Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
C
Chhaapptteerr 22:: Q
QUUA
ALLIITTA
ATTIIV
VEED
DAATTA
ACCO
OLLLLE
ECCTTIIO
ONN TTE
ECCH
HNNIIQ
QUUE
ESS
CONTENTS
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe the major types of data gathering techniques
Discuss the time spent in collecting data
Elaborate on sampling issues in qualitative research
Identify the skills required of the qualitative researcher
Critically evaluate validity issues in qualitative research
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
PREAMBLE
A. DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
B. OBSERVATION
Imagine that you want to find out what goes on in the teachers lounge or staff
room. You could interview those involved, or maybe even send out a questionnaire.
Using the interview or the questionnaire, you would be getting what people thought about
what was going on. Sometimes, the best way to gain a rich picture of a setting such as
3
the staff room, the school canteen, a staff meeting, the playground or the classroom is to
see for yourself what is happening, rather than depending
on your respondents.
Passive
Observer
Observation is the technique of obtaining data through direct contact with a persons or
group of persons. Since, the main focus of qualitative research is naturalism, the
researcher has to observe person or persons in their natural state as undisturbed as
possible. The role of the researcher may be viewed as a continuum (se Figure 2.1). On
one extreme, the researcher is a passive observer and on the other extreme the researcher
is a participant observer. In between these two extremes, the researcher may be an active
observer (Potter, 1996).
Passive observer: The best way to be not involved and keep you distance from
your subjects is to be a passive observer. As a passive observer, you simply gather
documents and observe the individual or individuals without doing anything to
disturb the situation. The researcher is unobtrusive and watches the group from
the outside; i.e. the ethic or outsiders perspective. To do so, the researcher must
gain access and be accepted by the individual or individuals being observed. For
example, in collecting e-mails or essays written by subjects or learning journals of
4
students, the researcher examines them without being involved. Similarly, when a
researcher interested in studying children interacting in school canteens or the
playground, merely observes them without being involved. A certain amount of
distance is maintained between the researcher and the person or persons being
observed.
Active Observer: Between being a passive observer and an active participant, the
researcher could take a middle position of being an active observer. Here,
participation is allowed but limited. The researcher may intrude into the lives of
subjects such as entering their homes or their communities but remains passive
once inside the environment so as not to influence the natural occurring
behaviours and conversations. For example, a researcher interested in TV viewing
habits may enter a household, eat with the family, play with the children and take
part in family activities. Family members are told not to change their routines in
order to accommodate the observer. However, the researcher tries as far as
possible to be passive, saying as little as possible so as not to influence the
behaviours and conversations of subjects.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
C. INTERVIEWS
Qualitative Research
a) Detail-oriented probe
When did it happen to you?
Who was with you?
b) Elaboration probe
Tell me more about the incident.
Can you give an example.
c) Clarification probe
Im not sure I understand what you mean by hanging out. Can you
explain?
You said that your principal is extremely autocratic.
What do you mean by autocratic?
FOCUS GROUP
Focus groups were originally called
focused interviews or "group depth
interviews (Marczak & Sewell, 2005). A
focus group is a group of people who are
asked about their attitudes and opinions
about a service, issue, concept, idea or
product. Members in the group are free to
talk with other members in the group. The
role of the researcher is that of a moderator
who listens, observes, ask questions and
keeps the group on track.
The focus group is typically 7-10
people who are unfamiliar with each other
and selected because they have certain characteristics in common that relate to the topic
of the research question.
Focus provide valuable information or insights when the memories, ideas and
experiences of individual members are stimulated when listening to others verbalise their
7
experiences. However, in focus group the researcher has less control over the group than
a one-on-one interview and thus time can be wasted on irrelevant issues. The data
collected is difficult to analyse because members talk in reaction to the comments of
other group members. Hence, moderators or observers need to be highly trained to handle
the varying behaviours of group members. Also, the data obtained from the group may
not necessarily be representative of the population.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
To practice being a passive observer, undertake a 15 minutes
observation of an educational setting. This setting could be the
teachers lounge (staff room), the school canteen, playground,
staff meeting, classroom or any setting in your place of work.
Make notes on what you observed and from the notes write down
some of your thoughts on the interesting issues observed.
TRIANGULATION OF METHODS
Document
Examination
Interview Observation
LEARNING ACTIVITY
SAMPLING
Lincoln and Guba (1985) emphasise that the guiding principle of sampling in
qualitative research is one of convenience. An important consideration in sampling is
whether there are people available who will allow the researcher to collect data about
them. For example, the researcher interested in preschoolers interacting during recess
may call up several kindergartens until he or she finds kindergartens that will allow him
or her to observe children during recess.
If you read research using qualitative methods, you will see a range of positions
on the issue of sampling. Some studies do not give much information about how the
people interviewed or observed were selected. Other studies give some information about
why they selected certain people and how they gained access. The main issue with
sampling is the extent to which readers trust the findings of the research. If the researcher
fails to provide sufficient information about how he or she collected evidence especially
in relation to how and why particular persons were selected, it would be difficult for the
reader to trust the findings. Generally, readers will be more inclined to trust the findings
if the researcher provides detail description about the process of gaining access and
selection of the persons interviewed or observed.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
g) How do you decide on who and how many subjects to
include in your sample?
h) Selection of a sample in qualitative is determined by
convenience and representativeness. Discuss.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
quota sampling when the number of participants is more of a target than a steadfast
requirement that is, an approximate rather than a strict quota.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
d) When would you use purposive and quota sampling?
e) What is the difference between purposive and quota
sampling?
f) Snowball sampling is used to recruit hidden populations.
Discuss
In a qualitative study the investigator is the primary instrument for gathering and
analysing data. So, it is very important that the researcher maintain impartial if the
findings are to be accepted. As it is well established that humans make mistakes and to
err is human; it essential that the researcher is aware how his or her personal biases may
influence interpretation of data. Just as any research instrument is fallible, the human
instrument is even more susceptible to error. Merriam (1998) identified the following
skills required of qualitative researchers:
LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) Why is important for a researcher to have high tolerance for
ambiguity?
b) How does being a good communicator help a researcher
conduct qualitative research?
c) List other qualities of a good qualitative researcher.
Generally, it has been argued that when doing qualitative research, a substantial
amount of time should be spent in the field collecting data. However, there is less
agreement on how long should the researcher be in the field collecting data. If you are not
sure how much time be spent collecting data, read the literature in your area of research.
If you find that the research study you are referring to is too superficial and there is a lack
of in-depth explanation, than you may conclude that more time should be spent in
conducting the study. The length of time spent in collecting can be viewed from two
angles:
Span of Time how long?. 2 week, 1 month, 3 months and so forth
Degree of Contact The number of contact hours the researcher spent with the
person or persons.
For example, Researcher A who observes a group of low ability students at the
rate of 1 hour per week for a span of 6 months which comes to a total of 24 hours.
Researcher B who moves in with the family of a low ability student and observes the
learner during all his waking hours. Who spent more time collecting data? Researcher A
took more time gathering data if you are focusing on span of time. If you are focusing on
contact hours, than Researcher B took more time collecting data. Both conceptions of
time (span of time and contact hours) are important. A long span of time enables you to
see broad and overall patterns while long contact hours allow you to detect micro patterns
or details in the environment.
While it is not advisable to prescribe the length of data collection, it would be
wise for the researcher to address the issue of time both in terms of span and degree of
15
contact. This is a minimum requirement. It is best that the researcher justify the span of
time and degree of contact proposed. For instance, you might state that the X number of
contact hours would be sufficient to capture interesting patterns about the phenomenon
being observed.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Types of Validity
The issues of validity has been discussed to great length by qualitative
researchers. Validity in qualitative research is defined as whether the data is plausible,
16
credible and reliable, and can be defended when challenged. Unlike validity in
quantitative research which is more definite, validity in qualitative research is debatable.
There are some researchers who believe that the concept of validity as understood in
quantitative research is not congruent with qualitative research and as such should be
ignored. Others are of the opinion that effort should be made to ensure validity if the
results of qualitative research are to be believed, Maxwell (1992) identified three types of
validity that should be given attention in qualitative research.
They are of the opinion that generalisation is not important and is not consistent with the
qualitative paradigm or perspective. If generalisation is the objective, than quantitative
methods should be used and not qualitative methods. However, there are other
researchers who believe that efforts should be made to generalise findings of qualitative
research. These researchers argue that the in-depth description of a particular
phenomenon is sufficient for the researcher to make generalisations to other individuals
or individuals. To enable the findings of qualitative research to generalised, researchers
have proposed ways in which validity can he enhanced. Benz and Newman (1998)
proposed the following terms while discussing the issue of generalisation of qualitative
research findings:
On the issue of generalisation or external validity, Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest the
term transferability. They warned researchers to be careful when suggesting the
generalisation of qualitative research findings. If the reader of the report or other
researchers wish to generalise the findings of one study to another setting, it is their
responsibility. It is not necessary for the original researcher to show that the findings can
be generalised.
3. Member Checking:
To enhance internal validity, a researcher could return to the subjects who were
interviewed and check whether what you had recorded was what they had said in
the interview. For example, Is this what you meant when you said ..?. Or go
back to the subjects you had observed and ask them whether what you had
recorded about their behaviour is accurate. For example, Did you do this?.
Through this process of verification, the internal validity of qualitative research
can be enhanced.
4. Peer Review:
Discuss the interpretations and conclusions of the findings with a peer. Choose a
peer who is not involved in the study but is interested in what you are doing. A
person who is interested in the study is more likely to be critical and challenge
what you wrote. Involving a peer who is interested in your study will enhance the
likelihood that he or she will give an in-depth opinion about your data.
autocratic. To enhance the validity of your findings, you interview teachers from
another school where you suspect the principal is less autocratic and compare the
opinions of these teachers.
7. Reflexivity
One of the main issues with the validity of qualitative research is the likelihood of
the researchers values creeping into the interpretation of data. To minimise this
happening you critically examine critically yourself to detect any potential bias
and inclination that may influence the conclusions you make about the data.
Though no data can be hundred percent value free and objective, the researcher
should make serious effort to convince others that the level of objectivity of your
study has been maintained. If you had used other investigators in your study, you
should provide evidence that there was high inter-rate reliability and consistency
between investigators..
8. Audit Trail:
Audit trail is the keeping of detailed and accurate records of everything the
researcher did and of the data collected. Such records should be documented and
organised appropriately for retrieval purposes. These records should be made
available as evidence of data colleted when challenged as well as validation of the
interpretation of data.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
SUMMARY
If you find that the study to is too superficial and there is a lack of in-depth
explanation, than it may be conclude that more time should be spent in conducting
the study.
External validity is defined as the extent to which the findings of a study may be
generalised to another setting or another group of people.
Triangulation, member checking, negative case sampling and audit trail and some
techniques of enhancing qualitative research.
21
KEY WORDS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
REFERENCES
Davies, D., & Dodd, J. (2002). Qualitative research and the question of rigor. Qualitative
Health research, 12(2), 279-289.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. Eds.). (1998). The landscape of qualitative research:
Theories and issues. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1998) (Eds). Collecting and interpreting qualitative
materials. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication.
Glesne, C., & Peshkin, P. (1992). Becoming qualitative researches: An introduction. New
York, NY: Longman.
Healy, M., & Perry, C. (2000). Comprehensive criteria to judge validity and reliability of
qualitative research within the realism paradigm. Qualitative Market Research, 3(3), 118-
126.
Johnson, S. D. (1995, Spring). Will our research hold up under scrutiny? Journal of
Industrial Teacher Education, 32(3), 3-6.
Key, J. (1997). Oklahoma State University. Except for those materials which are supplied
by different departments of the University (ex. IRB, Thesis Handbook).
23
Kirk, J., & Miller, M. L. (1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research. Beverly
Hills: Sage Publications.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Marczak, M. & Sewell, M. (2006). Using Focus Groups for Evaluation. Cyferbet
Evaluation. The University of Arizona. Tucson.
Merriam, S. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory
procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.