social impact will have a deeper negative effect
on SIDS compared to most developing countries, due to their inherent
vulnerabilities. Besides, dispute and discard can quickly spread throughout the
small island states and become amplified into major conflicts.
9
Commonwealth Advisory Group. "A future for small states: Overcoming vulnerability."
Commonwealth Secretariat, London, 1997.P133
the full membership of all its citizens to put hands in their society to shape a
collective destiny to face their vulnerabilities. Social inclusiveness is the key to
build a strong resilience.
If SIDS create a strong, inclusive approach towards the members of their society,
it will in return act as a force for social cohesion. It is essential to ensure
harmonious interaction among people within a diverse society to ensure their
willingness to live and cooperate to build their resilience. Educational policies
that ensure inclusion and participation of all citizens can foster and safeguard
the social cohesion. Taking the case of Mauritius as an example, the
interculturality among the different ethnic groups has not been given enough
attention and instead there has been a collage of cultures that in many ways
prevented the emergence of social inclusiveness. The alarming consequences of
this apparent interracial peace are that Mauritius remains fragile and vulnerable
on the long term, especially if the economic position of any of the social fabric
has changed. Which indicates that a genuinely sustainable peace is not deeply
rooted in the society. This challenging risk is not of a theoretical nature, as the
island, has witnessed at least two serious social conflicts in about thirty years10
despite the general peace and harmony which is at the surface of the social
structure. Furthermore, the official Mauritian government slogan of Unity in
Diversity didnt help much in creating a true sense of unity amongst the
different shades of diversity in the society. On the contrary, it has contributed to
present the various cultures in a mosaic structure instead of being integrated
into one society. The question to be asked is how to promote the cultures of
different groups in SIDS, foster the social fabrics and bring a real interculturality
between them? In what way should the social fabric be enhanced in order to
reduce tension or latent ethnic conflicts? Within the context of social cohesion,
Intercultural Education has an important role to play. The ultimate objective of
the intercultural education is to build up an inclusive society, where every
culture is valued, respected and have a vital role in contributing in the social
structure. Intercultural education can be an efficient tool to enhance sustainable
social cohesion.
In the light of the vulnerabilities being faced by SIDS, it is apparently clear that
they will have to depend on their resources to build their resilience. The most
valuable resource that SIDS possess is its human capital. This made both
researchers and policy makers to draw particular attention to education and
training of population in accordance with the national goals for sustainable
development. And intercultural education plays a significant role in the overall
10
Early in 1968, just before the accession of Mauritius to independence and in the heat of the
political competitions, a serious tension between Muslims and Christians had emerged which led
to racial riots. As the country was still under the British authority, British troops had to enforce
law and order again. The second serious social conflict was not later than February 1999, where
the sense of injustice felt after the death in police cell of a popular singer quickly led the country
to the brink of an ethnic confrontation between Hindus and Christians. The country had witnessed
also several other ethnic related social unrests. Ethnic related incidents had been stimulated for
several reasons; supporting specific sport teams, ethnic scripts on banknotes, oriental languages in
schools, public holidays among other reasons. The frequency of these incidents had revealed the
fragility of the officially adopted slogan of Unity in Diversity.
success of this process. As Professor Baccus11 (2008) explicitly states that :"The
success of small states, in coping with the economic and social challenges that
they are likely to face in the twenty-first century, will, to a large extent, depend
on the quality of their human resources." Moreover, If the society in SIDS is
well united, believed in "togetherness" rather than "otherness," they will be able
to build their resilience together as one nation to face any challenges. Social
cohesiveness will play a vital role to ensure social stability and enable social
development in the face of the vulnerabilities.
One of the evident results of globalization is that many societies have become
more diverse and dynamic. Migration for a better employment prospects and a
better standard of living has increased drastically. Nowadays cities like London,
Stockholm, Toronto, New York and Amsterdam are becoming increasingly
diversified. Thus, multicultural societies have become a complex reality. The
new changes in these newly diversified societies are far beyond being
adequately addressed by proper multicultural policies, and in this new dynamic
society tensions and conflicts are inevitable as many cultures faith, value and
global forces interacts, to use the wording of Professor Cantle (2012), who has
been involved in crafting these policies and he is the author of a series of reports
on Britain's ability to deal with its growing diversity. He further believed that
the multicultural policies that governments have been applying are no more
appropriate to mediate this new era and are not sufficient enough to promote
community cohesion. This is reflected very often in the current political and
11
Bacchus, M.K. "The education challenges facing small nation states in the increasingly
competitive global economy of the twenty-first century." Comparative Education 44, 2008: 139.
12
Interculturalism represents the direction towards which Europe is moving. In 2008, EU
proclaimed European year for cross-cultural dialogue
13
The Council of Europe and the European Union have adopted a range of standards and
initiatives in order to combat racism and xenophobia and promote intercultural dialogue.
Through the Intercultural Cities programme, they are supporting the emergence of local strategies
for diversity management that focus on diversity as an opportunity.
Available
at:https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/Cities/ICCstepbystepAugust2012.pdf
It has been acknowledged that students have a greater capacity to grasp and
appreciate certain ideas about interculturality than adults who are rather quite
rigid in welcoming new challenges to their preconceived ideas. Young students
have a better ability to be open minded, to experience different cultures, and
they are more curious and willing to learn about the others. For that reason, the
intercultural education world-widely is focusing on the students and early years
of schooling. Intercultural education is of vital importance in ensuring
recognition, tolerance and especially understanding cultures. The young
students represent the future of any country. In his book on International
Perspectives on Intercultural Education, Cushner14 sheds more lights on the
characteristics of Intercultural Education, It strives to eliminate prejudice and
racism by creating an awareness of the diversity and relative nature of
viewpoints and thus a rejection of absolute ethnocentrism; assists people in
acquiring the skills needed to interact more efficiently with people different
from themselves; and demonstrates that despite the differences that seem to
separate people, many similarities do, in fact, exist across groups.The
substantial literature on intercultural education can be divided into four groups
according to Tupas(2014):a)Intellectual and conceptual roadmaps for
Interculturalism (Gundara 2000; Cantle 2002; Coulby 2006; Bleszynska 2008); b)
Intercultural incorporation into national curricula (Portera,1998,2005; Tratas,
2010; Tupas 2014); c) Practical road maps for the classroom (leRoux,2001; Mushi,
2004; Perry, 2011) d) Intercultural Education and training program (Bennett,
2004; Cusher, 2009; Stephan and Stephan 2013).
The provision of the inclusion of the society through education will combat
intolerance, hatred, and discrimination. Sondhi(2009) suggests that
interculturalism implies a different way of reading situations, signs, symbols,
and of communicating which we would describe as intercultural literacy. In
other words, through intercultural education students will acquire intercultural
competence 15 . The acquisition of this competency in a diverse society will
become as important as basic numeracy and literacy according to Sondhi(2009).
Nowadays worldwide, some governments like Canada, Italy, and even
Australia have responded to problems concerning migration, ethnic nationalism
and minority rights by favoring laws that recognize the existence of minority
groups and their contributions to national development. Such steps are reflected
in the national education curricula by integrating intercultural education with
the aim of ensuring greater social inclusion. Recently, Australia has included
intercultural understanding as a general capability in its national curriculum.
14
Cushner, K. International Perspectives on Intercultural Education. Mahwah: NJ:Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 2009.P2
15
Intercultural education is part of the Italian Educational systems. In many school, scholastic
subjects promote intercultural competences. For examples: In order to overcome ethnocentrism
approaches during history teaching, the theme of racism and issues of a pacific living together
among people and analyzing the moments of meeting and collision among people and civilization
are taught. Teaching Italian, artistic and musical education gives an occasion to reflect upon the
relations between European and extra-European cultures. Across the curriculum, through these
subjects, intercultural competences like understanding, respect and sharing are being infused
among the students from diverse cultural background.Contini and Naturo(2011)
Recognising culture
and developing
respect
Intercultural
understanding
Reflecting on
intercultural Interacting and
experiences and empathising with
taking others
responsibility.
In the context of SIDS, interculturalism will strengthen the existing social fabrics.
Multiculturalism in SIDS is well established compared to the western exposure
to multiculturalism. In the West, the society is still undergoing change through
diversity dynamic because the door of migration is opened whereas, in the
majority of SIDS, the society is well established on multicultural pillars with zero
or few migration. However in SIDS the potential towards the consolidation of
social cohesion through intercultural education have not been exploited. Within
the context of sustainable development of small states, intercultural education
has a crucial role to play. Education with an intercultural dimension holds a key
place in endeavors to foster the social fabrics and to maintain peace. The table
below illustrates the effect of intercultural education as an inclusive approach
will enhance the social fragility of the society, thus building a strong, resilient
community in SIDS.
Surveying the literature regarding the SIDS and sustainable developments, one
can easily notice a gap in the literature in terms of the role of education in the
sustainable development and particularly in SIDS. Crossley and Sprague 16
stating this fact plainly: Until recently, very little attention has been placed
upon the role that education can play in reaching the goals of global sustainable
development in SIDS. One possible reason for that SIDS priorities were topped
by facing environmental threats and achieving economic objectives, (Sem, 2007).
16
Crossley, M. and Sprague,T. "Education for sustainable development:implications for small
island developing states(SIDS)." International Journal of Educational Developemnt, 2013: 90
Besides it has been noticed that international educational agendas often fail to
match up closely with some of SIDS educational priorities. For example, back to
the Jomtien era17, the key international priority was access to primary education.
However, at that time, many small states were already moving ahead to
prioritized their tertiary education needs (Crossley and Holmes 1999). Thus, the
global educational agendas are not in many cases portraying the educational
needs of SIDS. SIDS would like to move beyond the international agendas.
However, they have difficulty to access international funds and support for their
educational priorities (Crossley and Sprague:2013). It is crucial that the
international agencies and analysts identified the educational priorities in SIDS.
Education for sustainable development in SIDS must be in the light of their
experiences and needs. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development
(UN-DESD 2005-2014) which was the most important international benchmark
in ESD, did stress the importance of intercultural education in its agenda.
However, recent research before even reaching the end of the UN-DESD
(Crossley and Sprague:2013) has argued that in general, the educational
priorities in SIDS have not been put into practice. The international community
recognizes the exceptional vulnerabilities island societies face, but it has failed to
translate this recognition into island-specific support. The vulnerability of SIDS
to external factors is not disregarded, but the modest element, more specifically
by sustaining their social cohesion through intercultural education that would
help them become more resilient are not being made available to these islands.
17
In 1990, it was agreed at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand (5-9
March 1990) to make primary education accessible to all children and to massively reduce
illiteracy before the end of the decade
18
Bunwaree, S. "Economics, Conflicts and Interculturality in a Small Island State: The case of
Mauritius." Polis/R.C.S.P.?C.P.S.R. Vol.9,Numero Special, 2002: 15.
19
Asgarally.I and J.M.G. le Clezio, Nobel Prize Winner of literature(2008) are the co-founder of
The Federation for Interculturality in Mauritius.
According to the report, many young people in the Solomon Islands have the
motivation and willingness to engage positively in society, but limited education
and skills have led to a lack of opportunities to enhance the social cohesion.
While government policies, frameworks, and strategic plans have been
elaborated to promote social cohesion interventions, these have not been
incorporated or linked explicitly to ministries and department. In other words,
the implementation of policy and planning of peacebuilding and social cohesion
at school level is limited. However, many NGOs have initiated short-term
projects to enhance the social cohesion in the educational systems, but there is
little evidence of long-term strategic approaches. The report23 pointed out the
following: The potential to support real social cohesion interventions that
empower people and create opportunities to heal past conflicts and open doors
for economic and social reform are present, but a concerted effort by the
government, parties and communities is needed to work across sectors in a
20
Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/pacificislands/overview
21
Available at: http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Solomon-Islands-
ENVIRONMENT.html
22
Solomon Islands case study in education, conflict and social cohesion was commissioned as
part of UNICEF East Asia and pacific Regional offices (EAPRO) contribution towards the 4
year global Peacebuilding, education and Advocacy (PBEA) Programme(2012-2015)
23
Ibid.,85
The two cases of Mauritius and Solomon Islands are reflecting the fragility of
social cohesion in most of the SIDS. There is a pressing need to implement
intercultural education in SIDS. The small island states need to move ahead
towards an intercultural approach in their educational system. The different
cultural and ethnic groups through their intercultural competence will manage
to live together peacefully and build their resilience when facing their
vulnerabilities.
Conclusion
Complex reality of the world today presents diverse and an interrelated
portfolio of challenges for all the countries around the world; challenges that
include social, economic, ecological, political and cultural dimensions. While
recognizing that all countries are facing these challenges with a different level of
vulnerabilities, nevertheless SIDS has peculiar situation that amplifies their
economic, environmental and social vulnerabilities in the face of these
challenges.
One of the crucial issues to override these vulnerabilities is the building a long-
term societal cohesion in the society. And one of the best ways to do that is
through the educational system. The case of SIDS demonstrates that, while
acknowledging the economic and environmental vulnerabilities of SIDS are of
fundamental importance, reaffirming the centrality of constructing social
cohesion is of vital importance. Intercultural Education is a powerful tool for
building resilience policy option that could enable these small states to minimize
or withstand the negative magnifying effects of social instability on any of their
three vulnerabilities.
The paper highlighted the main three vulnerabilities that are facing the small
island developing states, identified the importance of intercultural education in
general and in SIDS case in particular and presented the potential and challenges
of intercultural education in building social cohesion through two brief cases of
Mauritius and Solomon Islands. These cases demonstrated several lessons that
can be useful in the formulation of future educational strategies for intercultural
education that can be implemented in SIDS to achieve sustainable societal peace.
Social cohesion can be promoted if in the education system the conditions for the
development of intercultural competence is created. Relations experienced in
school through intercultural education can contribute significantly to cohesion in
culturally heterogeneous societies. Education alone cannot achieve social
cohesion. Instead, this research paper have stressed on the role that education
can play to strengthen the social fabrics in SIDS.
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