SYLLABUS CODE: 22101/01 Author: Tanvir Iqbal Khan

O LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE Subject Specialist O Level Computer Science

A Level Computing

1. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
It is a set of commands or instructions following grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform
specific tasks.

The term programming language usually refers to high-

level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL,
FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal. Each language has a unique
set of keywords (words that it understands) and a
special syntax for organizing program instructions.

High-level programming languages, while simple

compared to human languages, are more complex
than the languages the computer actually
understands, called machine languages. Each different
type of CPU has its own unique machine language.

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE
The High-level language is a computer programming language which is human oriented alphabetical
language and easily understandable. It is not limited by the computer or for one specific job. It is used to
write complex computer programs for a specific task.

Today, there are dozens of high-level languages; some commonly used high-level languages are BASIC,
C, CO OBOL, FORTAN, Java, and Pascal and sometimes assembly language is used.

a. COBOL Common Business Oriented Language -

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was the first widely-used high-level
programming language for business applications. Many payroll, accounting, and other business
application programs written in COBOL.
COBOL was an effort to make a programming language that was like natural English, easy to
write and easier to read the code after you'd written it.

ADVANTAGES OF COBOL
Simple to implement
Requires very low software support
Efficiency of blocking is good
Blocking results in saving in terms of input-output time required handling a file.
A substantial amount of storage space on the disk can be saved.

DISADVANTAGES OF COBOL
Updates are not easily accommodated
Random access is not possible
All records must be structurally identical, if a new field has to be added, and then
every record must be rewritten to provide space for the new field.
Continuous areas may not be possible because both the primary data file and the
1

transaction file must be looked during merging.

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 SYLLABUS CODE: 22101/01 Author: Tanvir Iqbal Khan
O LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE Subject Specialist O Level Computer Science
A Level Computing

b. FORTRAN FORmula TRANslator

The name FORTRAN is an acronym for FORmula TRANslation, because it was designed to
allow easy translation of math formulas into code.

Often referred to as a scientific language, FORTRAN was the first high-level language, using
the first compiler ever developed.

Prior to the development of FORTRAN computer programmers were required to program in

machine/assembly code, which was an extremely difficult and time consuming task.

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE

It is User-friendly and easy to learn because similar to English with vocabulary of words and
symbols
They require less time to write.
They are easier to maintain.
Problem oriented rather than 'machine' based.
Program written in a high-level language can be translated into many machine language and
therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an appropriate translator.
It is independent of the machine on which it is used i.e.Programs developed in high level
language can be run on any Computer

DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE

A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a translator and thus a
price in computer time is paid.
The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an equivalent
assembly language program

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 SYLLABUS CODE: 22101/01 Author: Tanvir Iqbal Khan
O LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE Subject Specialist O Level Computer Science
A Level Computing

BESPOKE SOFTWARE
Bespoke, Tailor made or customized is a type of software which is made to the specifications of a client.
In other words it is custom made or 'tailored' to address a specific need of an organization.

Usually software packages are bought off-the-shelf. However, certain applications are designed for
commercial businesses, industrial companies, etc.), and require specially written software which is
unique to that customer and is known as bespoke software.

ADVANTAGES OF BESPOKE SOFTWARE

Specifically designed for the application and therefore more efficient and will only contain the
features wanted.
It can be customized to interface with all other software on a computer thus preventing software
clashes.
Easier to use since very specific and the writers of the software can also be involved in the training
of staff which will be geared towards their requirements.
can be modified/updated as the companys requirements change
much better customer support since they will be in direct contact with the software designers

DISADVANTAGES OF BESPOKE SOFTWARE

Very dependent on the suppliers of the software; if they go out of business there will be little or no
support if problems occur.
Less likely to be as well developed/tested as off-the-shelf software.
Much more expensive since all the development costs need to be met by the company (but
efficiency savings may compensate for this and it may prove to be less expensive in the long run).
The development time can be very long which may cause problems.
Difficult to tell how good the final software package will be (could be a real problem if the company
has waited 2 to 3 years to receive their new software only to find it doesnt meet their needs.

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 SYLLABUS CODE: 22101/01 Author: Tanvir Iqbal Khan
O LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE Subject Specialist O Level Computer Science
A Level Computing

LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGE
Low level language is a machine code binary numbers that a computer can understand directly. The
language consists of binary codes (series of 0s 1s).

A program written in a low-level language can be used only on a computer system that uses one specific
type of main processor.

Low-level languages are appropriate for writing operating systems, or firmware for micro-controllers.
They can do just about anything with a little bit of work. Low-level language is also used to develop virus
programs and utility programs.

a. MACHINE CODE
Machine code, also called machine language, is a computer language that is directly understandable
by a computer's CPU (central processing unit), and it is the language into which all programs must
be converted before they can be run.

o Each CPU type has its own machine language, although they are basically fairly similar.

o After the source code for a program has been written by one or more humans in a
programming language (e.g., C or C++), it is compiled (i.e., converted) into machine code
by a specialized program called a compiler, or by an assembler in the case of assembly
language.

o This machine code is then stored as an executable file (i.e., a ready-to-run program) and
can be executed (i.e., run) by the operating system any time it is instructed to do so by
another program or by a user.

o Machine code is extremely difficult for humans to read because it consists merely of
patterns of bits (i.e., zeros and ones).

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 SYLLABUS CODE: 22101/01 Author: Tanvir Iqbal Khan
O LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE Subject Specialist O Level Computer Science
A Level Computing

b. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
A programming language that consists of a group of coded letters or labels, called mnemonics.

Mnemonic represents a single instruction that is translated into the binary code of machine
language that deals with hardware registers by name.

Mnemonics are easier to use than machine language instructions. For example, the mnemonic
"MUL" tells the computer to "MULtiply".

Thus, programmers who want to work at the machine code level instead usually use assembly
language, which is a human-readable notation for the machine language in which the instructions
represented by patterns of zeros and ones are replaced with alphanumeric symbols (called
mnemonics) in order to make it easier to remember and work with them (including reducing the
chances of making errors).

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