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Timber Design

Wood is a very versatile raw material and is still

widely used in construction, especially in countries
such as Canada, Sweden, Finland, Norway and
Poland, where there is an abundance of
goodquality timber. Timber can be used in a range
of structural applications including marine works:
construction of wharves, piers, cofferdams; heavy
civil works: bridges, piles, shoring, pylons; domestic
housing: roofs, floors, partitions; shuttering for
precast and in situ concrete; falsework for brick or
stone construction

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Timber is naturally occurring. This makes it a

very difficult material to characterise and
partly accounts for the wide variation in the
strength of timber, not only between different
species but also between timber of the same
species and even from the same log. Quite
naturally, this led to uneconomical use of
timber which was costly for individuals and
the nation as a whole. However, this problem
has now been largely overcome by specifying
stress graded timber.

There is an enormous variety of timber species.

They are divided into softwoods and hardwoods,
a botanical distinction, not on the basis of
mechanical strength.
Softwoods are derived from trees with needle-
shaped leaves and are usually evergreen, e.g. fir,
larch, spruce, hemlock, pine.

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Hardwoods are derived from trees with broad leaves

and are usually deciduous, e.g. ash, elm, oak, teak,
iroko, ekki, greeheart.

elm EKKi

OAK
Teak

The task of the structural engineer has been simplified,

however, by grouping timber species into sixteen strength
classes for which typical design parameters, e.g. grade stresses
and moduli of elasticity, have been produced

Some of the characteristics which influence design

and are specific to timber are:
the moisture content,
the difference in strength when loads are
applied parallel and perpendicular to the grain
direction,
the duration of the application of the load,
the method adopted for strength grading of the
timber.

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Moisture Content
Unlike most structural materials, the behaviour
of timber is significantly influenced by the
existence and variation of its moisture content.
The moisture content, as determined by oven
drying of a test piece, is defined in Annex H of BS
5268 as:

Fiber saturation point (FSP)

The condition in which all free water has been
removed but the cell walls are still saturated is
known as the fiber saturation point (FSP).
At levels of moisture above the FSP, most
physical and mechanical properties remain
constant. Variations in moisture content below
the FSP cause considerable changes to
properties such as weight, strength, elasticity,
shrinkage and durability.

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The controlled drying of

timber is known as seasoning.
Air seasoning, in which the
timber is stacked and
layered with air-space in
open sided sheds to
promote natural drying.

Kiln drying, in which timber

is dried out in a heated,
ventilated and humidified
oven. This requires
specialist equipment and is
more expensive

The anisotropic nature of timber and differential

drying out caused by uneven exposure to drying
agents such as wind, sun or applied heat can result
in a number of defects such as twisting, cupping,
bowing and cracking, as shown in Figure

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Defects in Tim
The most common and familiar of such defects is a
knot (see Figure). Normal branch growth originates
near the pith of a tree and consequently its base
develops new layers of wood each season which
develop with the trunk.
, ,

A shake is produced when fibres separate along the

grain: this normally occurs between the growth
rings, as shown in Figure
A wane can occur when part of the bark or
rounded periphery of the trunk is present in a cut
length, as shown in Figure.

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Classification of Timber

Appearance grading is frequently used by

architects to reflect the warm, attractive features
of the material such as the surface grain pattern,
the presence of knots, colour, etc.
All structural (load-bearing) timber must be
strength-graded according to criteria which
reflect its strength and stiffness. In some cases
timber may be graded according to both
appearance and strength.

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Visual Strength Grading

As implied by the name, this method of
grading is based on the physical observation
of strength-reducing defects such as knots,
rate of growth, cracks, wane, bowing, etc.
Since the technique is based on the
experience and judgment of the grader it is
inherently subjective. In addition, important
properties such as density, which has a
significant influence on stiffness, and strength
are not considered.
In the UK, visual grading is governed by
the requirements of BS 4978:1996 Specification for softwood grades
for structural use

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Visual defects considered when assessing timber

strength include: location and extent of knots, slope
of grain, rate of growth, fissures, wane, distortions
such as bowing, springing, twisting, cupping, resin
and bark pockets, and insect damage.

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Machine Strength Grading

The requirements for machine strength grading are specified in BS EN 519:1995

Structural Timber Grading Requirements for machine strength graded timber and
grading machines. Timber is classified into:
nine classes of poplar and coniferous species ranging from the weakest grade C14 to
the highest grade C40,
six classes for deciduous species ranging from the weakest grade D30 to the highest
grade D70.
In each case the number following either the C or the D represents the characteristic
bending strength of the timber. In BS 5268-2:2002 two additional strength classes, TR20
and TR26, are also given; this is intended for use in the design of trussed rafters.

The inherently subjective nature of visual strength

grading results in a lower yield of higher strength classes
than would otherwise be achieved. Machine strength
grading is generally carried out by conducting bending
tests on planks of timber which are fed continuously
through a grading machine. The results of such tests
produce a value for the modulus of elasticity. The
correlation between the modulus of elasticity and
strength properties such as bending, tensile and
compressive strength can be used to define a particular
grade/class of timber.

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Material Properties
The strength of timber is due to certain types of
cells (called tracheids in softwoods and fibres in
hardwoods) which make up the many minute
hollow cells of which timber is composed. These
cells are roughly polygonal in cross-section and the
dimension along the grain is many times larger than
across it.

Material Properties

The principal constituents of the cells are cellulose and lignin. Individual cell walls
comprise four layers, one of which is more significant with respect to strength than the
others. This layer contains chains of cellulose which run nearly parallel to the main axis of
the cell. The structure of the cell enhances the strength of the timber in the grain direction.

Density, which is expressed as mass per unit volume, is one of the principal properties
affecting strength. The heaviest species, i.e. those with most wood substance, have
thick cell walls and small cell cavities. They also have the highest densities and
consequently are the strongest species. Numerous properties in addition to strength,
e.g. shrinkage, stiffness and hardness, increase with increasing density.

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Material Properties

The slope of the grain can have an important effect on the strength of a timber member.
Typically a reduction of 4% in strength can result from a slope of 1 in 25, increasing to an
11% loss for slopes of 1 in 15.

The strength of timber is also affected by the rate of growth as indicated by the width
of the annual growth rings. For most timbers the number of growth rings to produce the
optimum strength is approximately in the range of 615 per 25 mm measured radially.
Timber which has grown either much more quickly or much more slowly than that
required for the optimum growth rate is likely to be weaker.

Material Properties

Like many materials, e.g. concrete, the stressstrain

relationship demonstrated by timber under load is
linear for low stress values. For all species the strains
for a given load increase with moisture content. A
consequence of this is that the strain in a beam under
constant load will increase in a damp environment
and decrease as it dries out again.
Timber demonstrates viscoelastic behaviour (creep) as high stress levels induce increasing
strains with increasing time. The magnitude of long-term strains increases with higher moisture
content.

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Material Properties
The fire resistance of timber generally compares
favourably with other structural materials and is often
better than most. Steel is subject to loss of strength,
distortion, expansion and collapse, whilst concrete may
spall and crack.
The charcoal produced during the fire is a poor conductor
and will eventually provide an insulating layer between
the flame and the unburned timber.
Fire authorities usually consider that a normal
timber door will prevent the spread of fire to
an adjoining room for about 30 minutes.

Permissible Stress Design

The laws of structural mechanics referred to are those well established in recognised
elastic theory, as follows.
The material is homogeneous,
The material is isotropic, which implies that the elastic properties are the same in all directions.
The material obeys Hookes Law
The material is elastic,
The modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and compression.
Plane sections remain plane during deformation

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Modification Factors
The inherently variable nature of timber and its
effects on structural material properties such as
stressstrain characterisFcs, elasFcity and creep has
resulted in more than eighty different modification
factors which are used in converting grade stresses to
permissible stresses for design purposes.

Modification Factors
The applied stresses are calculated using elastic theory, and the permissible stresses are
determined from the code using the appropriate values relating to the strength classification
multiplied by the modification factors which are relevant to the stress condition being
considered. Symbols are defined relating to stresses and other variables in Clause 1.4 of BS
5268-2:2002 as follows:

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Modification Factors
In many instances subscripts are also used to identify
various types of force, stress or geometry; these are
as follows:

Modification Factors
As mentioned previously, the permissible stress is evaluated by multiplying the
grade stress for a particular strength class by the appropriate modification factors,
e.g.

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Modification Factors

Modification Factors

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Flexural Members
Beams are the most commonly used structural elements, for example as floor joists,
and as trimmer joists around openings, rafters, etc. The cross-section of a timber
beam may be one of a number of frequently used sections such as those indicated
in Figure

The principal considerations in the design of all beams are:

shear,
bending,
deflection,
bearing, and
lateral stability.

Flexural Members
The size of timber beams may be governed by the requirements of:
the elastic section modulus (Z), to limit the bending stresses and ensure that
neither lateral torsional buckling of the compression flange nor fracture of the
tension flange induces failure,
the cross-section, to ensure that the vertical and/or horizontal shear stresses do
not induce failure,
the second moment of area, to limit the deflection induced by bending and/or
shear action to acceptable limits.

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Effective Span
Most timber beams are designed as simply supported and the effective span
which should be used is defined in Clause 2.10.3 of BS 5268-2:2002, as
illustrated in Figure

Since the required bearing length on most beams is relatively small when compared with
the actual span it is common practice to assume an effective span equal to:

the clear distance between the supports + 50 mm for solid beams, and
the clear distance between the supports + 100 mm for ply-web beams.

In the case of long span beams (e.g. in excess of 10.0 m), or heavily loaded beams with
consequently larger end reactions, the validity of this assumption should be checked.

Solid Rectangular Beams

The modification factors, which are pertinent when designing solid timber
beams, are summarized in Table.

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Solid Rectangular Beams

Shear
The grade and hence permissible stresses given in the BS relate to the maximum shear
stress parallel to the grain for a particular species or strength class. In solid beams of
rectangular cross-section the maximum horizontal shear stress occurs at the level of the
neutral axis, and is equal to 1.5 the average value:

Solid Rectangular Beams

Bending
the applied bending stress is determined using simple elastic bending theory:

K2 , K3, K6 , K7 and K8 are modification factors used when appropriate.

Note: K6 = 1.0 for rectangular cross-sections.

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Solid Rectangular Beams

Deflection
In the absence of any special requirements for deflection in buildings, it is
customary to adopt an arbitrary limiting value based on experience and good
practice. The recommended value adopted in BS 5268 : Part 2 is (0.003 span)
when fully loaded. In the case of domestic floor joists there is an additional
recommendation of limiting deflection to less than or equal to 14 mm.

The calculated deflection for solid beams is usually based on the bending action of
the beam ignoring the effects of shear deflection

Bearing (Clause 2.10.2)

The behaviour of timber under the action of concentrated loads, e.g. at positions of
support, is complex and influenced by both the length and location of the bearing, as
shown in Figures

Solid Rectangular Beams

Note: In case (b), an additional modification factor K4 for bearing stress has been
included.

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Solid Rectangular Beams

The actual bearing area is the net area of the
contact surface and allowance must be
made for any reduction in the width of bearing
due to wane, as shown in Figure

Solid Rectangular Beams

Lateral Stability
A beam in which the depth and length are large in comparison to the width (i.e. a
slender cross-section) may fail at a lower bending stress value due to lateral torsional
buckling, as shown in Figure

The critical value of bending moment which induces this type of failure is dependent
on several parameters, such as: the relative cross-section dimensions (i.e. aspect ratio),
shape, modulus of elasticity (E), shear modulus (G), span, degree of lateral restraint to the
compression flange, and the type of loading.

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Solid Rectangular Beams

Notched Beams (Clause 2.10.9)

It is often necessary to create notches or holes in beams to accommodate fixing details

such as gutters, reduced fascias and connections with other members. In such
circumstances high stress concentrations occur at the locations of the notches or holes.
Whilst notches and holes should be kept to a minimum, when they are necessary cuts with
square re-entrant corners should be avoided. This can be achieved by providing a fillet or
taper or cutting the notch to a pre-drilled hole, typically of 8 mm diameter.

Effect on Shear Strength (Clause 2.10.4)

The projection of a notch beyond the inside edge of the bearing line at the point of
support reduces the shear capacity of a beam. There are two situations to consider,
as shown in Figure

Solid Rectangular Beams

Effect on Shear Strength (Clause 2.10.4)

The projection of a notch beyond the inside edge of the bearing line at the point of
support reduces the shear capacity of a beam. There are two situations to consider,
as shown in Figure

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Solid Rectangular Beams

The reduction in shear capacity is reflected in the use of the net area and a
reduction factor K5, as indicated.

Effect on Bending Strength

The calculated bending strength of
notched beams is based on the net
cross-section, as
shown in Figure

Solid Rectangular Beams

When considering simply supported floor and roof joists which are not more than 250
mm deep and which satisfy the restrictions indicated in Figures (a) and (b), the effects
of notches and holes can be neglected.

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Solid Rectangular Beams

Example 7.1: Suspended Timber Floor System

Consider the design of a suspended timber floor system in a domestic building in which
the joists at 500 mm centres are simply supported by timber beams on load-bearing
brickwork, as shown in Figure (a)
The support beams are notched at the location of the wall, as shown in Figure (b).
Determine a suitable section size for the tongue and groove floor boards.
Determine a suitable section size for the joists.
Check the suitability of the main support beams.

Design data:
Centre of timber joists 500 mm
Distance between the centre-lines of the brickwork wall 4.5 m
Strength class of timber for joists and tongue and groove boarding and beams C22
Imposed loading (long-term) 3.0 kN/m2
Exposure condition Service Class 1

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