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Carbon content almost entirely determines the hardness of martensite. If virtually 100%
martensite can be achieved in a
steel, then Fig. 7 shows several relationships that have been found experimentally between
carbon and hardness. In
particular, it shows that as little as 0.10% C in martensite will result in a hardness value of
approximately 35 HRC. The
hardness of martensite increases to over 60 HRC at approximately 0.5% C, and it does not
change significantly at higher
levels of carbon, at least on a macroscale.
Figure 7 presents the situation if essentially all martensite is obtained. In carbon and low-alloy
steels, rapid cooling is
usually necessary to avoid the formation of ferrite. However, as more alloy is added, the
avoidance of ferrite becomes
easier. At a 12% Cr level, nearly any cooling rate will result in virtually 100% martensite. The
prototype of all martensitic
stainless steels is type 410 (approximately 12% Cr and 0.10% C). The isothermal transformation
diagram for type 410
stainless steel (Fig. 8) indicates that, after cooling from high temperatures and being held at
approximately 700 C (1290
F), it will take approximately 2 min before any ferrite forms, and several hours will be required
before the transformation
to ferrite with carbides is complete. Cooling to a holding temperature of 400 C (750 F) will
require more than 1 week
before any ferrite forms.
Of these base metals, the lower carbon content alloys, especially type 410 and CA-6NM
(410NiMo), are often used for
turbines in hydroelectric and similar types of facilities. They provide resistance to mild
corrosion, cavitation, and
moderate abrasion, and they possess relatively high strength. CA-6NM is also used in fittings,
valves, and pumps for sour
(H2S-containing) oil and gas service. In this application, the alloy usually must be heat treated to
a hardness value that
does not exceed 22 HRC. This usually requires a double temper treatment consisting of 2 h at
675 C (1250 F)
(intercritical temperature range), an air cool to room temperature, and then 4 h at 615 C (1140
F) (below lower critical
temperature).
Type 420 and similar alloys are used in cutlery, valve parts, gears, shafts, and rollers. One
extensive application is a weld
overlay on rolls for steel mill continuous casters. This type of alloy is quite brittle in the freshly
hardened condition and
usually must be tempered to obtain useful toughness properties.
The higher carbon content martensitic stainless steels, such as types 440A, 440B, and 440C, can
be hardened to values
near 60 HRC. Then, they can be tempered at temperatures up to 480 C (900 F) to toughen
without experiencing much
loss of hardness. In this condition, they serve well as cutting edges and as bearings.
Martensitic stainless steels generally develop full hardness upon air cooling from about 1000 C
(1830 F). They can be
softened by tempering at temperatures ranging from approximately 500 to 750 C (930 to 1380
F), unless they contain
significant amounts of nickel, in which case the maximum temperature for tempering is
reduced. After tempering at 650
to 750 C (1200 to 1380 F), their hardness values generally drop to about 30 HRC or lower.
This can be useful if it is
necessary to soften a martensitic stainless steel before welding to allow enough ductility in the
bulk of the material to
accommodate shrinkage stresses associated with welding. However, such high-temperature
tempering produces rather
coarse chromium carbides, which damage the corrosion resistance of the metal. Then, it may be
necessary after welding
to austenitize, air cool to room temperature, and temper at a low temperature (less than 450 C,
or 840 F) to restore
corrosion resistance.
Engineering for Use in the As-Welded Condition. Except for very small weldments or
very low carbon base metals,
martensitic stainless steels are not usually used in the as-welded condition. This is due to the
very brittle weld area that
normally results. This area includes the weld metal itself, if it has a matching or near-matching
composition to that of the
base metal, and the heat-affected zone. However, repair situations can necessitate that the
engineer work with these
circumstances.
If a weldment of martensitic stainless steel must be used in the as-welded condition, then it is
usually best to avoid both
autogenous welds (no filler metal) and welds with matching filler metals. Small parts that are
welded by laser-beam
welding (LBW), electron-beam welding (EBW), or GTAW processes are an exception, because
residual stresses can be
very low and the welding processes generate almost no diffusible hydrogen.
If at all possible, an austenitic filler metal, such as type 309 or 309L stainless, or a duplex
ferritic-austenitic stainless filler
metal, such as type 312 stainless, should be chosen, depending on the base metal. The filler-
metal choice should provide
for a small amount of ferrite in the weld metal, in order to avoid hot cracking. This can be
anticipated by using the
extended WRC-1992 diagram (Fig. 4). If the weld metal is austenite with a little ferrite, then the
weld metal itself will
have appreciable ductility, and only the HAZ will be at risk for cold cracking. This possibility
can be minimized by using
high preheat temperatures (200 C, or 390 F, minimum for type 410 base metal and 350 C, or
660 F, minimum for
types 440A, 440B, and 440C base metals) and slow cooling after welding.
choice if a nonhardenable weld deposit is acceptable. By similar reasoning, type 309 (or 309L)
would be an excellent
choice for gas-metal arc weld wire, flux-cored wire, or submerged arc wire.
FIG. 9 WRC-1992 DIAGRAM WITH EXPANDED SCALE FOR DILUTION CALCULATIONS,
IN WHICH FERRITE IS
CALCULATED FOR TYPE 410 STAINLESS STEEL WELDED WITH E309-16 (REFER TO
EXAMPLE 1)
Although the welding filler metals of Examples 1 and 3 seem appropriate choices for avoiding
hot cracking in joints in
the martensitic stainless steels used in these examples, the weld metals would considerably
undermatch the strengths of
the base metals, unless the base metals were annealed. The base metals could easily have tensile
strength values that
exceed 1000 MPa (145 ksi), depending on their condition of heat treatment before welding,
whereas the weld metals are
likely to have tensile strengths on the order of 550 to 600 MPa (80 to 90 ksi). Furthermore, the
austenitic weld metals
cannot be hardened by heat treatment. If higher-strength weld metal is essential, then a
martensitic filler metal is
necessary, which almost always requires a PWHT to obtain reasonable ductility in the weld
metal.