Chapter 2

Stresses of soil
Contents

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Stresses of soil
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical Stress
2.4 Lateral earth pressure at rest, active and
passive
2.5 Lateral earth pressure
2.5.1 Rankine earth pressure
2.5.2 Coulomb earth pressure
2.5.3 Culmann earth pressure
2.6 Design Applications
2.1 Introduction
An important task of a geotechnical engineer is
to determine the stresses and strains that are
imposed on a soil by external loads
Soils are not homogeneous, elastic, rigid bodies,
so the determination of stresses and strains in
soil is a particularly difficult task
However, it is customary in design of
geotechnical systems to assume that the strains
in the soils are small and this assumption allows
us to apply our knowledge of mechanics of
elastic bodies to soils
2.1 Introduction (continued)

Small strains mean infinitesimal strains

One can obtain reasonable estimates of
the settlement of foundations in the early
stages of loading using elastic analysis if
one could determine accurate values of
elastic parameters
An important assumption in this chapter is
that soil is an elastic material
2.1 Introduction (continued)

Learning Objectives:
Calculate stresses and strains in soils from
external loads
Determine the stress state in soil mass
Determine the lateral earth pressure
2.2 Stresses of soil
A major problem in geotechnical analysis is the
estimation of the state of stress at a point at a
particular depth in a soil mass
Generally, the soil is assumed to be both
homogeneous and isotropic
the state of stress at any point within an elastic,
homogeneous, and isotropic medium can be
described by six components of stress three of
being normal stresses and the other three being
shear stresses
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
The normal stress in any direction is
denoted by with a subscript of the
respective direction,
The shearing stress is denoted by with
two subscripts, first denotes the direction
of the normal to the plane on which acts
and the second denotes the direction in
which acts
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)

The stresses that exist within a soil could

be as a result of its own weight or as a
result of applied forces
For purposes of calculating settlements,
one only interested in the vertical stress,
z due to any loading system
So, attention will mainly be given to its
determination under vertical loads of
different types, applied at the surface
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)

Stresses in soil

Induced by the
Induced by
self weight of
applied loads
the soil
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
in most soil problems the induced stresses
are:
(i) low enough to be well below the yield
stress of the soil and it can be assumed
that the soil will behave elastically (e.g.
immediate settlement problems), or
(ii) high enough for the soil to fail by plastic
yield (bearing capacity and earth pressure
problems), where it can be assumed that
the soil will behave as a plastic material
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
Yielding of a material occurs when plastic or
permanent deformation is initiated.
The stresses at yield are called yield stresses.
Imposed stresses below the yield stresses will
cause the material to behave elastically while
stresses above the yield stresses will cause
permanent deformation in addition to elastic
deformation
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
Continuously increase the 1 while 3 = 0. When the
yield stress is reached, its value will be plotted in
stress space, 1 versus 3 as shown on the
following figures and one can no longer increase 1
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)

On the other hand, if one continuously increase the

3 while 1 = 0. When the yield stress is reached, its
value will be plotted in stress space, 1 versus 3 as
shown on the following figures and one can no
longer increase 3
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)

Yield curve:
Linking all the yield points or yield loci gives a curve called
the yield curve.
Combination of stresses that are within the yield curve will
cause the material to behave elastically.
Combination of stresses that lie on the yield curve will initiate
yielding.
Combination of stresses that are outside of the yield curve
will cause the material to behave elasto-plastically, i.e. there
would be elastic and plastic (permanent) deformation.
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
Principle of Effective Stress
The principle of effective stress states that the effective stress
is the total stress less the pore water pressure
The principle of effective stress was first recognized by
Terzaghi (1883-1963) in the mid 1920s during his research into
soil consolidation (chapter 6).
The principle of effective stress is the most important principle
in Soil Mechanics
The principle of effective stresses applies only to normal
stresses and not shear stresses
Deformations of soils are a function of effective stresses and
not total stresses
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
Let us consider an element of a saturated soil subjected to
a stress, , applied on the horizontal boundary as shown in
figure.
This stress is called the total stress.
For equilibrium (Newtons third law) the stress in the soil
must be equal and opposite to .
The resistance to is provided by a combination of the
stresses from the solids called effective stress , and from
pressure in the pore fluid and gases.
If the soil is saturated, the pressure in the pore is due only
to the pore fluid, which in most cases is water.
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
The pressure of water in excess of that required for
saturation, will known as pore water pressure, u.
The pressure set up in the pore water from loads is called
excess pore water pressure, u.
The pore water cannot sustain shear stresses and therefore
the soil solids must resist the shear forces.
Thus, the total shear stress is the effective shear stress.
The effective stress is not the contact stress between the
soil solids.
Rather, it is the average stress on a plane, A-A, through the
soil mass.
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
The equation for effective stress is:
= - u or = - u
 2.2 Stresses of soil (continued)
The essential points are:

1. An elastic material recovers its original configuration on unloading; an elasto-

plastic material undergoes both elastic (recoverable) and plastic (permanent)
deformation during loading.

2. Soils are elasto-plastic materials.

3. At small strains, soils behave like an elastic material and thereafter like an
elasto- plastic material.

4. The locus of the stresses at which a soil yields is called a yield surface. Stresses
below the yield surface cause the soil to respond elastically; stresses beyond the
yield surface cause the soil to respond elasto-plastically.
2.2.1 Stresses induced by the self weight
of the soil

there is one common situation in which

the weight of soil gives rise to a very
simple pattern of stresses: when the
ground surface is horizontal and when
the nature of the soil varies but little in
the horizontal directions
often exists in sedimentary soils, and are
called geostatic stresses
2.2.1 Stresses induced by the self weight
of the soil (continued)
Geostatic
stresses

Vertical Horizontal
geostatic geostatic
stress stress

Back
2.2.1.1 Vertical Geostatic Stress
There are no shear stresses upon vertical and
horizontal planes within the soil
The vertical geostatic stress at any depth can
be computed simply by considering the weight
of soil above that depth
Hence, if the unit weight of the soil is constant
with depth,
v = z (4.1)

which, z = depth of the soil,

= total unit weight of the soil
2.2.1.1 Vertical Geostatic Stress
(continued)
However, the unit weight is seldom
constant with depth
Usually, a soil will become denser with
depth because of the compression
caused by the geostatic stress
2.2.1.1 Vertical Geostatic Stress
(continued)
Example 2.1:
A 3m layer of sand, of saturated unit weight
18kN/m3, overlies a 4m layer of clay, of saturated
unit weight 20kN/m3. If the ground water level
occurs within the sand at 2m below the ground
surface, determine the total and effective vertical
stresses acting at the centre of the clay layer.
The sand above ground water level may be
assumed to be saturated.
2.2.1.1 Vertical Geostatic Stress (continued)
Solution:
For this sort of problem it is usually best to draw a
diagram to represent the soil conditions
2.2.1.1 Vertical Geostatic Stress
(continued)
Total vertical stress at centre of clay, v
= Total weight of soil above
= 2m saturated clay + 3m saturated sand
= (2 x 20) + (3 x 18)
= 94 kN/m2
Effective stress, v
= Total stress Water pressure
= 94 10 (2+1)
= 64 kN/m2
Back
2.2.1.2 Horizontal Geostatic Stress

The ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is

called the coefficient of lateral stress or
lateral stress ratio, K:
K = h/v (4.2)
This definition of K is used whether or not the
stresses are geostatic, for instance Ko
(coefficient of lateral stress at rest, or lateral
stress ratio at rest), Ka (coefficient of active
lateral stress), & Kp (coefficient of passive
lateral stress)
2.2.1.2 Horizontal Geostatic Stress

Even when the stresses are geostatic,

the value of K can vary over a rather
wide range depending on whether the
ground has been stretched or
compressed in the horizontal direction
by either the forces of nature or the
works of man
For instance, Ko for a sedimentary soil
(a sand deposit) will typically have a
value between 0.4 and 0.5
2.2.1.2 Horizontal Geostatic Stress

On the other hand, the horizontal stress

can exceed the vertical stress is a soil
deposit has been heavily preloaded in the
past.
In effect, the horizontal stresses were
locked-in when the soil was previously
loaded by additional overburden, and did
not disappear when this loading was
removed
For this case, Ko may well reach a value
of 3
2.2.1.2 Horizontal Geostatic Stress

The range of horizontal stresses at rest

condition have been depicted in the following
figure

Back
2.2.2 Stresses Induced by Applied Loads
Theory of elasticity are often used to compute
the stresses induced within soil masses by
externally applied loads
Assumption:
(i) stress is proportional to strain
(ii) soil is homogeneous (its properties are
constant from point to point) and isotropic
(its properties are the same in each direction
through a point)
However, soil seldom if ever exactly fulfills, and
often seriously violates, these assumptions
2.2.2 Stresses Induced by Applied Loads
(continued)

There are four cases that will be

considered in this chapter:
(i) Vertical stress caused by uniform load
over wide area
(ii) Vertical stress caused by a point load
(iii) Vertical stress caused by a line load
(iv) Vertical stress caused by strip load
(v) Vertical stress below the center of a
uniformly loaded circular area
2.2.2.1 Vertical stress caused by uniform
load over wide area

In the case of a uniform loading spread over

a large area, can be assumed that the same
value of vertical stress is induced at the
same depth throughout the soil
2.2.2.1 Vertical stress caused by uniform
load over wide area (continued)
Example 2.2:
Details of the subsoil conditions at a site are
shown in figure following together with details of
the soil properties. The ground surface is
subjected to a uniform loading of 60kN/m2 and
the ground water level is 1.2m below the upper
surface of the silt. It can be assumed that the
gravel has a degree of saturation of 50 per cent
and that the silt layer is fully saturated. Determine the
vertical effective stress acting at a point 1m above
the silt/rock interface.
2.2.2.1 Vertical stress caused by uniform
load over wide area (continued)
 2.2.2.1 Vertical stress caused by uniform
load over wide area (continued)
Solution:
Bulk unit weight of gravel = w Gs eS r 10 2.65 0.65 x0.5
1 e 1 0.65

= 18.03 = 18kN/m3
Saturated weight of silt = w G s e 10 2.58 0.76
1 e 1 0.76

= 18.98 = 19kN/m3
Effective vertical stress at 1m above silt/rock interface
= (uniform pressure applied at ground surface) +
(total pressure due to weight of soils) (water pressure)
= 60 + (1.8 x 18 + 4.2 x 19) (3 x 10)
= 142.2 kN/m2
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load
Boussinesq (1885) presented a solution for the
distribution of stresses for a point load applied on
the soil surface (for ideally elastic, isotropic and
homogeneous medium)
Westergaards solution for elastic and non-
isotropic medium is not included in this chapter
An example of a point load is the vertical load
transferred to the soil from an electric power line
pole
Boussinesqs equations may be expressed in
terms of either rectangular or polar coordinates
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Using rectangular coordinates (x, y, z), his
expression for vertical stress at a given
point due to a point load (P) at the surface
is:
3Pz 3 (4.3)
z
2R 5
Where: P = concentrated load,
R = (z2 + r2)1/2
r = (x2 + y2)1/2
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Using polar coordinates (r, , z), his
expression for vertical stress at a given
point due to a point load (P) at the surface
is:
3

P 3z

P
(3 cos ) (4.4) 5

2 (r 2 z 2 ) 5 / 2 2 z 2
z

Equation 4.4 can be written in terms of an

influence factor, I, where
5/ 2
3 1 (4.5)
I
2 1 ( r / z )2
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
The equation 4.4 has been simplified to:
I
P (4.6)
z
z2

Values of I against values of r/z are shown

in figure and table following
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Values of I

P
z I 2
z

Figure: Influence coefficients for vertical stress

from a concentrated load (after Boussinesq, 1885)
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Table 2.1:
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Example 2.3:
A concentrated load of 400kN acts on the surface
of a soil. Determine the vertical stress increments
at points directly beneath the load to a depth of
10m.
Solution:
For points direct below the load, r = 0 and all
depths r/z = 0,
(i) from figure, it is seen that I = 0.48 or
(ii) based on table, it is seen that I = 0.478
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)
Figure following shows the variations of z
vertically with depth and horizontally offset
from the load point
The left-hand side of the figure shows the
variation of z with z on the vertical through
the point of application of the load, P (i.e. for r
= 0): the right-hand side of the figure shows
the variation of z with r for three different
values of z
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a point
load (continued)

Figure:
Variation of
vertical stress
due to
point load
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load
A line load is assumed to have length, but not
width, and to be uniformly loaded along the
length
Referring to following figure, the vertical stress at
point A due to a line load of Q per unit length on
the surface are as follows:
2Q z3 (4.7)
z .
( x2 z 2 )2
A practical example of a line load is the load from
a long brick wall
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)

Figure : Vertical stress caused by line load

2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)

Example 2.4:
Figure following shows two line loads and a
point load acting at the ground surface.
Determine the increase in vertical stress at
point A, which is located at a depth of 1.5m
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)
2.2.2.2 Vertical stress caused by a line
load (continued)

Solution:
Referring to Figure (b) through (d), we find that
p = p1 + p2 + p3
2Q1 z 3 2Q2 z 3 3P z3
= ( x12 z 2 ) 2
+ ( x2 2 z 2 ) 2
+ 2 (r 2 z 2 ) 5 / 2

Eqn. (4.7) Eqn. (4.7) Eqn. (4.4)

(2)(15)(1.5)3 (2)(10)(1.5) 3 (3)(30) (1.5)3
= (2) 2 (1.5) 2
+ +
2
(4) (1.5)
2 2 2

(2)( ) (3) 2 (4) 2 (1.5) 2
5/ 2

= 0.825 + 0.065 + 0.012

= 0.902 kN/m2
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load

A strip load is the load transmitted by a

structure of finite width and infinite length
on a soil surface
A common example of strip load is a load
that imposes a uniform stress on soil, for
example the middle section of a long
embankment
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)

Vertical stress,
p
q
sin cos 2 .......(Eqn.4.8)

Table following shows the variation of

p/q with 2z/B for 2x/B.
This table can be used conveniently for
the calculation of vertical stress at a point
caused by a flexible strip load
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)

Table 2.2: Variation of p/q with 2z/B and 2x/B

2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)

Example 2.5:
With reference to figure shown before, we
are given q = 200 kN/m2, B = 6 m, and z =
3 m. Determine the vertical stress
increase at x = 6, 3 and 0 m. Plot a
graph of p against x.
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)
Solution:
The following Table 4.3 can be made:
x (m) 2x/B 2z/B P/q P
(kN/m2)
6 2 1 0.078 15.6

3 1 1 0.480 96.0

0 0 1 0.818 163.6
2.2.2.3 Vertical stress caused by strip
load (continued)
The plot of P against x is given below:
p(kN/m2)
2.2.2.4 Vertical stress below the Center of
a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area

Using Boussinesqs solution for vertical stress

caused by a point load, one can also
develop an expression for the vertical stress
below the center of a uniformly loaded flexible
circular area
Das (1999) alters the equation a bit into:

1
q 1
R / z 2

1 3/ 2

........(Eqn.4.9)
2.2.2.4 Vertical stress below the Center of
a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
(continued)
The variation of /q with z/R obtained
from Eqn. (4.9) is given in Table 4.4.
A plot of this variation is shown in figure
following.
The value of decreases rapidly with
depth, and, at z = 5R, it is about 6% of q,
which is the intensity of pressure at the
ground surface.
2.2.2.4 Vertical stress below the Center of
a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
(continued) z/R /q
0 1
0.02 0.9999
0.05 0.9998
0.10 0.9990
0.2 0.9925
Table 2.4: Variation of /q
0.4 0.9488
with z/R
0.5 0.9106
0.8 0.7562
1.0 0.6465
1.5 0.4240
2.0 0.2845
2.5 0.1996
3.0 0.1436
4.0 0.0869
5.0 0.0571
2.2.2.4 Vertical stress below the Center of
a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
(continued)

Figure: Stress under the center of a uniformly loaded

flexible circular area (Source: Das, Braja M., 2002)
2.2.2.4 Vertical stress below the Center of
a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
(continued)

Figure: Intensity of stress under the center of a uniformly loaded

circular flexible area (Source: Das, Braja M., 2002)
2.2.2.5 Vertical stress due to a
rectangularly loaded area
Method 1: Influence charts for vertical stress
increments
Using Boussinesqs solution, the increase of
vertical stress at point A, z m below the
corner of footing of L x B with q distributed
load per unit area with m Bz and n Lz can be
determined
m and n are interchangeably.
The variation of Iz with m and n can be
determined from figure following
2.2.2.5 Vertical stress due to a
rectangularly loaded area (continued)

B L 3qz3 (dxdy)
d qI z
y 0 x 0
2 x 2 y 2 z
2 5/ 2

Figure: Vertical stress at point A due to a rectangularly loaded area

 Figure A: Influence value for
vertical stress under corner of a
uniformly loaded rectangular
area (after U.S. Navy, 1971)
(Source: Budhu, M., 2007)
 Figure: Calculation of vertical stress at point A

Stress increase at A can be calculated as :

qI z 1 I z 2 I z 3 I z 4
Example 2.1:-
Given : A flexible footing of 5 ft x 10 ft in plan
supports 2000 lb/ft2
Find : Vertical stress increase at 12.5 deep.
Solution :
Refer to Table 4.2 (Braja M. Das) or Figure A
5 10
B1 B2 2.5 ft; L1 L2 5 ft;
2 2
B1 B2 2.5 L1 L2 5
m 0.2; n 0.4
z z 12.5 z z 12.5
with..m 0.2..and..n 0.4;...I 0.0328;..thus
p = q0(4I) = 2000(4)(0.0328) = 262.4 lb/ft2
Case: Average vertical stress increase due to
a rectangularly loaded area for more than 1
layer

average stress increase, pav below the

corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular
area
p av q0 I a
Figure 4.2: Average pressure increase between z=H1 to z=H2 below
the corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area
for layered soil; the average stress increase,
pav below the corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area
H 2 I a ( H 2 ) H 1 I a H1
p av( H 2 / H1 ) q0
H 2 H 1

Where:
m = B/H and n = L/H;
refer to Figure 4.2 for parameters H1, H2 and
z
Ia can be found out from Figure 4.3 Griffith
influence factor Ia
Figure 4.3 Griffiths influence factor Ia
Example 2.2:-
Given : Figure E 4.2
Find : The average stress increase below
the center of the loaded area between z =
3m and z = 5m (A-A)
Solution :
For I a ( H ) :
2

B 1.5 L 1.5
m 0.3;....n 0.3
H2 5 H2 5
from..Figure..4.3;.. I a ( H 2 ) 0.126

B 1.5 L 1.5
For I a ( H ) : m 0.5;....n 0.5
1
H1 3 H1 3
from..Figure..4.3;.. I a ( H1 ) 0.175
 So
H 2 I a ( H 2 ) H 1 I a H1 50.126 30.175
p av( H 2 / H1 ) q0 100 5.25 kN / m 2

H 2 H 1 53

And stress increase at z = 3 to 5m is:

4p av( H 2 / H1 ) 4(5.25) 21kN / m 2

Case: Stress increase under an embankment
stress increase at any point with z depth
underneath an embankment is given by :
(see Figure 4.4)

Figure 4.4: Embankment loading

 q 0 B1 B2 B1
p 1 2 2
B2 B2
Where :
q0 H
- unit weight of the embankment soil
H - height of the embankment
B1 B2 1 B1
1 (radians) tan
1
tan
z z
B1
2 tan 1
z
or and I is a function of B1/z and B2/z
Figure 4.8
I

Figure 4.8 Influence value of I

for embankment loading
(Osterberg, 1957)
Example 2.3:-

Given: Figure E 4.3

Find : Stress increase under the embankment at points

A1 and A2
Solution:
H = (17.5)(7) = 122.5 kN/m2
Stress increase at A1 :
for left side; with B1 = 2.5m; B2 = 14m
B1 2.5 B2 14
0.5;............. 2.8
z 5 z 5

From Figure 4.8; I = 0.445; due to

symmetrical, Iright = Ileft = 0.445
p p1 p2 q0 I 'left I '( right)

122 .5 0.445 0.445 109 .03kN / m 2
Stress increase at A2 :
for left side; with B2 = 5m; B1 = 0; so
B2 5 B1 0
1;............. 0
z 5 z 5
For these values, from Figure 4.8; I = 0.25;
so
p1 43.75(0.25) 10.94kN / m 2

For the middle section :

B2 14

B1 14
2.8;...... 2.8 ; thus I = 0.495; so
z 5 z 5

p 2 122.5(0.495) 60.64kN / m 2
For the right section :
B2 9 B1 0
1.8;...... 0
z 5 z 5 ; thus I = 0.335; so

p3 78.75(0.335) 26.38kN / m 2

Total stress at A2 is :
p p1 p2 p3
10.94 60.64 26.38 45.2kN / m 2
Method 2: Bulbs of
pressure
The bulb of pressure for a
square footing being
obtainable approximately
by assuming that it has
the same effect on the
soil as a circular footing of
the same area (B=
diameter)
From a bulb of pressure
one has the idea of the
depth of soil affected by a
foundation
Method 3: Finding Stress using 2:1
method for rectangular loaded area

Budhu (2007) states the surface load on

an area BxL is dispersed at a depth over
an area B z L z as in figure following
The stress increase is given by:
q s BL
z
B z L z

where qs surface area (load/unit area)

Method 3: Finding Stress using 2:1
method for rectangular loaded area

Figure: Determination of vertical stress using 2:1 method

for rectangular loaded area
Method 3: Finding Stress using 2:1
method for rectangular loaded area

qo
Foundation B x L
2 vertical to 1
horizontal
z B 2 vertical to 1
horizontal

B+z

Figure: 2:1 method of finding stress increase under a foundation

2.2.2 Stresses Induced by Applied Loads
(continued)
In summary:
(i) Vertical stress caused by uniform load over
wide area, v = z
(ii) Vertical stress caused by a point load,
3 5/ 2
3Pz P 3 1
z z I 2 I

2
2R or
5
z , where 2 1 ( r / z )
(iii) Vertical stress caused by a line load
2Q z3
z . 2 2 2
(x z )
2.2.2 Stresses Induced by Applied Loads
(continued)

(iv) Vertical stress caused by strip load

p
q
sin cos 2

(v) Vertical stress below the Center of a Uniformly
Loaded Circular Area
1
q 1
R/ z 2
1 3/ 2

2.2.2 Stresses Induced by Applied Loads
(continued)

(vi) Vertical stress due to a rectangularly loaded

area
Method 1: Influence chart
Method 2: Bulbs of pressure
Method 3: Finding Stress using 2:1 method for
rectangular loaded area
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for
Vertical Stress (Expressions when
uniformity distributed load is applied
to the surface)
Newmark constructed an influence chart
(1942), based on Boussinesq solution,
enabling the vertical stress to be determined
at any point below an area of any shape
carrying a uniform pressure, q
At a point at a depth, z vertically below the
edge of a uniformly loaded circular
foundation of radius, r the vertical stress is
given by the expression:
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)

1
z q 1 3 (4.11)
2 2

1 r
z

where q = the contact pressure between

the foundation and the soil.
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
This expression may be rewritten as:
2

r z 3
1 1
z q
(4.12)
The relationship between z/q and r/z
can be illustrated in Table below
where ten equal increments of z/q
between z/q = 0 and z/q =1 is shown
2.3 Newmark
Influence
Chart for
Vertical
Stress
(continued
)
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
The values of r/z represent concentric
circles of relative radii
Plotted for a selected scale for z, these
circles are shown in figure following with the
last circle not shown since r/z =
Divide the circles by evenly spaced rays
emanating from the center, for convenience
say 20
Thus, obtain a total of (10 circles) (20 rays)
= 200 influence units
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)

Figure:
Newmark influence
chart for vertical
stress at any depth
z = AB
(Reproduced from:
Geotechnical
Engineering: Soil
Mechanics,
by Cernica, J. N.,
1994)
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
Thus, the influence value, IV is
1 (4.13)
IV
(no. circles )(no. rays)

In our case: 1
IV 0.005
10 x 20
The stress at a depth z for a specific
point is
z = q x IV x (number of influence units)
(4.14)
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
To use this chart, one draws an outline
of the loaded surface to a scale such
that the distance AB from figure shown
before equals the depth of the point in
question
The point beneath the loaded area for
which the vertical stress is sought is
then located over the center of the
chart
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
Hence, the area will encompass a
number of influence units on the chart (in
our case each unit has a value of 0.005).
Thus, by counting the number of
influence units and by using Eqn. (4.14),
one may proceed to determine the stress
at the given point
Noted that the number of rays or the
number of radii may be vary as desired,
thereby varying the influence values for
these charts
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
Example:
The T-shaped foundation is loaded with a
uniform load of 100kN/m2. Find the pressure
at 6m below point G.
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)
Solution:
The scale is determined such that the
distance AB in figure below represents
6m
Hence, the T-shaped area is redrawn to
scale with point G placed over the center
of the chart.
The number of squares encompassed
by Figure below is 66
Hence, the total pressure at G is 0.005 x
66 x 100 kN/m2
2.3 Newmark Influence Chart for Vertical
Stress (continued)

Figure:
Newmarks chart
used to determine
stress under point
G of the T-shaped
footing shown

Hence, total
pressure = 33
kN/m2