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Structural response of high strength steel

hollow sections under combined biaxial
bending and compression

Conference Paper September 2017

DOI: 10.1002/cepa.410

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EUROSTEEL 2017, September 1315, 2017, Copenhagen, Denmark

Structural response of high strength steel hollow sections under

combined biaxial bending and compression
Michaela Gkantou*,a, Marios Theofanousa, Charalampos Baniotopoulosa
a
School of Engineering (Department of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston B15 2TT, UK)
m.gkantou@bham.ac.uk, m.theofanous@bham.ac.uk, c.baniotopoulos@bham.ac.uk

ABSTRACT
The benefits of high strength steel (HSS) as a structural material and its potential to lead to smaller
sections and thus lighter structures has increased its use in the construction industry. Current design
specifications for HSS are widely based on assumed analogies with normal strength steel, since they
are based on a limited number of test data on HSS sections that were available when these
specifications were published. Hence, their applicability to HSS requires assessment. Even though
research towards this direction has grown, literature on the structural response of HSS under
combined biaxial bending and compression is scarce. This paper presents a comprehensive
numerical study on the cross-sectional behaviour of S460 and S690 square and rectangular hollow
sections under biaxial bending and compression. Finite element models are developed and validated
against experimental results on 12 hot-finished S460 and S690 stub columns under uniaxial
eccentric compression. The numerically generated load-deformation curves, the ultimate loads and
the failure modes accurately replicate the experimental ones. Hence, the FE models are deemed able
to predict the behaviour of stub columns subjected to combined compression and bending. Upon
successful validation, extensive parametric studies aiming to generate additional structural
performance data are executed. Two aspect ratios, eight cross-sections with different thicknesses,
and forty-three combinations of initial loading eccentricities corresponding to different ratios of
axial load to bending moments about both axes, are investigated for both steel grades. The results
facilitate the determination of interaction failure surfaces and allow the assessment of relevant
design specifications. It is concluded that the capacity of Class 1 and Class 2 cross-sections is
adequately predicted by European design provisions, with some conservative predictions occurring
for S460 sections in the stocky slenderness range. For HSS semi-compact cross-sections under
combined loading, the Eurocode provisions appear rather conservative, whilst the capacity of
effective cross-sections is overall well-predicted.

Keywords: High Strength Steel (HSS), stub column, combined loading, interaction surface.

1 INTRODUCTION
Advances in manufacturing technology have enabled the use of high strength steel (HSS) grades in
the construction industry. The increased strength of HSS allows for smaller sizes in cross-sections
and members, resulting in material savings and thus profound sustainability gains. To facilitate the
application of HSS in construction, design codes have updated their contents, providing
specifications for the design of HSS members. However, owing to the limited pool of HSS test data
available when these codes were published, most of the design guidelines for HSS refer back to the
respective provisions for mild steel. Hence, their suitability to HSS needs to be evaluated.
Complementing the existing literature that investigates the structural performance of HSS [16], the
present paper examines the structural behaviour of stub columns subjected to biaxial bending and
compression that has been left relatively unexplored. Focus is placed upon the performance of S460
and S690 hot-finished square and rectangular hollow sections. Based on the obtained results,
Eurocode specifications [7, 8] are assessed.

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
2 NUMERICAL MODELLING
In order to investigate the structural performance of stub columns subjected to combined biaxial
bending and compression, numerical models were generated using the general purpose FE software
ABAQUS [9]. The experimental programme, upon which the validation of the numerical models of
the present study was based, is briefly presented. Thereafter, a detailed description of the numerical
modelling assumptions and the validation of the finite element models against the test data are
presented, followed by the conducted parametric studies.
2.1 Brief description of the experimental programme
An experimental programme was carried out at [4] in order to study the structural behaviour of high
strength steel hot-finished cross-sections under uniaxial eccentric compression. The tested cross-
sections were SHS 50505 in steel grade S460 and SHS 50505 and SHS 90905.6 in steel
grade S690. In total, twelve stub columns were tested to failure. Different loading eccentricities
resulting in different axial load to bending moment ratios were applied. In order to provide pin-
ended boundary conditions about the bending axis, knife edges were employed. LVDTs, strain
gauges and inclinometers were used for the measurement of the lateral displacements, the
longitudinal strains and the end-rotations respectively. Details on the test procedure,
instrumentation and results are given in [4].
2.2 Modelling assumptions
In line with past studies [35], the four-noded doubly curved shell elements S4R with reduced
integration and finite membrane strains were used for the development of the stub column
numerical models. Based on mesh convergence studies, it was established that a uniform mesh with
average element size equal to the sections thickness could accurately simulate the structural
response, whilst keeping the computational cost low.
The adopted material response was based on a series of tensile tests on S460 and S690 flat coupons,
reported in [5]. Typical stress-strain curves employed in the subsequent parametric studies are
presented in Fig. 1 [5]. It can be observed, that owing to the manufacturing process, the general
stress-strain form is similar to that of mild steel, with the S460 displaying more pronounced strain-
hardening.
900
800
700
Stress (/2)

600
500
400
300
S460 50505
200
100 S690 50505
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Strain

Fig. 1. Typical stressstrain curves from tensile flat coupon tests [5].

The von Mises yield criterion coupled with isotropic hardening was adopted as the material model
for metal plasticity herein. Before the input of the stress-strain values into the software, the
measured engineering stress-strain curves were converted to true stress-logarithmic plastic strain
form according to Eqs. (1)-(2),
= (1 + ) (1)

= ln(1 + ) (2)

where and are the engineering stress and strain respectively, is the Youngs modulus

and and are the true stress and logarithmic plastic strain respectively.

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
Appropriate boundary conditions were applied to mimic the loading and support conditions of the
tests. In order to prevent any deformation at the cross-section ends, the rigid body constrain was
employed to couple the degrees of freedom of the end sections of the specimens to the degrees of
freedom of a reference point (RP), located at a distance of 103 (equal to the thickness of the
knife edges) from the end sections, thus simulating the effect of the loading plates on which the end
sections were welded during the tests. A prescribed displacement was applied at the top RP, whilst
all other translational degrees of freedom were restrained. In order to introduce load eccentricity,
the RP was offset from the centroid of the section along the symmetry axis, as shown for a typical
numerical model of a rectangular hollow section in Fig. 2. The assigned boundary conditions are
also depicted in the same figure.

Rigid body at RP TOP

BC at RP TOP:
= = =0, 0, 0, 0

Rigid body at RP BOTTOM

BC at RP BOTTOM:
= = = =0, 0, 0

RP Bottom
RP Top

Fig. 2. Typical FE model for a rectangular hollow section.

In accordance with similar studies [35], initial geometric imperfections were explicitly
incorporated in the form of the lowest elastic bucking mode shape. In order to assess the influence
of the magnitude of the initial geometric imperfections on the overall response, five local geometric
imperfection magnitudes were considered, namely: t/100, /50, /10, where the plate thickness,
the maximum measured imperfection amplitude 0 reported in [4] and an imperfection amplitude
proposed by [10] and modified by [11] to Eq. (3),

= (3)

where is the yield strength of the plate material, is the theoretical local buckling stress of the
most slender constituent element of the section and coefficient = 0.028, as proposed for normal
strength carbon steel hot-rolled rectangular hollow sections in [12].
Residual stress measurements of the high strength steel hot-finished cross-sections have been
reported in [5]. Low magnitudes, namely 5.5% and 3.1% of the yield strength for the tensile and
compressive residual stresses respectively, were found. Owing to the low magnitude of membrane
residual stresses, residual stresses were not explicitly considered in the FE models. Upon generation
of the numerical models, the modified Riks method [9] was applied for the execution of non-linear
static analysis, taking account of material and geometric nonlinearities.
2.3 Validation of the FE models
The experimental behaviour of the eccentric stub columns is replicated numerically. The
numerically generated load-end-rotation curves of two typical specimens for five different initial
geometric imperfection amplitudes are plotted together with the experimental ones in Fig. 3, whilst
typical experimental and numerical failure modes are illustrated in Fig. 4. Overall a very good
agreement in terms of the initial stiffness, the overall load-end-rotation behaviour and the obtained

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
failure mode can be observed for both steel grades. Similar agreement between numerical and
experimental results was observed for the remaining specimens. The numerical-to-experimental
ratios of ultimate loads (, /, ) and moments (, /, ) are summarized in Table 1
for all initial geometric imperfection amplitudes considered. A fairly accurate agreement between
the numerical and the experimental results has been achieved for all considered initial geometric
imperfection amplitudes. More accurate and consistent predictions, namely with a mean value of
, /, and , /, equal to 0.92 and 0.98 respectively, have been observed for the
measured and the /50 imperfection amplitude. The latest has been adopted in the parametric
studies presented herein. The same amplitude has been found to accurately predict the experimental
response of S460 and S690 concentrically loaded stub columns [3] and beams [5].
1000
250

200 800

Load (kN)
Load (kN)

150 600 Experimental

Experimental
FE - measured imperfection FE - measured imperfection
100 400 FE - Dawson & Walker
FE - Dawson & Walker
FE - t/100 FE - t/100
50 200 FE - t/50
FE - t/50
FE - t/10 FE - t/10
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
End-rotation (deg) End-rotation (deg)
a) S460 SHS 50505 (0 =20.22mm) b) S690 SHS 90905.6 (0 =25.49mm)
Fig. 3. Experimental and numerical load-end-rotation curves.

a) S460 SHS 50505 (0 =20.22mm) b) S690 SHS 90905.6 (0 =5.37mm)

Fig. 4. Experimental and numerical failure modes.

Table 1. Comparison of FE and test data.

Imperfection amplitude
0 /100 /50 /10
0, , , , , , , , , , ,
Cross-section
()
, , , , , , , , , ,
5 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.94 0.94 0.96
S460 SHS 10 0.91 0.93 0.91 0.92 0.91 0.93 0.91 0.93 0.90 0.53
50505 20 0.92 0.95 0.92 0.95 0.92 0.95 0.91 0.95 0.91 0.92
30 0.87 0.86 0.87 0.86 0.87 0.86 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85
5 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.95 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.95
S690 SHS 10 0.89 0.97 0.89 0.97 0.89 0.97 0.89 0.97 0.89 0.96
50505 15 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01
20 0.94 0.84 0.94 0.84 0.94 0.84 0.94 0.84 0.94 0.84
5 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.93 1.01 0.92 0.97
S690 SHS 10 0.89 1.00 0.89 1.00 0.89 1.00 0.89 1.00 0.89 0.97
90905.6 25 0.96 1.09 0.96 1.12 0.96 1.12 0.96 1.09 0.95 0.94
30 0.94 1.21 0.94 1.23 0.94 1.23 0.94 1.21 0.93 1.06
Mean 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.98 0.92 0.91
COV 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.03 0.10 0.03 0.15

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
2.4 Parametric studies
Upon successful validation of the stub column numerical models against the experimental results
reported in [4], an extensive parametric study was performed in order to generate additional
structural performance data and investigate further the cross-sectional response of high strength
steel cross-sections under combined loading. In order to study the effect of the cross-sectional
slenderness, eight cross-sections with a / ratio ranging from 10 to 60 were modelled, where is
the compressed flat width, is the plate thickness and = 235/ . Two cross-section aspect
ratios (/=1.00 and /=2.00) were considered for each steel grade.
Since the numerical models were able to accurately predict the ultimate cross-section response
under combined uniaxial bending and compression, it was assumed that equally accurately the
cross-sectional behaviour under biaxial eccentric compression could be estimated. The studied
parameters included 43 eccentricities at which compression was applied, thus resulting in 43
combinations of axial compression, major and minor axis bending moments and corresponding
stress ratios. Note that as defined in [13], the stress ratio is the ratio of the stress on the most
heavily compressed side of the cross-section to that on the least heavily compressed (or most
tensioned) side, assuming elastic material behaviour, with =1.00 corresponding to pure
compression and =-1.00 to pure bending. The subscripts y and z adopted hereafter correspond to
bending about the major and the minor axis respectively. The stub column numerical models
incorporated the average material properties obtained from the tensile coupon tests for each steel
grade [5]. In line with the experiments in [4], the member length was set equal to three times the
largest cross-section dimension, thus allowing an adequate representation of the initial local
geometric imperfection, whilst excluding global buckling failure mode [14]. Local geometric
imperfections were introduced in the form of the lowest elastic buckling mode shape with an
amplitude of /50. In total, 1376 analyses were executed within the scope of the present paper.
For the execution of the parametric studies, the use of python scripting significantly increased the
efficiency of the required work. The analyses were conducted using the supercomputer Bluebear of
the University of Birmingham, thus reducing significantly the computational time.
The ultimate load bearing capacity and the corresponding moment about both the major and the
minor axis at mid-height accounting for the second order effects , were determined from each
analysis. Normalising the load bearing capacity with for fully-effective and for sections
of reduced effectiveness and the moment capacity with for Class 1 and Class 2 sections,
for Class 3 sections and for Class 4 sections, failure interaction surfaces were
developed for each studied cross-section. A typical numerically obtained failure surface is shown in
Fig. 5. Typical failure modes are also depicted.

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
 Pure compression
( = =0)
Compression and bending
about the major axis
- plane ( =0)

Compression and bending

about the minor axis
- plane ( =0)

Bending about the major

and the minor axis
- plane (=0)

Uniaxial bending about

the major axis
(= =0)
Uniaxial bending
about the minor axis
(= =0)

Fig. 5. Typical numerically obtained interaction surface for sections under biaxial bending and compression.

3 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

The obtained results are used for the assessment of the Eurocode design provisions [7, 8]. Firstly,
the utilisation ratio, on the basis of which the Eurocode provisions are assessed, is defined. The
Eurocode interaction surfaces for Class 1 and 2, Class 3 and Class 4 square and rectangular cross-
sections are subsequently assessed. The suitability of the design surface proposed in [15] for Class 3
sections is also examined.
3.1 Definition of utilisation ratio
In order to assess the ability of the codified interaction surfaces to accurately predict the ultimate
response of the HSS sections studied herein, the utilisation ratio of the test or FE to the predicted
capacity ( / or / ) is employed. The utilisation ratio is graphically defined in Fig.
6, showing that values lower than unity correspond to points inside the boundary of the design
surface and thus to unsafe design predictions and vice versa.

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
 Predicted
failure surface

FE failure
surface

Fig. 6. Definition of utilisation ratio for sections under biaxial bending and compression.

3.2 Assessment of design specifications

On the basis of the results, a summary of the utilisation ratios is presented in Table 2. The obtained
utilisation ratios will be discussed in detail hereafter.
Table 2. Assessment of design predictions based on utilisation ratios of the test or FE to the predicted capacities.
/ or /
Class 1 and 2 Class 3 Class 4
No. of test
Cross- No. of FE linear transition No. of
or FE EC3 EC3 EC3
section results from to FE results
results
S460 - test 4 1.29 - N/A N/A - N/A
S690 - test 8 1.07 - N/A N/A - N/A
S460 - FE 430 1.08 86 1.37 1.14 172 1.23
S690 - FE 430 1.04 86 1.37 1.14 172 1.23
Mean 1.06 1.37 1.14 1.23
COV 0.10 0.12 0.07 0.11

For Class 1 and 2 cross-sections under combined biaxial bending and compression, Clause
6.2.9.1(5) of Eurocode 3 [7] provides Eqs. (4)-(9) for determining the resistance of square and
rectangular structural hollow sections.

, ,
( ) +( ) 1 (4)
,, ,,
1.66
= = 11.132 6 or conservatively = = 1 (5)
,, = ,, (1 )/(1 0.5 ) but ,, ,, (6)
,, = ,, (1 )/(1 0.5 ) but ,, ,, , (7)
= /, (8)
= ( 2 )/ but 0.5 and = ( 2 )/ but 0.5 (9)
where is the design axial compressive load, , is the cross-section yield load ( ), ,
is the reduced cross-section moment resistance to allow for the presence of axial load and , is
the cross-section plastic moment capacity ( ). For the cases of uniaxial bending and
compression and for the case of biaxial bending, the results are shown in Fig. 7(a) and Fig. 7(b)
respectively. In Fig. 7(a) the continuous line is the Eurocode limit for the case of combined
compression and bending about the major axis, whilst the dashed one is for the case of combined
compression and bending about the minor axis. It can be seen that the results generally follow the

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
trend of the Eurocode interaction equation, though predictions are rather conservative in the case of
stocky cross-sections (low / ratios), particularly for the S460 steel. This conservatism is due to
the fact that Eurocode provisions do not account for the effect of strain-hardening, which can allow
stocky cross-sections to reach stresses exceeding their yield strength. The conservatism of the
Eurocode design provisions is therefore most pronounced for those cross-sections that are most
resistant to local buckling (i.e. low local slenderness) and hence have high deformation capacity and
for materials that exhibit a high level of strain-hardening, which is more pronounced in lower
strength steel grades. The graphical comparison shows that the existing interaction curves are
generally applicable to high strength steel square and rectangular hollow sections. Similar
conclusions can be drawn from the numerical comparisons regarding Class 1 and 2 sections
presented in Table 2.
2.0 1.6
FE - S460 - SHS & RHS MAJOR FE - S460
1.8 FE - S690 - SHS & RHS MAJOR 1.4
1.6 FE - S690
FE - S460 - RHS MINOR 1.2
1.4 FE - S690 - RHS MINOR
My/z/Mpl,y/z

1.2 1.0

Mz / Mpl,z
EXP - S460 - SHS
1.0 EXP - S690 - SHS 0.8
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4 increasing
0.4 increasing c/t
0.2 0.2
c/t
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
N / Afy My / Mpl,y
a) uniaxial bending and compression b) pure biaxial bending
Fig. 7. ssessment of Eurocode interaction curves based on the results of Classes 1 and 2 sections.

The suitability of the Eurocode Class 2 limit for internal elements in compression can be assessed
by presenting the results grouped per cross-section slenderness, as given in Table 3. As can be
observed, utilisation ratios lower than unity (i.e. unsafe predictions) were obtained for the cross-
sections with /=35. Adopting the recommendation given in [5], changing the Class 2 limit from
38 to 34, the presently studied cross-sections with /=35 would move to Class 3, thereby
excluding unsafe predictions. The present study supports the adoption of 34 as suitable Eurocode
Class 2 limit.
Table 3. assessment of the Eurocode Class 2 limit for internal elements in compression.
/ or /
S 460 S 690
Cross-section slenderness No. of test or FE
No. of test or FE results EC3 EC3
c/t results
10 4 exp 1.29 4 exp 1.08
86 FE 1.36 86 FE 1.17
4 exp 1.06
20 86 1.16
86 FE 1.07
25 86 1.07 86 1.03
30 86 1.02 86 1.01
35 86 0.99 86 0.98
MEAN 1.08 1.06
COV 0.12 0.10

For Class 3 cross-sections, Eurocode [7] provides the linear N-M interaction expression of Eq. (10).
, ,
+ + 1 (10)
,, ,,
where , is the elastic moment capacity ( ) of the cross-section and all other symbols, as
previously defined.
As can be seen in Table 2, overly conservative predictions, with an average utilisation ratio equal to
1.37, have been found for Class 3 sections. This owes largely to the fact that Eurocode assumes a

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
step transition in the moment resistance for Class 3 sections, whereas in reality the transition from
the plastic to the elastic moment resistance is gradual and hence the moment resistance of Class 3
sections is higher than the respective elastic moment resistance, particularly for cross-sections the
slenderness of which is close to the Class 2 limit. Aiming to improve the conservative estimations,
Taras et al. [15] recommended the use of a linear transition between the and , which can be
implemented as follows: i) determination of the strength for pure bending on the basis of the linear
interpolation between the and resistances according to the / ratio of the most slender
element; ii) estimation of the reduced bending capacity ,,/ (by 1-n for the hollow sections) to
account for the effect of axial forces; iii) application of the nonlinear interaction formula of Eq. (11)
with case-specific exponents and of Eqs. (12)-(13) in order to account for the effect of biaxial
bending. Note that the aforementioned exponents are different from those given for Class 1 and 2
by Eurocode.

, ,
( ) +( ) 1 (11)
,, ,,
1.66
== 2 + 4 [(1 max(/,/ ))]4 (12)
1 1.132
= /, (13)
Implementing this approach [15], the design interaction surface of Fig. 8 is developed. The linear
interaction surface as suggested by Eurocode is also depicted in the same graph for comparison
purposes. The attained utilisation ratios based on the two design approaches are presented in Table
2, showing that the method proposed in [15] is able to significantly improve the predictions and
reduce their scatter. Its adoption is therefore supported in this paper.

Eurocode linear
interaction surface [7]

Design interaction
surface of [15]

Fig.8. Design interaction surface of Eurocode and of [15].

For Class 4 cross-sections under combined axial load and bending, the linear N-M interaction
expression given by Eq. (14) is provided in Eurocode [7].
, + , +
+ + 1 (14)
,, ,,
where the effective area of the cross-section when subjected to uniform compression,
, is the effective section modulus (corresponding to the fibre with the maximum elastic
stress) of the cross-section when subjected only to bending about the relevant axis, and is the
shift in the relevant neutral axis of the effective cross-section under pure compression (which is
zero for doubly symmetric sections as examined herein); all other parameters are as previously
defined. Table 2 shows that Eurocode equation can safely but slightly conservatively predict the
capacity of Class 4 cross-sections. Overall Eurocode effective width equations are considered
applicable to HSS sections.

Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)
4 SUMMARY&CONCLUSIONS
In this paper the cross-sectional response of S460 and S690 square and rectangular hollow sections
subjected to biaxial bending and compression has been studied. Upon successful validation of the
numerical models against the test results reported in [4], extensive parametric studies were
executed. Interaction failure surfaces were developed for each modelled cross-section, thus
allowing the assessment of current Eurocode provisions [7, 8]. For Class 1 and 2 sections, the
capacity is generally well predicted by the European design provisions [7, 8], with only the capacity
of very stocky S460 sections being underpredicted. For Class 3 sections, Eurocode appears rather
conservative, whilst the gradual transition from to provides more accurate and less
scattered ultimate capacity predictions. Finally, the effective width equation for internal elements
codified in [7] is deemed applicable to HSS SHS and RHS.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The research leading to these results has received funding from the Research Fund for Coal and
Steel (RFCS) under grant agreement No. RFSR CT 2012-00028. The first author acknowledges the
partial financial support of the School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK for her
participation to the EUROSTEEL 2017 Conference.

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Ernst & Sohn Verlag fr Architektur und technische Wissenschaften GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin CE/papers (2017)

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