Washington Navel Oranges

Nutritional value:
Oranges are high in vitamin C and fibre. Also contains vitamin A, thiamine and calcium.

Why was it chosen for the orchard?

Early variety
Tree fruit hold is good under unfavourable conditions
Cool conditions are favoured for growth

Major Disease:
Collar Rot (Fungal infection of the roots and trunks of citrus trees)
Life cycle:

Symptoms:
Gum oozes out from bark at ground level. Brown patches appear on stem.
Bark may appear wet in a patch near gum
Later bark dries out becomes brittle and splits. If not controlled, rot will spread
around trunk and ringbark tree.
Management:
Trees planted with graft union well above ground (50-150mm) and soil never built up
around the base of the tree.
Improve air circulation so humidity is decreased.
Avoid wetting trunk.
If disease occurs, cut away damaged bark with sharp knife and smooth wood
beneath.
Major Pest:
Citrus Leaf Miner
Life cycle:
1. Eggs are deposited along midrib of young leaves.
2. When larvae hatch out, they tunnel in leaf for 5-6 days.
3. When larvae is fully grown, it curls the edge of the leaf into a shelter and pupates
within.
4. Whole cycle takes 2-3 weeks in good conditions
Appearance:
Usually a caterpillar 3mm long, flat and yellow in colour.
Moth is silver to white in colour with fringed wings. Is very small about 2mm,
wingspan 5mm.
Symptoms:
Distinct silvery, snake like mine through leaves as they feed
Leaves are twisted and curled
New growth susceptible, older leaves too tough to attack
Infestation in young trees may cause severe retardation, in older trees no effect on
crop
Worst attacks occur late summer-early Autumn (March & April most hazardous)
Management:
Biological- Three Asian parasitic moths introduced to control pest.
Fertilising in winter to promote flush growth in spring when the pest is either absent
or relatively scarce.
Sprays are usually only required for control on young or vigorous trees in summer
and autumn use when summer flush occurs to prevent pest.

Calendar of Events:
Summer Irrigate as necessary
December Fertilise with Dynamic Lifter or
January Blood and Bone Plus*.
February
Autumn Irrigate as necessary
March Renew Wild May baits
April Dose trees with Epsom salts
May (magnesium sulphate)
Winter Harvest fruit after first cold
June weather strikes
July Fertilise with Dynamic Lifter or
August Blood and Bone Plus*.
Pick up any fallen fruit
Spring Spray fortnightly with mineral oil
September (if temperatures below 30 degrees
October C) for Citrus leaf miner prevention
November Irrigate as necessary
Dose trees with Epsom salts
 1. Prune off any shoots growing from rootstocks
2. Prune out any dead wood or rubbing branches
3. Skirt to 300mm above ground before flowering where it is needed
*Minimal pest spraying is practiced, and strategic fertilising to reduce new growth in
aphid active (autumn and spring)
Sustainable management:
Mulching with mowing, not wood chips
Pros Cons
Increase biodiversity More work needed
Environmentally friendly weed control Cost of mowing
Light mulch, recycling nutrients

Irrigation with overhead sprinklers

Pros Cons
Permanent and sturdy Wastes water
Can tell when not working Some trees get more than others
Easy to turn on Water may be blown elsewhere

Fertilising with Dynamic lifter, Blood and Bone (organic)

Pros Cons
Organic helps soil structure No immediate effect, slow break down
Doesnt make ground toxic More expensive
Smelly
Naturalised Kikuyu Grass
Grown for erosion control
Keeps trees cooler
Can be mowed and used as mulch
What markets are being met?
The James Ruse oranges are sold in the quadrangle to the Ruse community. In a wider
industry, Washington Navels are mainly sold as fresh fruit with only 40% used for fruit juice
and the rest processed for food additives.
Technology:
1. Oranges are washed to get rid of dust and dirt
2. They are waxed to stop them from drying out
3. They are graded for size, disease and blemish
4. Fungicide is sometimes applied to stop post-harvest rot
5. Sometimes a small stamp is stuck on
6. Packed into: cardboard boxes, nets, big cardboard bins
7. Refrigerated, transported by refrigerated trucks to market
8. Growers and agents use telephones, mobile phones, faxes to communicate about
sale of oranges.
Black box diagram:
Fertiliser Monitoring:
White oil pesticide
Oranges (ripe) Growth
Labour Input Output
Bad oranges pH of soil
Wax
Packaging Processes: Health
Fuel Growth Disease
Water Photosynthesis Pest
Epsom salts Nutrient absorption Yield
Pollination

Beef Cattle
Cattle Breeds in Commercial Beef Production:
British Breeds
Small-medium sized, early to mid- maturing, suitable for feedlots. They have an ability to
fatten early, and at light weights, and easy to finish on pasture or feedlots.
Angus Adaptable to large amounts of
climate
Ease of calving
Fast growth
Moderate-sized breed
Polled and black
Beef Shorthorn Adaptable to large amounts of
climate
Quite temperate
Highly fertile
Early weight gain
Early maturity (good milk
production)
Prime carcasses at early age
Murray Grey Angus x shorthorn cow
Easy care and versatile
Adequate fat cover
Ease of marbling
Native
Medium-sized breed
(Polled) Hereford Highly adaptable
Adaptable to lots of diets
Heavy weight (150-350kg)
Large population, able to be
grouped according to traits
European Breeds
Larger, later maturing. They fatten later, and at heavier weights, and are pretty difficult
to finish on pasture or feedlots
Simmental Large framed and muscular
Late maturing, high yielding
carcass
Excellent milking ability
Good for domestic market of lean
beef
Charolais Large framed, muscular and heavy
Late maturing
High growth rate
Can be horned or polled
Limousin Large framed, heavily muscled,
heavy
Late maturing with high growth
rate
Good quality carcase

Bos Indicus (Tropical breeds)

Brahman Resistant to parasites
Ability to grow on poor quality
food
Excellent carcasses
Muscular
Santa Gertrudis Brahman x shorthorn
Resistant to ticks and heat
Produces a lot of milk
High weight gains in feedlots or
pasture
Can be horned or polled
Belmont Red Hereford cross shorthorn and
Afrikaner animals
Resistant to ticks and heat
High milk production
High weight gains in feedlots or
pasture

Pure Breeding and Cross Breeding:

Pure breeding
Means 100% breed cross 100% breed which gives a pure 100% breed.
Inbreeding
Involves mating of close relatives, producing uniform line of animals but can bring
together undesirable genes.
Line breeding
Based on single common ancestor
High degree of uniformity of type and production obtained
Cross breeding
Mating two different breeds of the same species of animal
New genes brought into flock of the herd
Hybrids more vigorous in growth and less susceptible to disease than parents.
Pasture Finished and Feedlot Finished Production Systems:
Pasture finished:
Advantages Disadvantages
Cheapest method of production Pasture is vulnerable to climate
Excess pasture can be sold, bailed Can be seasonally unavailable
or made into hay Other varieties can grow in
pasture and be toxic to animal
Requires large area

Feed Lot
Are confined areas with watering and feeding facilities. Food is provided (usually grain-
based, hay or silage) so diet of cattle can be controlled.
Advantages Disadvantages
Very controlled environment as More expensive
nutrition also controlled Increased labour
Increased production and quality Expensive infrastructure
of animal leading to increased
carcase quality
Large amount of animal in small
area

Value Added Beef Products:

Value added beef products are made to generate more income. A beef product may be
processed to many forms or combined with other materials to increase market value.
Native and Introduced Pasture:
Native Pasture
Made up of plants that originated in Australia
High in fibre and have little leaf, meaning low feed value for grazing animals
Can be improved by the addition of fertilisers, irrigation and slashing
Some pastures grow in some areas for so long, that they are considered native
Pastures containing native plants and these plants growing in improved conditions
are turning into natural pastures (e.g. Kikuyu, and Paspalum can be natural
pastures)
E.g. Kangaroo Grass, Mitchell Grass, Wallaby Grass, Saltbush
Introduced Pastures
Contain a variety of plants introduced from overseas
These plants have a higher yield and better quality of output
E.g. Lucerne and kikuyu and Ryegrass
Pasture growth and Climate:
Pastures generally grow in spring and summer and become dormant in winter. Exceptions
are ryegrass and oats which grow in winter.
Grazing Systems:
System What is it? Advantages Disadvantages
Rotational grazing Animals move from one Run more stock in Less control on
paddock to the next. paddocks stock
Prevents Harder to round up
overgrazing stock
Prevents build-up
of pests
Strip grazing Sections of pastures are Breaks disease Labour
divided in by electric cycles Maintenance
fences. Wont degrade soil Time
Animals placed in these Prevents erosion Cost
areas in high numbers and Prevents soil
graze for set period compaction
Pasture is grazed section
by section
Cycle repeats when
completed
Cell grazing Animals are progressively Easy to manage A lot more
moved through a paddock Time saving expensive
by means of a series of Less control of
collapsible fences where they graze
Aims to allow young inside the paddock
animals first access to
good pasture

Zero grazing Pastures that are too Under high Costly

dense or high to be stocking rates, it Higher costs of
grazed effectively are can reduce machinery
often mowed and the trampling Nutrient
green feed given to especially on wet replacement
animals in feeders. Needs clay soils
to be cost effective.

Dehorning effects:
Dehorning is the removal of the horns from cattle. It is totally avoidable by breeding polled
cattle. Dehorning is done because horned cattle hurt and damage other cattle, get more
injuries, more difficult to handle, require more space and cause damage to gates.
Dehorning prevents many wounds, aggression, more risks to cattle handlers, harder
management, more space needed, harder to operate on, harder to transport, and attract
lower prices on the market.
Age of Castration:
Castration occurs when cattle are 3-4 months or younger. A vet must carry out castration
using anaesthetic when the animal is over 6 months old.
Past and Present Management Systems:
Pour on (present): Kills parasites, applied and absorbed through skin.
Dipping (past): Cattle walk through water mixed with drench to kill parasites.
Comparison: Pour on is more environmentally friendly as there is no dripping or spillage of
solution involved.
Effects of Current Practices:
Practice Short term effect Long term effect
Dehorning Pain Less injuries
Monitoring of wound Easier transportation
and animal required No bruised meat
Stress to animals
Drenching 42 day holding period Pests can develop
Animals safe from resistance.
parasites

Calendar or Operations:
Joining time is for 10 weeks so that the bull is present for three oestrus cycles
Timing of the joining period is so that calving occurs in term time.(Gestation period
of approximately 283 days)
Castration of bull calves using Elastrator rings is done in the first week of life, and
they have Ruse ear tag and a NLIS ear tag inserted also at this time.
The first vaccination of each calf with 5-in 1 Vaccine is done at 4-6 weeks of age,
then later a second vaccination after 4-6 weeks, and then 6 months after that.
Adult cattle are given a yearly booster of 5-in 1 vaccine when the first calf is given
its initial vaccination.
Female calves are tattooed, ear tagged with yellow Ruse identification tag and have
NLIS ear tag inserted at the first vaccination.
Lice treatment with a lousicide may be required after the first cold snap of winter if
itching is evident amongst the cattle.
Buffalo flies irritate the cattle in Summer- evident by the cattle constantly swishing
tails. An insecticide active for this pest is administered- The active ingredient
Ivermectin is recommended, and this is also effective against a range of internal
parasites.
In term 4, the fly traps are baited and placed near cattle resting areas.
Weaning takes place when calf is about 6 months old, using Easy-weaners applied to
the nose of the calf
** Beginning in 2012 calving time for the herd was changed from Autumn to Spring, to take
advantage of the spring growth of pastures and also so we do not have so many stock to
feed through the lean pastures of Winter.