BY + Verb-ING

BY+ VERB-ING is used to explain how something happens.

I improved my vocabulary. (HOW? by reading more books.)

Offshore staff can check individuals credit records. (HOW? by

mining (searching) databases over the internet.)

The US labor force and capital can be redeployed to higher-

value industries. (HOW? by sending routine service and
engineering tasks to nations with a surplus of educated workers.)

- US companies will expand foreign markets for their goods and

services (HOW? by encouraging economic development in nations
such as India.)

COMPARATIVES
1. Look at the following examples:
Weve got a conference in London next week. Shall we go by
train or by plane?
Lets go by train, its cheaper.
Dont go by plane, its more expensive.

After comparatives, you can use THAN. (Never that!)

Its cheaper to go by train than by plane.
Going by plane is more expensive than going by train.

2. Comparatives in -er
The comparative form is created by adding the suffix er to a short
adjective of one syllable (cheap) or an adjective of two syllables
ending in y (easy).
Adjective Comparative Example

cheap cheaper Going by train is

cheaper than by
plane.

fast faster It is faster to go by

plane.

long longer The trip seems longer

when we go by train.

easy easier It is easier to work on

the train.

early earlier Youll have to come to

work earlier if you
want to get everything
done

scary scarier For some people,

travelling by plane is
much scarier than
travelling by train.

3. Comparatives in more
We use MORE before an adjective of two or more syllables.

Adjective Comparative Example

Comfortable more comfortable Travelling in 1st class
is more comfortable
than travelling in
coach.

Expensive more expensive However, 1st class is

much more
expensive than
coach.

Serious more serious The company needs

to me more serious
about their budget
cuts.

We use MORE before adverbs ending in -ly.

NB: remember, an adverb is not the same thing as an adjective!

Adjectives modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives or other
adverbs.

Adverb Comparative Example

regularly More regularly We have been flying

in experts more
regularly in order to
get better ideas.

seriously More seriously We need to

work more
seriously if we want
to meet our deadline.
quietly More quietly Please talk more
quietly, you are
distracting me from
my task.

4. Irregular comparative forms:

The following adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative
forms.

Adjective Comparative Adverb Comparative

good better well better

bad worse badly worse

far further far further

The office looks better since you cleaned it.

I know the job well, probably better than anyone else here.
Is your headache still bad? Yes, its even worse now!
He did very badly in the interview this morning - worse than
expected.
Its a long walk from here to the conference room - farther than I
thought.
I still dont know who they are going to hire, let me know if you
hear any further news. (here, further means more)
COMPARATIVES (as...as...)
1. Study the following examples:

Counterfeiting is not more restricted than the legal business

sector.

Counterfeiting is as diverse as the legal business sector.

In 2009, the customs discovered fewer counterfeit goods than in

2008.

In 2009, the customs have not discovered as many counterfeit

goods as in 2008.

Producing fakes is cheaper than producing branded goods.

Producing fakes is not as expensive as producing branded

goods.

You can also say not so (as):

Fakes can generally be dangerous for consumers but imitation

clothes are not so dangerous as fake pharmaceutical products.

2. You can use asas (but not soas) in positive sentences and in
questions:

Thanks to the internet, buying a fake is just as easy as buying

any other legal item.
 It is necessary to tackle the phenomenon as soon as possible.

3. Twice asas, three times asas

China is reported to produce twice as many counterfeit

goods as genuine ones.

Branded goods can be up to three times as expensive as fakes.

4. We say the same as (not the same like):

Most Asian countries are facing the same problems as China,

as far as counterfeiting is concerned.

Developing countries must adopt the same anti-counterfeiting

strategies as those already implemented by developed countries,
if the problem is to be addressed successfully.

5. As me / as I am

We usually say:

Our competitors are not as affected as us. (not as we)

We are not losing as much money as him. (not as he)

After as, it is more usual to say me/him/her/them/us when there is

no verb.
Compare:

Our competitors are not as affected as us. / Our competitors are

not as affected as we are.

We are not losing as much money as him. / We are not

losing as much money as he is.

COMPOUNDS
1. We often use two nouns together (noun + noun) to mean one
thing / person / idea, etc. For example:
A bank manager
Income tax
Designer clothes
Brand owners
The first noun is like an adjective it tells us what kind of thing /
person / idea etc. For example:
A bank manager: a manager working in a bank
Income tax: tax that you pay on your income
Designer clothes: clothes created by a designer
Brand owners: people that own a brand name, a trademark
Compare:
Designer clothes (clothes created by a designer)
A clothes designer (a designer who creates or designs clothes)
Often the first word ends in ING. Usually these are things used for
doing something. For example:
A meeting room
A swimming pool
Sometimes the first noun tells us which thing is meant. For example:
A distribution network (a network of distribution)
A production line (a line of production)
Consumer demand (the demand of consumers)
Sometimes there are more than two nouns together. For example:
Imitation designer fashion (fashion)
Hotel reception desk (a desk)
 A city centre office (an office)

2. When words are like this (compounds), we can write them as

one word and sometimes as two separate words.
There are no clear rules for this. If you are not sure, it is usually better
to write two words.
You can often put a hypen (-) between the two words (but this is not
usually necessary):
A meeting-room
The city-centre

3. Note the difference between:

A tea cup (perhaps empty or filled with water) and a cup of tea
( a cup with tea in it)
A shopping bag (perhaps empty or full of old clothes) and a bag
of shopping (a bag full of the shopping you have just done)

4. When we use noun + noun, the first noun is like an adjective. It is

normally singular. For example:
A three-hour exam
A ten-pound note
A four-week training course
An 18-year-old student

CONNECTIVES
CONNECT AND RELATE SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS IN
THE LOGICAL FLOW OF IDEAS

Connectives can be adverbs or phrases.

Ex: besides, moreover, for instance, in addition to, ...

Connectives are very useful to associate ideas which may be
in different sentences or paragraphs. They will help to show the
connection between the different parts of a written document or of a
speech.
They can help the listener or the reader to move smoothly from one
point to the next.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONNECTIVES

Adding connectives

To give more information on a topic.

and, moreover, besides, as well as, furthermore, ...

E.g.
The company is seriously in debt. Besides the sale are dropping

Sequencing connectives

To organize ideas in a logical/chronological order.

before, next, after, then, first(ly), second(ly), third(ly), ...

E.g.
First of all, we have to do market research. Then, we could focus on
advertising.

Cause and effect connectives

To suggest an idea of consequences, to explain why something

happens.

so, because, thus, consequently, therefore, ...

E.g.
The CEO extended his stay in New York City consequently the
meeting is postponed until next week.

Contrasting connectives

To contrast ideas, to convey an opposition.

however, unless, although, but, nevertheless, ...

E.g.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through
human activities. Still the government refuses to take strong decisions.

Illustrating connectives

To illustrate your point, to give examples.

such as, for instance, for example, ...

E.g.
The manager want us to increase our market share in Asian
countries such as India.

Summarizing connectives

To summarize your ideas, to conclude on a topic.

to conclude, on the whole, briefly, in conclusion, to sum up, ...

E.g.
The company spent over $200,000 in developing this new product for
which we did not advertise. In the meantime our concurrent launched
a very similar product along with a very agressive advertising
campaign. Therefore our sales dropped drastically.
On the whole, if we want to stay competitive, we should improve our
product and launch an advertising campaign.

COUNTABLE & UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are individual objects, people, places and things that
can be counted. A countable noun can be singular orplural.
E.g.
a book 2 books / a house many houses / an American 10 million
Americans / a single plane 5 planes, etc.

The singular form of a verb is used with a singular countable noun:

E.g.
The house is for sale.

The plural form of a verb is used with a plural countable noun:

E.g.
The houses are for sale.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Uncountable or mass nouns are substances, concepts, information,

materials, etc, which are not individual objects and cannot be counted.
They are thought of as wholes rather than as parts and they have no
plural form.
 Substances: milk, cream, sugar, bread, flour, water, wine
Concepts: hope, peace, beauty, entertainment, freedom , time,
money
Feelings and qualities: anger, joy, honesty, pride
Activities: homework, sleep, surveillance

Uncountable or mass nouns:

- are used with no indefinite article (a/an).
E.g.
Postponing the meeting will buy us time.

- take a singular verb.

E.g.
Peace is going to enable the company to trade in this country again.

When using countable or uncountable nouns, pay attention to articles

and adjectives! Some articles and adjectives can be used with both
countable and uncountable nouns. However, others can be used with
only countable or only uncountable nouns. They are used to measure
the quantity, especially with mass nouns.

Used with Countable Nouns Only

a -> a pen
many -> many flights
few -> few countries
a few -> a few issues

Used with Uncountable Nouns Only

much -> much energy
little -> little equipment
a little bit of -> a little bit of confidence

Used with Countable & Uncountable Nouns

the -> countable -> the schools
-> uncountable -> the machinery
some -> countable -> some stores
-> uncountable -> some time
any -> countable -> any beliefs
-> uncountable -> any transportation
no -> countable -> no magazines
-> uncountable -> no money
a lot of ->countable -> a lot of immigrants
-> uncountable -> a lot of help
lots of -> countable -> lots of computers
-> uncountable -> lots of energy
enough -> countable -> enough worries
-> uncountable -> enough courage
plenty of -> countable -> plenty of houses
-> uncountable -> plenty of oil

COMMON UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Here is a list of uncountable nouns. These are sample uncountable

nouns only! There are many more.

Abstract Food Languag Subjects/Fie Sports Activiti

General advice food es lds golf es
homework help flour English mathematics tennis swimmi
equipment fun meat Portugue economics baseball ng
progress recreatio rice se physics basketb walking
research n cake Hindi ethics all driving
accomodati enjoyme bread Arabic civics soccer jogging
on nt ice Japanese art football reading
luggage informati cream Korean architecture cricket writing
clothing on cheese Spanish music hockey listening
money knowled toast French photography rugby speakin
furniture ge pasta Russian grammar chess g
machinery news spaghe Italian chemistry poker cooking
gold patience tti Hebrew history bridge sleeping
silver happines
travel s
cotton progress
glass confiden butter commerce
jewelery ce oil engineering
perfume courage honey politics
soap educatio soup sociology
studying
paper n fish Chinese psychology
working
wood intelligen fruit vocabulary
petrol ce salt archaeology
gasoline space tea poetry
baggage energy coffee literature
hair laughter
work peace
traffic pride

PLURAL NOUNS WITH NO SINGULAR FORMS

Some plural nouns have no singular form. These nouns take a plural
verb.
E.g.
The company's earnings are increasing every year.
These scissors are rusty.
Some nouns appear to be plural in form but take a singular verb.
E.g.
The news is not very good I'm afraid.
They say politics is a complicated business.
Economics is a difficult subject to analyse even for experts.

DETERMINERS

Determiners are used to identify nouns in further detail by giving

additional information about a them. They indicate reference to
something specific or something of a particular type. This function is
usually performed by articles, demonstratives, possessive
determiners, or quantifiers.

Determiners are usually directly followed by a noun or its adjective(s).

There are 4 types of determiners:

Articles
Articles are either definite or indefinite. They combine to a noun to
indicate the type of reference being made by the noun.
The definite article is the
The indefinite article is a / an

The article ''a / an'' is used when we don't specify the things or people
we are talking about. The indefinite article ''a'' is used before a
consonant sound and ''an'' before a vowel sound.
E.g.
I bought a ticket ticket to go to New York to meet an engineer.
I hold a speech in a university to recruit new talents.

The definite article ''the'' is used when the speaker talks about a
specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know.
E.g.
The CEO is going to come visit us next week.car over there is fast.
The computer over there, is not working.

Usually, when we speak of something or someone for the first time we

use ''a / an'', the next time we repeat that object or person we use the
definite article the.
E.g.
I work for a trading agency. The agency is settled in more than 200
countries.

No article
1. Do not use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces,
lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states
such as "The United States".
2. We do not use ''a / an'' article plurals and uncountable nouns. to talk
about things in general.
E.g.
He writes books.
He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier.
Do you like jazz music?

Countable and uncountable nouns

It is unusual to use ''a / an'' for uncountable nouns. They can be used
only with countable nouns.
''The'' can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be
dropped entirely as mentioned above.
E.g.
The two countries reached the peace after a long disastrous
war. (some specific peace treaty)
Two major companies reached peace after a long disastrous
war. (any peace)

Demonstrative
There are four demonstrative determiners in
English: this, that (singular) /these,those (plural)
Demonstrative determiners can also be used as demonstrative
pronouns. When they are used as determiners they are followed by
the nouns they modify.
E.g.
This camera is mine. (demonstrative used as a determiner )
This is my camera. (demonstrative used as a pronoun, subject of the
verb is)

Possessives
Possessive
determiners my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their modify the noun
following it in order to show possession. They are always followed by
nouns.
The possessive pronouns mine, his, hers, yours, ours, their can
stand alone and are not followed by nouns.
E.g.
This is my office. (my is a possessive determiner followed by the noun
''office'' which it modifies)
Is that yours? (yours is a possessive pronoun. It is not followed by a
noun.)

Quatifiers
Quantifiers are followed by nouns which they modify by specifying a
rather precise or vague quantity depending on the quantifier and the
noun. Quantifiers are commonly used before either countable or
uncountable nouns, yet will not all work with both countable &
uncountabe nouns.

some, any, few, little, more, much, many, each, every, both, all,
enough, half, little, whole, less etc.

E.g.
He knows more customers than the boss.
Little knowledge is a dangerous thing .
The company uses too much water.

For and Since

For and Since
For and Since are both used to say how long something has been
happening. For can be used with all tenses. Since is used with the
"perfect" tenses (ex. present perfect or the present
perfect continuous).

However, they are not used interchangeably!

Look at the following table.

Look at the following table.

For Since
Used to express a period of time (3 hours, Used when the start of a period of time is
5 weeks, 7 months, 2 years, etc.) mentioned. Think "a point in time" (8
o'clock this morning, Tuesday, 2006, etc.)

Ex. I've been waiting for my interview

Ex. I've been waiting for my interview for 3
since 9 am.
hours.

Ex. She's been working for this brand

Ex. She's been working for this brand for
since 2010.
over two years

Ex. I haven't seen the CEO since

Ex. I haven't seen the CEO for 2 weeks.
Halloween.

Ex. We work every day for 8 hours.

Ex. We will go the conference tomorrow,

but only for 3 hours.