Research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world

Applied research problem. See also basic research, translational research.

Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge,
without regard for direct application to practical problems. See also
Basic research applied research, translational research.
(plural; singular datum) A set of observations representing the
values of some variable, collected from one or more research
Data studies.
The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting
data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a
Empiricism theory. Also called empirical method or empirical research.
A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported
Evidence-based treatment by empirical research.
A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data
Falsifiability that will prove the theory wrong.
A statement of the specific relationship between a study's variables
that the researcher expects to observe if a theory is accurate. Also
Hypothesis called prediction.
A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles
on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a
Journal scholarly audience.
News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media
Journalism and produced for a general audience.
The degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of
some phenomenon. In the context of investigating a claim, the
simplest explanation of a pattern of data; the best explanation that
Parsimony requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications.
A statement or set of statements that describes general principles
Theory about how variables relate to one another.
Research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to
develop and test solutions to real-world problems. See also applied
Translational research research, basic research.
a conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and
considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a
Weight of the evidence theory.
The tendency to rely predominantly on evidence that easily comes
to mind rather than use all possible evidence in evaluating a
Availability heuristic conclusion.
The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they are
Bias blind spot less likely to engage in biased reasoning.
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable
differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and
Comparison group meaningful way. Also called comparison condition.
An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a
Confederate research study.
Confirmatory hypothesis The tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the
testing expected answer.
 A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research
Confound finding (a threat to internal validity).
Effect size The magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables.
A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a
Empirical journal article research study.
A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies
that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that
Meta-analysis whole body of evidence supports.
The tendency to rely only on evidence that is present (e.g., instances
in which both a treatment and a desired outcome are present) and
ignore evidence that is absent (e.g., instances in which a treatment
is absent or the desired outcome is absent) when evaluating the
Present/present bias support for a conclusion.
Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to
explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible
Probabilistic cases.
An article summarizing all the studies that have been published in
Review journal article one research area.
A claim about two variables, in which the value (level) of one
variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another
variable, such that when one variable changes, the other variable
Association claim tends to change also.
A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible
Causal claim for influencing the value of another variable.
Claim The argument a journalist, researcher, or scientist is trying to make.
A researcher's definition of a variable at the theoretical level. Also
Conceptual definition called construct. See also conceptual variable.
A variable of interest, stated at an abstract, or conversational, level.
Conceptual variable Also called construct. See also conceptual definition.
An attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in
Constant value in the study in question.
A variable of interest, stated at an abstract level, usually defined as
part of a formal statement of a psychological theory. See also
Construct conceptual variable.
An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated
Construct validity in a study.
To occur or vary together (covary) systematically, as in the case of
Correlate two variables. See also correlational study, covariance.
A study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the
Correlational study variables are measured; can support an association claim.
One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, which states
that the proposed causal variable must vary systematically with
changes in the proposed outcome variable. See also internal validity,
Covariance temporal precedence.
In an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple-
regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable, the
researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. Also
Dependent variable called outcome variable. See also independent variable.
 A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is
Experiment measured.
An indication of how well the results of a study generalize to, or
represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself.
External validity See also generalization.
Frequency claim A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable.
The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the
populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in
Generalizability a study represent other settings or contexts.
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a multiple-
regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in
Independent variable the criterion variable. See also dependent variable.
One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim; the ability to
rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between
Internal validity two variables. See also covariance, temporal precedence.
Level One of the possible variations, or values, of a variable.
A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by
assigning participants to its different levels (values). See also
Manipulated variable measured variable.
A statistic, based in part on sample size for a poll, indicating the
Margin of error estimate probable true value in the population.
A variable in an experiment whose levels (values) are observed and
Measured variable recorded. See also manipulated variable.
An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels
of the other variable, and vice versa. Also called inverse association,
negative correlation. See also curvilinear association, positive
Negative association association, zero association.
The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or
manipulated as a variable in a study. Also called operationalization
Operational definition or operational variable.
The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or
manipulated as a variable in a study. Also called operationalization
Operational variable or operational definition.
To turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured
variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research
Operationalize study.
An association in which high levels of one variable go with high
levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with
low levels of the other variable. Also called positive correlation. See
Positive association also curvilinear association, negative association, zero association.
The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign
Random assignment participants into different experimental groups.
A graphical representation of an association, in which each dot
Scatterplot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables.
The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are
Statistical validity accurate and reasonable. Also called statistical conclusion validity.
 One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, stating that the
proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed
Temporal precedence outcome variable. See also covariance, internal validity.
A 'false positive' result from a statistical inference process, in which
researchers conclude that there is an effect in a population when
Type I error there really is none.
a 'miss' in the statistical inference process, in which researchers
conclude that there is no effect in a population when there really is
Type II error one.
The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision. See also construct
Validity validity, external validity, internal validity, statistical validity.
An attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values. See
also dependent variable, independent variable, manipulated
Variable variable, measured variable.
A lack of systematic association between two variables. Also called
zero correlation. See also curvilinear association, positive
Zero association association, negative association.
A form of research misconduct in which a researcher invents data
Data fabrication that fit the hypothesis.
A form of research misconduct in which a researcher influences a
study's results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or
Data falsification by influencing participants to act in the hypothesized way.
To inform participants afterward about a study's true nature,
Debrief details, and hypotheses.
The withholding of some details of a study from participants
(deception through omission) or the act of actively lying to them
Deception (deception through commission).
The right of research participants to learn about a research project,
Informed consent know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate.
Institutional review board A committee responsible for ensuring that research using human
(IRB) participants is conducted ethically.
Representing the ideas or words of others as one's own; a form of
Plagiarism research misconduct.
An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that
researchers must take precautions to protect participants from
harm and to promote their well-being. See also principle of
Principle of beneficence justice, principle of respect for persons.
An ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair
balance between the kinds of people who participate in research
and the kinds of people who benefit from it. See also principle of
Principle of justice beneficence, principle of respect for persons.
An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research
participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that
Principle of respect for certain groups deserve special protection. See also principle of
persons beneficence, principle of justice.
A variable whose levels are categories (e.g., male/female). Also
Categorical variable called nominal variable.
 The extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined
Content validity construct.
An empirical test of the extent to which a measure is associated with
other measures of a theoretically similar construct. See also
Convergent validity discriminant validity.
A single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, that indicates the
Correlation coefficient r strength and direction of an association between two variables.
An empirical form of measurement validity that establishes the
extent to which a measure is correlated with a behavior or concrete
Criterion validity outcome that it should be related to.
A correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal
Cronbach's alpha reliability. Also called coefficient alpha.
An empirical test of the extent to which a measure does not
associate strongly with measures of other, theoretically different
constructs. Also called divergent validity. See also convergent
Discriminant validity validity.
The extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible
Face validity operationalization of the conceptual variable in question.
In a measure that contains several items, the consistency in a
pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased. Also called
Internal reliability internal consistency.
The degree to which two or more coders or observers give
Interrater reliability consistent ratings of a set of targets.
A quantitative measurement scale that has no 'true zero,' and in
which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between
levels (e.g., temperature in degrees). See also ordinal scale, ratio
Interval scale scale.
A method for establishing criterion validity, in which a researcher
tests two or more groups, who are known to differ on the variable of
interest, to ensure that they score differently on a measure of that
Known-groups paradigm variable.
A method of measuring a variable by recording observable
behaviors or physical traces of behaviors. Also called behavioral
Observational measure measure.
A quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked
order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels
are equal (e.g., a 5-star rating scale). See also interval scale, ratio
Ordinal scale scale.
Physiological measure A method of measuring a variable by recording biological data.
Quantitative variable A variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers.
A quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have
equal intervals and the value of zero truly means 'nothing.' See also
Ratio scale interval scale, ordinal scale.
Reliability The consistency of the results of a measure.
A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions
Self-report measure about themselves in a questionnaire or interview.
 The upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cluster of data
Slope direction points in a scatterplot.
A description of an association indicating how closely the data
points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through
Strength them.
Test-retest reliability The consistency in results every time a measure is used.
The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision. See also construct
Validity validity, external validity, internal validity, statistical validity.
Answering 'yes' or 'strongly agree' to every item in a survey or
Acquiescence interview. Also called yea-saying.
A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because it
Double-barreled question asks two questions in one, thereby weakening its construct validity.
Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that make
Faking bad one look worse than one really is.
Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that
make one look better than one really is. Also called socially desirable
Faking good responding.
Playing it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every
Fence sitting question in a survey or interview.
A survey question format in which respondents give their opinion by
Forced-choice format picking the best of two or more options.
A type of question in a survey or poll that is problematic because its
wording encourages only one response, thereby weakening its
Leading question construct validity.
A survey question format; a rating scale containing multiple
response options that are anchored by the terms strongly agree,
agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree. A
scale that does not follow this format exactly is called a Likert-type
Likert scale scale.
A study design in which the observers are unaware of the
experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned.
Masked design Also called blind design.
A question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased
statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and
Negatively worded question potentially weakening its construct validity.
The process of watching people or animals and systematically
Observational research recording how they behave or what they are doing.
A bias that occurs when observers' expectations influence their
interpretation of the participants' behaviors or the outcome of the
Observer bias study.
A change in behavior of study participants in the direction of an
Observer effect observer's expectation. Also called expectancy effect.
A survey question format that allows respondents to answer any
Open-ended question way they like.
A method of posing questions to people on the telephone, in
personal interviews, on written questionnaires, or via the Internet.
Poll Also called survey.

Reactivity
Response set
Semantic differential format
Socially desirable responding
Survey
Unobtrusive observation
Biased sample
Census
Cluster sampling
Convenience sampling
Multistage sampling
Oversampling
Population
Probability sampling
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Random assignment
A change in behavior of study participants (such as acting less
spontaneously) because they are aware they are being watched.
A shortcut respondents may use to answer items in a long survey,
rather than responding to the content of each item. Also called
nondifferentiation.
A response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting
adjectives.
Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that
make one look better than one really is. Also called faking good.
A method of posing questions to people on the telephone, in
personal interviews, on written questionnaires, or via the Internet.
Also called poll.
An observation in a study made indirectly, through physical traces of
behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a
bystander.
A sample in which some members of the population of interest are
systematically left out, and as a consequence, the results from the
sample cannot generalize to the population of interest. Also called
unrepresentative sample.
A set of observations that contains all members of the population of
interest.
A probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants
within the population of interest are selected at random, followed
by data collection from all individuals in each cluster.
Choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access and
readily available; a biased sampling technique.
A probability sampling technique involving at least two stages: a
random sample of clusters followed by a random sample of people
within the selected clusters.
A form of probability sampling; a variation of stratified random
sampling in which the researcher intentionally overrepresents one
or more groups.
A larger group from which a sample is drawn; the group to which a
study's conclusions are intended to be applied. Also called
population of interest.
The process of drawing a sample from a population of interest in
such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance
of being included in the sample, usually via random selection. Also
called random sampling.
A biased sampling technique in which only certain kinds of people
are included in a sample.
A biased sampling technique in which a researcher identifies subsets
of the population of interest, sets a target number for each category
in the sample, and nonrandomly selects individuals within each
category until the quotas are filled.
The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign
participants into different experimental groups.
 A sample in which all members of the population of interest are
equally likely to be included (usually through some random
method), and therefore the results can generalize to the population
Representative sample of interest. Also called unbiased sample.
The group of people, animals, or cases used in a study; a subset of
Sample the population of interest.
A form of sampling bias that occurs when a sample contains only
Self-selection people who volunteer to participate.
The most basic form of probability sampling, in which the sample is
chosen completely at random from the population of interest (e.g.,
Simple random sampling drawing names out of a hat).
A variation on purposive sampling, a biased sampling technique in
which participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the
Snowball sampling study.
A form of probability sampling; a random sampling technique in
which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of
Stratified random sampling interest and then randomly selects individuals within each category.
A probability sampling technique in which the researcher counts off
members of a population to achieve a sample, using a randomly
chosen interval (e.g., every nth person, where n is a randomly
Systematic sampling selected number).
An association that involves exactly two variables. Also called
Bivariate correlation bivariate association.
An association between two variables which is not a straight line;
instead, as one variable increases, the level of the other variable
increases and then decreases (or vice versa). Also called curvilinear
correlation. See also positive association, negative association, zero
Curvilinear association association.
A situation in which it is unclear which variable in an association
Directionality problem came first.
Effect size The magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables.
An arithmethic average; a measure of central tendency computed
from the sum of all the scores in a set of data, divided by the total
Mean number of scores.
A third variable that, depending on its level, changes the
Moderator relationship between two other variables.
A score that stands out as either much higher or much lower than
Outlier most of the other scores in a sample.
A situation involving a bivariate correlation, in which there is not a
full range of possible scores on one of the variables in the
association, so the relationship from the sample underestimates the
Restriction of range true correlation.
A bivariate association that is attributable only to systematic mean
differences on subgroups within the sample; the original association
Spurious association is not present within the subgroups.
A conclusion that a result from a sample (such as an association or a
Statistical significance difference between groups) is so extreme that the sample is unlikely

Third-variable problem
T test
Autocorrelation
Control for
Criterion variable
Cross-lag correlation
Cross-sectional correlation
Longitudinal design
Mediator
Multiple regression
Multivariate design
Parsimony
Predictor variable
Carryover effect
Comparison group
Concurrent-measures design
Condition
Confound
Control group
Control variable
to have come from a population in which there is no association or
no difference.
A situation in which a plausible alternative explanation exists for the
association between two variables. See also internal validity.
A statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the
difference between two means.
In a longitudinal design, the correlation of one variable with itself,
measured at two different times.
Holding a potential third variable at a constant level while
investigating the association between two other variables.
The variable in a multiple-regression analysis that the researchers
are most interested in understanding or predicting. Also called
dependent variable.
In a longitudinal design, a correlation between an earlier measure of
one variable and a later measure of another variable.
In a longitudinal design, a correlation between two variables that
are measured at the same time.
A study in which the same variables are measured in the same
people at different points in time.
A variable that helps explain the relationship between two other
variables. Also called mediating variable.
A statistical technique that computes the relationship between a
predictor variable and a criterion variable, controlling for other
predictor variables. Also called multivariate regression.
A study designed to test an association involving more than two
measured variables.
The degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of
some phenomenon. In the context of investigating a claim, the
simplest explanation of a pattern of data; the best explanation that
requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications.
A variable in multiple-regression analysis that is used to explain
variance in the criterion variable. Also called independent variable.
A type of order effect, in which some form of contamination carries
over from one condition to the next.
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable
differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and
meaningful way. Also called comparison condition.
An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants
are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly
the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is
the dependent variable.
One of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment.
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research
finding (a threat to internal validity).
A level of an independent variable that is intended to represent 'no
treatment' or a neutral condition.
A potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on
purpose.
 In an experiment, presenting the levels of the independent variable
to participants in different sequences to control for order effects.
Counterbalancing See also full counterbalancing, partial counterbalancing.
A threat to internal validity that occurs when some cue leads
participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals. Also called
Demand characteristic experimental demand.
In an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple-
regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable, the
researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. Also
Dependent variable called outcome variable. See also independent variable.
A threat to internal validity in an experiment in which a second
variable happens to vary systematically along with the independent
Design confound variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results.
A study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is
Experiment measured.
A method of counterbalancing in which all possible condition orders
are represented. See also counterbalancing, partial
Full counterbalancing counterbalancing.
An experimental design in which different groups of participants are
exposed to different levels of the independent variable, such that
each participant experiences only one level of the independent
variable. Also called between-subjects design or between-groups
Independent-groups design design.
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a multiple-
regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in
Independent variable the criterion variable. See also dependent variable.
A formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each
condition in a within-groups design appears in each position at least
Latin square once.
A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by
assigning participants to its different levels (values). See also
Manipulated variable measured variable.
In an experiment, an extra dependent variable researchers can
include to determine how well an experimental manipulation
Manipulation check worked.
An experimental design technique in which participants who are
similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets; the
members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to
Matched groups different experimental conditions. Also called matching.
A variable in an experiment whose levels (values) are observed and
Measured variable recorded. See also manipulated variable.
In a within-groups design, a threat to internal validity in which
exposure to one condition changes participants' responses to a later
condition. See also carryover effect, practice effect, fatigue effect,
Order effect testing threat.
A method of counterbalancing in which some, but not all, of the
possible condition orders are represented. See also
Partial counterbalancing counterbalancing, full counterbalancing.
 A study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary
interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the
Pilot study manipulations.
A control group that is exposed to an inert treatment (e.g., a sugar
Placebo group pill). Also called placebo control group.
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which
participants are tested on the dependent variable only once. Also
Posttest-only design called equivalent groups, posttest-only design.
The likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result
when some effect is truly present in the population; the probability
Power of not making a Type II error when the null hypothesis is false.
A type of order effect in which people's performance improves over
time because they become practiced at the dependent measure
(not because of the manipulation or treatment). See also fatigue
Practice effect effect, order effect, testing threat.
An experiment using an independent-groups design in which
participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice: once
Pretest/posttest design before and once after exposure to the independent variable.
The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign
Random assignment participants into different experimental groups.
An experiment using a within-groups design in which participants
respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to
Repeated-measures design each level of the independent variable.
A threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent-groups
design when the kinds of participants at one level of the
independent variable are systematically different from those at the
Selection effect other level.
In an experiment, the levels of a variable coinciding in some
predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a
Systematic variability potential confound. See also unsystematic variability.
The participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of
the independent variable that involves a medication, therapy, or
Treatment group intervention.
In an experiment, when levels of a variable fluctuate independently
of experimental group membership, contributing to variability
Unsystematic variability within groups. See also systematic variability.
An experimental design in which each participant is presented with
all levels of the independent variable. Also called within-subjects
Within-groups design design.
In a repeated-measures design or quasi-experiment, a threat to
internal validity that occurs when a systematic type of participant
Attrition threat drops out of a study before it ends.
An experimental design problem in which independent variable
groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all
scores fall at the high end of their possible distribution. See also
Ceiling effect floor effect.
 A threat to internal validity that occurs when some cue leads
participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals. Also called
Demand characteristic experimental demand.
A study that uses a treatment group and a placebo group and in
Double-blind placebo control which neither the research staff nor the participants know who is in
study which group.
A study in which neither the participants nor the researchers who
evaluate them know who is in the treatment group and who is in the
Double-blind study comparison group.
An experimental design problem in which independent variable
groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all
scores fall at the low end of their possible distribution. See also
Floor effect ceiling effect.
A threat to internal validity that occurs when it is unclear whether a
change in the treatment group is caused by the treatment or by a
historical factor or event that affects everyone or almost everyone
History threat in the group.
A threat to internal validity that occurs when a measuring
instrument changes over time from having been used before. Also
Instrumentation threat called instrument decay.
In an experiment, an extra dependent variable researchers can
include to determine how well an experimental manipulation
Manipulation check worked.
A study design in which the observers are unaware of the
experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned.
Masked design Also called blind design.
A threat to internal validity that occurs when an observed change in
an experimental group could have emerged more or less
Maturation threat spontaneously over time.
The degree to which the recorded measure for a participant on
some variable differs from the true value of the variable for that
participant. Measurement errors may be random, if over a sample
they both inflate or deflate true scores, or they may be systematic,
Measurement error in which case they may result in biased measurement.
The unsystematic variability among the members of a group in an
Noise experiment. Also called error variance, unsystematic variance.
A finding that an independent variable did not make a difference in
the dependent variable; there is no significant covariance between
Null effect the two. Also called null result.
A bias that occurs when observers' expectations influence their
interpretation of the participants' behaviors or the outcome of the
Observer bias study.
An experiment in which a researcher recruits one group of
participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a
pretest/posttes treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on
One-group t design a posttest.
 A response or effect that occurs when people receiving an experimental treatment
experience a change only because they believe they are receiving a valid
Placebo effect treatment.
The likelihood that a study will show a statistically significant result when some
effect is truly present in the population; the probability of not making a Type II
Power error when the null hypothesis is false.
A threat to internal validity related to regression to the mean, a phenomenon in
which any extreme finding is likely to be closer to its own typical, or mean, level the
Regression next time it is measured (with or without the experimental treatment or
threat intervention).
Selection- A threat to internal validity in which members are likely to drop out of either the
attrition threat treatment group or the comparison group, not both.
A threat to internal validity in which a historical or seasonal event systematically
Selection- affects only the subjects in the treatment group or only those in the comparison
history threat group, not both.
Unrelated events, sounds, or distractions in the external environment that create
Situation noise unsystematic variability within groups in an experiment.
In a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment, a kind of order effect in
which scores change over time just because participants have taken the test more
Testing threat than once; includes practice effects and fatigue effects.
A condition in an experiment; in a simple experiment, it can represent the level of
one independent variable; in a factorial design it represents one of the possible
Cell combinations of two independent variables.
Factorial design A study in which there are two or more independent variables, or factors.
A result from a factorial design, in which the difference in the levels of one
Interaction independent variable changes, depending on the level of the other independent
effect variable; a difference in differences. Also called interaction.
In a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the
Main effect dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable.
In a factorial design, the arithmetic means for each level of an independent
Marginal means variable, averaging over the levels of another independent variable.
Participant A variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (i.e.,
variable measured), not manipulated.
Interrupted
time-series A quasi-experiment in which participants are measured repeatedly on a dependent
design variable before, during, and after the 'interruption' caused by some event.
An experimental design technique in which participants who are similar on some
Matched measured variable are grouped into sets; the members of each matched set are
groups then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions. Also called matching.
Multiple- A small-N design in which researchers stagger their introduction of an intervention
baseline design across a variety of contexts, times, or situations.
Nonequivalent An independent-groups quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group
control group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to
design the two groups.
Nonequivalent A quasi-experiment with two or more groups in which participants have not been
control group randomly assigned to groups; participants are measured repeatedly on a
interrupted dependent variable before, during, and after the 'interruption' caused by some
time-series event; and the presence or timing of the interrupting event differs among the
design groups.
Nonequivalent An independent-groups quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group
control group and one comparison group, in which participants have not been randomly assigned
pretest/posttest to the two groups, and in which at least one pretest and one posttest are
design administered.
A study that is similar to an experiment except that the researchers do not have
Quasi- full experimental control (e.g., they may not be able to randomly assign
experiment participants to the independent variable conditions).
A small-N design in which a researcher observes a problem behavior both before
and during treatment, and then discontinues the treatment for a while to see if the
Reversal design problem behavior returns.
A study in which researchers gather information from only one animal or one
Single-N design person.
Small-N design A study in which researchers gather information from just a few cases.
A small-N design in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline
Stable-baseline period before beginning a treatment or other intervention; if behavior during the
design baseline is stable, the researcher is more certain of the treatment's effectiveness.
A quasi-experiment in which all participants plan to recieve treatment, but are
Wait-list design assigned to do so at different times.
A replication study in which researchers examine the same research question (the
Conceptual same conceptual variables) but use different procedures for operationalizing the
replication variables. See also direct replication, replication-plus-extension.
A subdiscipline of psychology concerned with how cultural settings shape a
Cultural person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior, and how these in turn shape cultural
psychology settings.
A replication study in which researchers repeat the original study as closely as
possible to see whether the original effect shows up in the newly collected data.
Direct Also called exact replication. See also conceptual replication, replication-plus-
replication extension.
Ecological The extent to which the tasks and manipulations of a study are similar to real-
validity world contexts. Also called mundane realism.
Experimental The extent to which a laboratory experiment is designed so that participants
realism experience authentic emotions, motivations, and behaviors.
Field setting A real-world setting for a research study.
The idea that reviews and meta-analyses of published literature might
overestimate the support for a theory, because studies finding null effects are less
File drawer likely to be published than studies finding significant results, and are thus less likely
problem to be included in such reviews.
The intent of researchers to generalize the findings from the samples and
Generalization procedures in their study to other populations or contexts. See also theory-testing
mode mode.
A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have
tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence
Meta-analysis supports.
Pertaining to a study whose results have been obtained again when the study was
Replicable repeated.
 A replication study in which researchers replicate their original study but add
Replication- variables or conditions that test additional questions. See also conceptual
plus-extension replication, direct replication.
Scientific A series of related studies, conducted by various researchers, that have tested
literature similar variables. Also called literature.
Theory-testing A researcher's intent for a study, testing association claims or causal claims to
mode investigate support for a theory. See also generalization mode.