The 555 Timer

Introduction
The 555 timer IC was introduced in the year 1970 by Signetic Corporation and gave the name SE/NE 555 timer.
It is basically a monolithic timing circuit that produces accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillation.
When compared to the applications of an op-amp in the same areas, the 555IC is also equally reliable and is
cheap in cost. Apart from its applications as a monostable multivibrator and astable multivibrator, a 555 timer
can also be used in dc-dc converters,
The important features of the 555 timer are :
It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts
Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
The external components should be selected properly
The output of a 555 timer can drive a transistor-transistor logic (TTL) due to its high current
It has a temperature stability of 50 ppm/C.
The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable.
The maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs has logic
compatibility. More features are listed in the datasheet.
IC Pin Configuration
This IC consists of 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors. The use of each pin in the IC is explained below.
The pin numbers used below refers to the 8-pin DIP and 8-pin metal can packages. These pins are explained in
detail, and you will get a better idea after going through the entire post.

Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to the Ground terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: The trigger pin is used to feed the trigger input hen the 555 IC is set up as a
monostable multivibrator. This pin is an inverting input of a comparator and is responsible for the transition
of flip-flop from set to reset..
Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in which a load can be
connected to the output terminal. The load connected between output and ground normally on load and between
output and normally off load.
Pin 4: Reset Terminal: Whenever the timer IC is to be reset or disabled, a negative pulse is applied to pin 4,
and thus is named as reset terminal
Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The threshold and trigger levels are controlled using this pin. The pulse
width of the output waveform is determined by connecting a POT or bringing in an external voltage to this
pin.
Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which compares the
voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 VCC.
Pin 7 : Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and mostly a
capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground
Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with respect to ground
(pin 1).
Working Principle
The internal resistors act as a voltage divider network, providing (2/3)Vcc at the non-inverting terminal of the
upper comparator and (1/3)Vcc at the inverting terminal of the lower comparator. In most applications, the
control input is not used, so that the control voltage equals +(2/3) V CC.. A high output from the flip-flop when
given to the base of the discharge transistor saturates it and thus discharges the transistor that is connected
externally to the discharge pin 7. The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3, the output. The
output available at pin 3 is low. These conditions will prevail until lower comparator triggers the flip-flop. Even
if the voltage at the threshold input falls below (2/3) VCC, that is upper comparator cannot cause the flip-flop to
change again. It means that the upper comparator can only force the flip-flops output high.
The capacitor slows down as it charges, and in actual fact never reaches the full supply voltage. That being the
case, the maximum charge it receives in the timing circuit (66.6% of the supply voltage) is a little over the
charge received after a time constant (63.2%).
The capacitor slows down as it discharges, and never quite reaches the ground potential. That means the
minimum voltage it operates at must be greater than zero. Timing circuit is 63.2% of the supply voltage.
 Switching Voltage Regulators (TL494)
1 Introduction
Monolithic integrated circuits for the control of switching power supplies have become widespread
since their introduction in the 1970s. The TL494 combines many features that previously required
several different control circuits. The purpose of this application report is to give the reader a
thorough understanding of the TL494, its features, its performance characteristics, and its limitations.
2 The Basic Device
The design of the TL494 not only incorporates the primary building blocks required to control a switching
power supply, but also addresses many basic problems and reduces the amount of additional circuitry
required in the total design. Figure 1 is a block diagram of the TL494.
3 Principle of Operation
The TL494 is a fixed-frequency pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control circuit. Modulation of output pulses is
accomplished by comparing the sawtooth waveform created by the internal oscillator on the timing capacitor
(CT) to either of two control signals. The output stage is enabled during the time when the sawtooth voltage is
greater than the voltage control signals. As the control signal increases, the time during which the sawtooth
input is greater decreases; therefore, the output pulse duration decreases. A pulse-steering flip-flop alternately
directs the modulated pulse to each of the two output transistors.

5-V Reference Regulator

The TL494 internal 5-V reference regulator is shown in Figure 3. In addition to providing a stable reference, it
acts as a preregulator and establishes a stable supply from which the output-control logic, pulse-steering flip-
flop, oscillator, dead-time control comparator, and PWM comparator are powered.

Application

The TL494 incorporates all the functions required in the construction of a pulse-width-modulation (PWM)
control circuit on a single chip. Designed primarily for power-supply control, this device offers the flexibility to
tailor the power-supply control circuitry to a specific application.The TL494 contains two error amplifiers, an
on-chip adjustable oscillator, a dead-time control (DTC) comparator,
a pulse-steering control flip-flop, a 5-V, 5%-precision regulator, and output-control circuits.The error amplifiers
exhibit a common-mode voltage range from -0.3 V to VCC - 2 V

Features
Complete PWM Power Control Circuitry
Uncommitted Outputs for 200-mA Sink or Source Current
Output Control Selects Single-Ended or Push-Pull Operation
Internal Circuitry Prohibits Double Pulse at Either Output
Variable Dead Time Provides Control Over Total Range
Internal Regulator Provides a Stable 5-V Reference Supply With 5% Tolerance
Circuit Architecture Allows Easy Synchronization
MAX038 High-Frequency Waveform Generator
Description
The MAX038 is a high-frequency, precision function generator producing accurate, high-frequency triangle,
sawtooth, sine, square, and pulse waveforms with a minimum of external components. The output frequency can
be controlled over a frequency range of 0.1Hz to 20MHz by an internal 2.5V bandgap voltage reference and an
external resistor and capacitor. The duty cycle can be varied over a wide range by applying a 2.3V control
signal, facilitating pulse-width modulation and the generation of sawtooth waveforms

Key Features Applications/Uses

0.1Hz to 20MHz Operating Frequency Frequency Modulators

Range
Triangle, Sawtooth, Sine, Square, and
Pulse Waveforms
Independent Frequency and Duty-Cycle
Adjustments
350 to 1 Frequency Sweep Range
15% to 85% Variable Duty Cycle
Low-Impedance Output Buffer: 0.1
Low 200ppm/C Temperature Drift
Frequency Synthesizer
FSK GeneratorSine and Square
Waves
Phase-Locked Loops (PLLs)
Precision Function Generators
Pulse-Width Modulators
Voltage-Controlled Oscillators