ACI 238.

2T-14
TechNote

Concrete Thixotropy
Keywords: aggregate segregation; formwork pressure; plastic viscosity; pumpability; rheology; rheometer; static yield stress; thixotropy;
yield stress.

Introduction
Fresh concrete can exhibit different rheological behavior when at rest than when flowing. This difference is due
to thixotropy, which can have important consequences for formwork pressure, multi-lift casting, slip-form paving,
pumping, and segregation resistance. This TechNote defines thixotropy and distinguishes it from other changes in
rheological properties; discusses the origins of, test methods for measuring, and factors affecting thixotropy; and
concludes with its applications.

Description of thixotropy
Rheology is the science dealing with the deformation and flow of materials and is typically described based on the
relationship between shear stress and shear rate, as shown in Fig. 1. Viscosity () is the ratio of shear stress to shear
rate at a given shear rate.
Concrete rheology is most commonly characterized in terms of the Bingham
model (Fig. 1), which is defined in terms of yield stress (t0) and plastic viscosity
(mpl) (ACI 238.1R).
Two measures of yield stress are typically reported. Static yield stress (t0-static)
is the minimum shear stress to initiate flow from rest. Dynamic yield stress
(t0-dyanmic) is the minimum shear stress to maintain flow.
Plastic viscosity is the change in shear stress divided by the change in shear
rate, for the shear stress greater than the dynamic yield stress. For Bingham
materials, plastic viscosity is independent of shear rate, but the viscosity
depends on the shear rate and is typically referred to as apparent viscosity
Fig. 1Bingham rheological model.
(happarent).
Thixotropy is a reversible, isothermal, time-dependent decrease in viscosity when a fluid is subjected to increased
shear stress or shear rate (Mewis 1979). The change in viscosity is considered reversible because the viscosity will
increase to its original value when the shear stress or shear rate is decreased to its original value. The change in
viscosity due to thixotropy is considered to be isothermal to distinguish changes in viscosity due to thixotropy from
changes in viscosity due to changes in temperature. The change in viscosity is considered to be time-dependent
because the change in viscosity occurs over a period of time, rather than instantaneously when the shear is applied or
removed.
Thixotropy should be distinguished from irreversible changes in viscosity. Such changes may be caused by
hydration, as manifested by slump loss and setting. In addition, segregation can result in a more paste-rich region
of concrete with lower viscosity. Although the original nonsegregated composition could be restored by remixing,
changes in viscosity due to segregation should not be considered thixotropy.
Therefore, changes in viscosity can be attributed to both reversible and nonreversible phenomena. In this way, the
effects due to thixotropy can be separated from effects due to other phenomena, such as setting. In practice, there
is often no relevance in differentiating the reversible and irreversible processes because it is the overall increase
in viscosity when concrete is at rest over time that will influence the fresh state performance, such as concrete
segregation resistance or formwork pressure (Billberg 2009).
Thixotropy should be distinguished from shear-thinning characteristics of a fluid, wherein the viscosity decreases
with increasing shear rate. Thixotropy is time-dependent and can be observed at a constant shear rate, whereas shear
thinning characteristics are shear-rate-dependent, not time-dependent.

Origins of thixotropy
Thixotropy is due to two main aspects: 1) structural build-up when concrete is at rest; and 2) structural break-down
when concrete is under a shear or flow.
When a concrete mixture is at rest, particles in the cement paste flocculate and move together with time, forming a
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 CONCRETE THIXOTROPY (ACI 238.2T-14)

three-dimensional, networked internal structure. This internal structure

results in an increase in concrete viscosity. Flocculation is the result of
Van der Waals attraction and Brownian motion (Shaw 1992).
If this same concrete is subjected to shearing, the flow can result in
breaking up of flocs due to rupture of interparticle links and flocculation
due to particle contacts (Wallevik 2003). At a constant rate of flow, a
balance between breakup of flocs and flocculation will be reached with
time. The internal structure will be reduced compared to the at-rest state,
resulting in a decrease in concrete viscosity.

Measuring thixotropy
Multiple methods are available for measuring thixotropy of cement
paste, mortar, or concrete. As discussed previously, concrete experiences
both reversible and irreversible changes in viscosity. Thus, directly
measuring the reversible change due to thixotropy is challenging (Ferron
et al. 2007). Thixotropy can be characterized based on the degree of
material structural build-up or breakdown.
Fig. 2Typical hysteresis loop for measuring
thixotropy. The hysteresis loop test and constant shear rate tests require the use
of rheometers, which may include concentric cylinder geometry (Billberg
2009), vane geometry (Khayat et al. 2008; Koehler and Fowler 2008), or parallel plate geometry (de Larrard et al. 1997).
Hysteresis loop test methodThe hysteresis loop test (Ferron et al. 2007) is conducted by using a rheometer to apply
a range of shear rates to concrete initially at rest. To perform the test, concrete is placed in a rheometer, and left at
rest for a defined period of time to allow structural build-up to occur.
Rest time, typically on the order of minutes, could change from
test to test depending on the materials, equipment, and application
considered. The shear rate in the rheometer is increased from zero
to a predetermined maximum level and then decreased back to zero.
Typically, the time period over which the shear rate is increased (up-
curve) is equal to the time period over which it is decreased (down-
curve). The response in terms of material shear stress is recorded
and plotted against the shear rate, resulting in flow curves as shown
in Fig. 2. Any difference between the up- and down-curves is termed
hysteresis.
When the material is sheared at an increasing rate, the structure
of the material gradually becomes more and more broken. When the
material is then sheared with a decreasing rate, the gradual building
up of the structure begins again; however, the rate of the structural
build-up is slower than the rate of the breakdown that has occurred
during the up-curve. Thus, a hysteresis loop is formed by the up-
curve and the down-curve as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3Shear stress decay at constant shear rate.
Thixotropy of the material is quantified by the area enclosed
between the up- and down-curves of the hysteresis loop, which
relates to the energy needed to break down the reversible
microstructure of the tested material. Thus, a highly thixotropic
mixture is typically characterized by having a large area within
the hysteresis loop. If the up- and down-curve coincide perfectly
(that is, the enclosed area equals zero), the material is considered
nonthixotropic. The hysteresis loop test is greatly dependent on
the testing procedures and equipment. The test should merely be
used as a preliminary indicator of thixotropic behavior and not for
quantitative measurements. This is because the influences of shear
rate and time are coupled; that is, the shape of the hysteresis loop
can be affected by the rate at which the shear rate is increased or
decreased.
Constant shear rate testThe constant shear rate test is conducted
by measuring the shear stress of a material initially at rest and then
sheared at a constant rate. At the start of the test, for a material Fig. 4Static yield stress measurements (Billberg
that has been left at rest for some time, the flocculated particle 2009).

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structure is reflected by the high initial shear stress (ti).

With time, the structure gradually breaks down and the
shear stress decreases. Eventually, the equilibrium shear
stress (teq) is reached. Figure 3 shows the establishment of
the equilibrium condition, where the initial shear stress (ti)
is the shear stress measured right after the tested material
is first sheared, and the equilibrium shear stress (teq) is the
shear stress obtained when a steady-state (or constant)
shear stress is reached. The difference between the initial
shear stress (ti) and the equilibrium shear stress (teq) is
used as a measure to characterize the energy needed to
break down the microstructure of the tested material, which
is an indication of thixotropy.
Fig. 5Portable vane test method: (a) square bucket; and (b)
Static yield stress testThis method involves shearing a
vanes (Khayat and Omran 2010, 2011).
material initially at rest by increasing the shear strain of the
sample very slowly and measuring the shear stress to create
a shear stress-shear strain relation. The shear stress in the
material slowly increases due to the applied shear strain until
the structure breaks. The material structure is characterized
by the peak stress, which is the static yield stress t0-static.
Figure 4 shows such shear stress-shear strain measurements
of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) performed after various
times at rest (Billberg 2009). The test results can be affected
by the rate at which shear strain is applied.
Portable vane testThixotropy can also be characterized
by measuring the increase of static yield stress at rest
without a rheometer (Khayat and Omran 2010, 2011; Billberg
and sterberg 2001; Khayat et al. 2008; and Roussel and
Cussigh 2008). The portable vane (PV) test (Khayat and
Omran 2010, 2011), which is shown in Fig. 5, consists of
four-bladed vanes measuring 1.47 in. (37.5 mm) in radius
and various heights of 9.8, 7.9, 5.9, 3.9 in. (250, 200, 150, and
100 mm). A dial indicator-type torque wrench is attached
to the vane. After the given rest time, the torque wrench is
slowly turned to measure the peak torque on the vane to
break the material structure. The torque is then converted to
static yield stress based on the vanes geometry (Khayat and Fig. 6Inclined plate test conducted with mortar (Khayat and
Omran 2010). The different vane sizes allow measurements Omran 2010, 2011).
of concrete after four rest periods (typically 15, 30, 45, and 60
minutes) with the same torque wrench. Thus, the shorter the
rest time, the larger the vane used.
Inclined plate testThe inclined plate (IP) test involves casting concrete in a cylindrical mold resting on a horizontal
plate of a given roughness, followed by lifting the mold to allow the concrete to spread (Khayat and Omran 2010,
2011). Figure 6 shows this equipment used for a mortar test. After different times at rest, the plate with the spread
sample is inclined until flow starts. The critical angle required for initiating the flow, the sample density, and the
average height of the spread are used to determine the static yield stress. Typically, four IP tests are performed after
various rest periods to evaluate the rate of increase in static yield stress with time.

Effects of concrete materials and temperature on thixotropy

Thixotropy is affected by cement type, chemical admixtures, supplementary cementitious materials and fillers,
water-to-powder ratio (w/p), total water content, and temperature. Table 1 summarizes the influence of these factors
on thixotropy.
High-range water-reducing admixtures (HRWRA) and retarders generally lead to a reduction in flocculation, which
reduces the amount of thixotropy (Urev et al. 1997). Viscosity-modifying agents (VMA) typically increase thixotropy,
depending on the chemistry and mode of action of the VMA. For instance, Phan et al. (2006) revealed that a VMA
stabilizes concrete by increasing both the viscosity and thixotropy. Some VMA can actually increase the bridging

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between particles and positively influence the Table 1Summary of parameters influencing thixotropy
building up of a structure.
The use of an accelerator results in a greater Parameter Effect on thixotropy
degree of structural build-up and, therefore, higher HRWRA Decrease
thixotropy. VMA Increase
Slag, silica fume, and metakaolin, when used
Accelerator Increase
as a replacement for cement, generally increase
Retarder Decrease
thixotropy. Petkova and Samichkov (2007) suggested
that the increase in thixotropy is attributable to Supplementary cementitious materials
Increase
and mineral fillers
the increased specific particle surface in the paste
system. Salem (2002) proposed that this effect is w/p increase Decrease
due to the pozzolanic reaction as well as the rapid Total water content increase Decrease
transformation of ettringite to monosuflate. Temperature increase Increase
It has also been shown that lowering the w/p of
SCC by adding limestone fillers to cement increases
the structural build-up (Billberg 2009).
Tregger et al. (2010) used nano-clay at very small dosages to increase the thixotropy of semi-flowable SCC, which
is concrete with workability between that of the typical slump range and the typical slump flow range. The shape
stability of the semi-flowable SCC was improved significantly with the nano-clay addition after demolding. Recent
research also found that addition of clay materials in concrete can increase both the level of yield stress recovered
after shear and the kinetics of the rebuilding of the microstructure (Kaci et al. 2011).
Assaad and Khayat (2004) studied the thixotropy of five SCC mixtures with different combinations of cementitious
materials. They showed that the concrete exhibited a high thixotropy when mixed with ternary cement containing 6
percent silica fume and 22 percent fly ash in comparison with similar concrete made with 4 percent silica fume and no
fly ash, with all percentages expressed by mass of cementitious materials.
For a given cementitious material content, the structural build-up at rest increases with an increase in
environmental temperature. This is related to the rapid change in cement paste structure due to the acceleration
of hydration reactions. If the cement paste is more structured, more time is needed to recover the breakdown in its
structure after it has been sheared and, therefore, a larger thixotropy is measured (Coussot et al. 2002).

Applications of thixotropy
Thixotropy and structural build-up behavior is important in modern concrete construction. Applications of the
thixotropy of concrete can be found in the following:
Control of concrete formwork pressureDuring placement, fresh concrete, especially SCC, applies a pressure on
formwork. If cast slowly enough, the structure of the concrete can build up and attain the ability to withstand some
of the load from the concrete cast above. Therefore, concrete that sufficiently builds up the structure at rest due to
thixotropy can significantly reduce the formwork pressure (Ovarlez and Roussel 2006; Beitzel 2009; Khayat and Omran
2010, 2011).
Multiple-lift castingDuring multiple-lift placing, and to avoid structural defects, consider that a layer of thixotropic
concrete has a limited time (depending on the degree of structural build-up) to rest before a second layer of concrete
is cast above or next to it. The build-up of internal structure of concrete materials leads to a weakened bond between
the lifts if they are not intermixed properly (Roussel and Cussigh 2008).
Slip-form pavingFor slip-form paving without mechanical vibration of the concrete, the shape stability of the fresh
concrete after placing is extremely important. Tregger et al. (2010) used nano-clay as an additive and fly ash as cement
replacement to develop a semi-flowable SCC for slip-form paving. The clay, added at a very low dosage, accelerated
the structural build-up and, as a result, the green strength of the fresh concrete became considerable.
PumpingThixotropy can considerably influence pressure losses during high-speed pumping. As concrete becomes
more fluid due to increased discharge rate, there is a greater risk of loss of internal stability (Feys et al. 2008).
Thixotropy also has a significant effect on the ability to restart pumping without breaking open the pump line after a
delay due to, for example, problems with concrete delivery.
Segregation resistanceThe yield stress and plastic viscosity of the paste fraction of concrete should be in balance
and at a sufficient level to prevent the segregation of aggregate. An increase in the static yield stress and viscosity of
the paste fraction due to thixotropy can reduce or prevent the segregation of aggregate (Koehler and Fowler 2008;
Bethmont et al. 2003). This is especially true for concrete with low yield stress, such as SCC.

Summary
Concrete often exhibits thixotropy due to interparticle effect. When concrete is at rest, an internal structure forms.
This structural build-up is caused by the sum of a reversible, thixotropic structural change (due to interparticle

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potentials enabling flocculation) and an irreversible structural change (mainly due to cement hydration). The
reversible portion of this structural build-up is broken down when the concrete is again sheared. Several methods
are available for measuring thixotropy. Many factors can affect the structural behavior of cement-based materials at
rest, including characteristics of cementitious materials, chemical admixtures, w/p, and environmental conditions.
Understanding concrete thixotropy is important in modern concrete construction, as it is influential with respect
to controlling formwork pressure, multi-layer castings, pumpability, shape stability, and segregation resistance of
concrete mixtures. Proper characterization and manipulation of this important material property can greatly improve
the quality and constructability of concrete structures.

Referenced standards and reports

ACI Committee documents and documents published by other organizations are listed first by document number,
full title, and year of publication followed by authored documents listed alphabetically.

American Concrete Institute

238.1R-08 Report on Measurements of Workability and Rheology of Fresh Concrete

Cited references
Assaad, J., and Khayat, K. H., 2004, Assessment of Thixotropy of Self-Consolidating Concrete and Concrete-
Equivalent-MortarEffect of Binder Composition and Content, ACI Materials Journal, V. 101, No. 5, Sept., pp. 400-408.
Beitzel, M., 2009, Formwork Pressure Behaviour of Fresh Concrete under Consideration of the Rheological
Properties, PhD thesis, Institute for Concrete Structures and Building Materials, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (in
German).
Bethmont, S.; Schwarzentruber, L. D.; Stefani, C.; and Leroy, R., 2003, Defining the Stability Criterion of a Sphere
Suspended in a Cement Paste: A Way to Study the Segregation Risk in Self-Compacting Concrete, 3rd International
Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, Reykjavik, Iceland, pp. 94-105.
Billberg, P., 2009, Stress-Strain Measurement Of Fresh SCC at Rest Using a Concrete Viscometer, RILEM
International Symposium on Rheology of Cement Suspensions such as Fresh Concrete, Reykjavik, Iceland, Aug., pp. 265-
272.
Billberg, P., and sterberg, T., 2001, Thixotropy of Self-Compacting Concrete, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 99-108.
Coussot, P.; Nguyen, Q. D.; Huynh, H. T.; and Born, D., 2002, Viscosity Bifurcation in Thixotropy, Yielding Fluids,
Journal of Rheology, V. 46, No. 3, pp. 573-589.
de Larrard, F.; Hu, C.; Sedran, T.; Szitkar, J. C.; Joly, M.; Claux, F.; and Derkx, F., 1997, A New Rheometer for Soft-to-
Fluid Fresh Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, V. 94, No. 3, May-June, pp. 234-243.
Ferron, R.; Gregori, A.; Sun, Z.; and Shah, S. P., 2007, Rheological Method to Evaluate Structural Build-Up in Self-
Consolidating Concrete Cement Paste, ACI Materials Journal, V. 104, No. 3, May-June, pp. 242-250.
Feys, D.; Verhoeven, R.; and de Schutter, G., 2008, Influence of Thixotropy on Pressures Required during Pumping of
Concrete, AIP Conference Proceedings, XV International Congress on Rheology: The Society of Rheology 80th Annual
Meeting, V. 1027, Jan., pp. 710-712.
Kaci, A.; Chaouche, M.; and Andrani, P.-A., 2011, Influence of Bentonite Clay on the Rheological Behaviour of Fresh
Mortars, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 41, Apr, pp. 373-379.
Khayat, K. H., and Omran, A. F., 2010, Evaluation of SCC Formwork Pressure, Concrete International, V. 32, No. 6,
June, pp. 30-34.
Khayat, K. H., and Omran, A. F., 2011, Field Monitoring of SCC Formwork Pressure and Validation of Prediction
Models, Concrete International, V. 33, No. 6, May, pp. 33-39.
Khayat, K. H.; Omran, A. F.; Naji, S.; Billberg, P.; and Yahia, A., 2008, Test Methods to Evaluate Form Pressure of
SCC, Proceedings of the 3rd North American Conference on the Design and Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC 2008),
S. P. Shah, ed., Chicago, IL, pp. 308-314.
Koehler, E. P., and Fowler, D. W., 2008, Static and Dynamic Yield Stress Measurements of SCC, Proceedings of the 3rd
North American Conference on the Design and Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC 2008), Chicago, IL, 6 pp.
Mewis, J., 1979, Thixotropy A General Review, Journal of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics, V. 6, pp. 1-20.
Ovarlez, G., and Roussel, N., 2006, A Physical Model for the Prediction of Lateral Stress Exerted by Self-Compacting
Concrete on Formwork, Materials and Structures, RILEM, V. 39, No. 2, pp. 269-279.
Petkova, V., and Samichkov, V., 2007, Some Influences on the Thixotropy of Composite Slag Portland Cement
Suspensions with Secondary Industrial Waste, Construction & Building Materials, V. 21, No. 7, July, pp. 1520-1527.
Phan, T. H.; Chaouche, M.; and Moranville, M., 2006, Influence of Organic Admixtures on the Rheological Behavior of
Cement Pastes, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 36, No. 10, pp. 1807-1813.
Roussel, N., and Cussigh, F., 2008, Distinct-Layer Casting of SCC: The Mechanical Consequences of Thixotropy,

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Cement and Concrete Research, V. 38, May, pp. 624-632.

Salem, T. M., 2002, Electrical Conductivity and Rheological Properties of Ordinary Portland CementSilica Fume
and Calcium HydroxideSilica Fume Pastes, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 32, No. 9, pp. 1473-1481.
Shaw, D. J., 1992, Introduction to Colloid and Surface Chemistry, fourth edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK,
306 pp.
Tregger, N.; Pakula, M.; and Shah, S. P., 2010, Influence of Clays on the Rheology of Cement Pastes, Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 40, No. 3, pp. 384-391.
Urev, N. B.; Baru, R. L.; Izhik, A. P.; Shoi, S. V.; and Saaskovets, V. V., 1997, Rheology and Thixotropy of Cement-Water
Suspensions in the Presence of Superplasticizers, Colloid Journal, V. 59, No. 6, pp. 773-779.
Wallevik, J. E., 2003, Rheology of Particle Suspensions Fresh Concrete, Mortar and Cement Paste with Various
Types of Lignosulfonates PEng thesis No. 2003-18, Department of Structural Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway,
397 pp.

Reported by ACI Committee 238

Eric P. Koehler, Chair Peter H. Billberg, Secretary

Sofiane Amziane Denis Beaupre Berthold Berman
Van K. Bui Samir E. Chidiac Peter A. Claisse
Yogini S. Deshpande Peter L. Domone Chiara F. Ferraris
Raissa P. Ferron David W. Fowler Mette Geiker
Jiong Hu Aulis Kappi Kamal H. Khayat
Zhuguo Li Richard B. McCarthy Nikola Mikanovic
Moncef L. Nehdi H. Celik Ozyildirim Vincent Picandet
Rafael Giuliano Peleggi Konstantin Sobolev Mohammed Sonebi
Jussara Tanesi Kejin Wang Min-Hong Zhang

Consulting Members
Neil J. Crockett
Turhan Erdogan
ACI TechNotes are intended for reference for the design and construction of concrete structures. This document is intended for the use of indi-
viduals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and who will accept responsibility for the application of the
information it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the accuracy of the content and shall not be liable
for any loss or damage arising therefrom. Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents.

ACI 238.2T-14 was adopted and published June 2014.

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