Groundwater Hydrology

Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution,

and movement of water below the surface of the earth.

Why Study Groundwater?

Scientists and engineers study groundwater for a variety of reasons. First and
foremost, groundwater is a key source of drinking water that is essential to life on
earth, as we know it. The earth has an estimated 330 million cubic miles (mi3) of
water, with most of it occurring as non potable seawater (table 1-1).Although
groundwater makes up only a tiny fraction, just 0.06% of the earth 's available water,
it is critically important because it represents 98% of the fresh water readily available
to humans (table 1-2).
Another feature of groundwater that makes it valuable as a resource is its
physical chemical quality. Unlike many surface water supplies, natural groundwater
has few suspended solids, small concentrations of bacteria and viruses, and often only
minimal concentrations of dissolved mineral salts. These characteristics make
groundwater an ideal source of water to support human life.
Unfortunately, the connection of groundwater pathway in the hydrologic cycle
to the land surface provides the opportunity for humans to pollute natural groundwater
and devalue the resource. So issues of groundwater pollution and protection of
groundwater resources provide another important reason to study groundwater.
Groundwater also influences the design and construction of engineered
facilities. The long term viability of the dam depends on the controlling groundwater
flow under or around the actual dam. Stability of excavations often requires that
groundwater levels in adjacent geologic units be controlled through an engineering
dewatering program. Similarly, tunnels in rock often rely on extensive grouting
programs to control groundwater inflow while mining proceeds. Knowledge of
groundwater hydrology is key to assessing the viability of geologic storage of nuclear
wastes in many countries around the world.
Groundwater is also important because of the geologic work that it can do.
Valuable economic deposits owe their origins to groundwater systems. For example,
groundwater moving along flow systems can transport metals from zone to another.
Oil formed by maturation of organic matter deep in sedimentary basins can migrate
through a three dimensional groundwater system and accumulate in petroleum
reservoirs. To an important extent, the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons
depends on the existence of permeable pathways and, ultimately, on conditions
capable of trapping hydrocarbons.
Groundwater also contributes to the development of landslides, rock fall, and
stream channel networks. Groundwater plays an important role in the formation of
soils and in the alteration of soils through Stalinization.

1 Groundwater Hydrology Dr. Mona Hagras

Ain Shams University
Table (1-1): Distribution of water stored on the earth
Stored Volume
Pools of Water (cubic miles)
Ocean 322,600,000
Glacial ice 6,000,000
Groundwater 2,000,000
Atmosphere 3,000

Table(1-2): Distribution of the world's unfrozen freshwater supply

Volume
Source (Million mi3)
Groundwater 2.0
Lakes 0.0310
Soil moisture 0.012
Streams 0.002
Swamps <0.002

Groundwater in Nile Basin Countries

The global groundwater potential for the overall Nile Basin in the ten riparian
countries estimated to be about 81 billion cubic meters a year (62 billion cubic meters
from renewable aquifer and 19 billion from nonrenewable or deep aquifers)

Groundwater in Egypt
Egypt lies in the northeastern corner of the African content, with a total area of
about 1 million km2. In 1998, cultivated land was estimated to be 4.5 % of the total
area.
Total population is about 68 million (1998) of which 56% is rural. Average
population density is 62 / km2, but ranges from 2/km2 over 96% of the total area, 1492
km2 in the Nile valley and delta this area, where population density is among the
highest in the world, is only 4% of the total area. Therefore the groundwater is the
sole source of water in 96% of Egypt territories.
The main issues facing Egypt's development include: (i) partial utilization of
the territories (less than 10%); (ii) unbalanced population distribution and continuous
immigration from rural to urban areas; (iii) decrease of per capita share in water and
agricultural land; and (iv) lack of proper water supply and sanitation in the rural and
desert areas.
This situation calls for the development of additional sources of water along
with the protection of developed ones.
The main source of fresh water in Egypt is the annual quota from the Nile,
however, is limited geographically mostly to the Nile valley and delta. Transfer of the
Nile water to other portions of the country is restricted by physical and economical
constraints. Other fresh water resources are represented in the deep groundwater,
mainly found in the deserts, and flash floods, restricted to wadis.
The global groundwater budget for the country estimated to be about 4 billion
cubic meters a year (9 million cubic meters from renewable aquifer and 3, 91 billion
from non-renewable or deep aquifers) Groundwater is characterized by its wide

2 Groundwater Hydrology Dr. Mona Hagras

Ain Shams University
distribution all over the country. Wadis may also be considered potential sources of
water if properly managed, as they exist in regions where Nile water is absent.

Potential of Fresh Groundwater in Egypt

Potential Abstraction of Fresh Groundwater in Egypt

Source: Dr. Samia Elguindy, Work shop of The use of Brackish Water in Agriculture & Aquaculture, Cairo, December 2006

Groundwater and Hydrologic Cycle

Water circulates on earth from the oceans to the atmosphere to land and back
to the oceans in what is called the hydrologic cycle. The main pathways in the
hydrologic cycle are shown in Figure (1-1). Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, and
rivers into the atmosphere. This water vapor is transposed with the atmospheric
circulation and eventually falls as rain or snow onto the land, lakes, rivers, and
oceans. Of the water falling on the land, a portion quickly evaporates, some flows
into streams or lakes as overland flow, and another portion infiltrates into the
subsurface. Of the water entering the soil, some is transpired back into the atmosphere
by plants. The remaining water follows a subsurface pathway back to surface.

3 Groundwater Hydrology Dr. Mona Hagras

Ain Shams University
 Figure (1-1): Hydrologic Cycle

Aquifers
An aquifer is a geologic unit that can store and transmit water. Aquifers are
generally categorized into four basic formation types depending on the geologic
environment in which they occur: unconfined, confined, leaky, and perched. Figure
(1-2) describes basic aquifer formations.
In order to qualify as aquifers, a soil stratum should not only have a
substantial percentage of pore spaces, but these pore spaces should be large enough so
that water can move through them towards a well rapidly enough. Thus clays, which
contain a large proportion of pores, are not classified as aquifers because the pores are
small in size and water cannot move readily through the same. On the other hand,
coarse materials like sands are good aquifers because the pore spaces in such soils are
large and water can move readily through the interstices. Impervious or almost
impervious strata through which water cannot travel appreciably are called
aquicludes. A relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting
water is called aquifuge; solid granite belongs in this category. Aquitard is a saturated
but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater movement and does not yield
water freely to wells, but that may transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent
aquifers and, where sufficiently thick, may constitute an important groundwater
storage zone; sandy clay is an example.

4 Groundwater Hydrology Dr. Mona Hagras

Ain Shams University
 Figure (1-3): Types of Aquifer

Unconfined Aquifers
In these the upper limit of the aquifer is defined by the water table itself, or, in
other words, the stratum above the water table is unsaturated. The hydraulic pressure
at any point within such an aquifer is equal to the depth of the point from the water
table. If a well is drilled in such an aquifer, water in it will stand at the level of the
water table .such aquifers deliver water to a pumped well by gravity drainage from
within the pores.
Confined Aquifers or Artesian
The groundwater in these is not open to the atmosphere due to presence of an
upper confining layer. If a well is drilled in such a formation, water would generally
rise above the top level of the aquifer to the piezometric level and the height of water
would represent the pressure head in the aquifer. The water in such aquifers is in a
compressed state. In some artesian wells the pressure is so great that when a well is
drilled, water flows out without any pumping or rushes out in the form of a fountain.
Leaky Aquifers
In some locations the separating layers between the deep aquifers and the
shallow water table aquifer are not completely impermeable, with the result that draft
from such aquifers causes some lowering of the water table. Such aquifers are called
leaky confined aquifers.
Perched Water
Sometimes a quantity of groundwater is held above an impervious atrium, and
is not connected to the main water table. Such water table is called a perched water.
Not much water can be drawn from such an aquifer because the quantity of water
available is limited to the volume contained above the impervious stratum.
Connate water
It is sea water that occurs in some sedimentary formations below the water
table.

5 Groundwater Hydrology Dr. Mona Hagras

Ain Shams University