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EI- Dakhak hni, Wagih Mohamed.
Theory of Structures .
Wa~ih Mohamed EI - Dakhakhni . .
- 4 t ed. _ Cairo: Dar AI - Maaref. 2010.
Part I ; 24 em.
1 S B N: 0 - 7432 - 02 - 977 - 978 .
I - Structural analysis ( Engineering) .
1 - Title.
~24. 17
I/'I/IV
THEORY OF
STRUCTURES
Part I
FOURTEE:\TH EDlTIO;\'
Oaf AI-Maaref
First Edition .......... ... .. . 1968
Second Edition 1970
Third Edition .. ........................ . 1973
Fourth Edition ......... .. ...... .. 1977
Fifth Edition ................. .. ... 1980
Sixth Edit ion ........ . 1984
Seventh Edition .. .. .. ..... 1987
Eighth Edition 1990
Ninth Edition 1994
Tenth Edition 1998
Eleventh Edition ............ . .2000
PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION
I It was hoped to present Part 2 earlier but this was postponed owing to a
full-":ime engagement of the author on a major research programme con-
ducted at Lehigh University, U.S.A., which lasted almost two years.
Finally, the author wishes to extend his gratitude to Architect, S.
EI-Komey and Mr. A. Rasmey who were responsible for the design of
I
, VII
"
- -~ - ,
PREFACE TO FIRST EDmON
This book is designed to serve the need of our engineering students and.
to introduce the Theory of Structures for those among them who are ap-
proaching the subject for the first time.
IX
wonderful co-operation without which the production of this book in
this form would not have been possible.
At last, and by no means the least, the author wishes to express his grati-
tude to his family particularly his parents, to whom this book is dedicated,
fore their continuous encouragement.
W.M. EI-Dakhaklmi
Cairo, September 1968.
)(
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Section Page
1.1 Introduction I
1.2 Defini tions
1.3 Composition and resolution of forces 4
1.4 Resultant of a system of concurrent forces 5
1.5 Resultant of a system of nonconcurrent forces 8
1.6 Conditions of equilibrium for concurrent forces 11
1.7 Conditions of equilibrium for nonconcurrent forces 13
1.8 1Lhree-force theorem 15
1.9 Treatment of some problems in statics 15
1.10 Further applications of the link polygons 25
Examples to be worked out 30
ll CHAPTER 2
2.1 Loads 37
2.2 Reactions. 37
2.3 Calculation of reactions. 39
2.4 Condition equations 46
2.5 General remarks 52
2.6 Stability and determinancy 52
2.7 Classified examples 54
Examples to be worked out 57
XI
CHAPTER 3
Section Page
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Definitions 62
3.3 Method of computation of N, Q and M 64
3.4 Thrust, shearing force and bending moment diagrams. 66
3.5 Relationships between w, Q and M . 69
3.6 Standard cases of S.F. and B.M.Ds 71
3.7 Principle of superposition 77
3.8 Illustrative examples 79
3.9 Graphical method for determining N.F., S.F and B.M.Ds. 87
Examples to "be worked out 94
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
XII
5.8 Application of the method of sections 141
5.9 Application of the method of force coefficients 145
5.10 Grapaical method-Stress diagram 147
5.11 Ambiguous trusses 151
5.12 Analysis of complex trusses 154
5.13 Illustrative examples 157
Examples to be worked out. 185
CHAPTER 6
Page
6.1 Introduction 190
6.2 Definition 190
6.3 Properties of the influence lines . 191
6.4 Extreme values 194
6.5 Construction of influence lines for simply supported beams 195'
6.6 Maximum .S.F. and .B.M. at a given section in a simple beam 197
6.7 Absolute maximum ,S,F. and B,M. in simple beams 200
6.8 Construction of influence lines for overhanging beams . 207
6.9 Constructionn of influence lines for cantilever beams . 208
6.10 Construction of influence lines for three-hinged arches. 214
6.11 Beams carrying indirect loading. 221
6.12 Construction of influence lines for trusses 225
6.13 Alternative method for the construction of influence lines 233
6.14 Illustrative examples . 234
Examples to be worked out 244
CHAPTER 7
XIII
7.5 Polar moment of inertia 262
7.6 Radius of gyration 262
7.7 Product of inertia 263
7.8 Moments and product of inertia about inclined axes 267
7.9 Principal axes of inertia 268
7.10 Semi-graphical treatment - Mohr's circle of inertia 269
Examples to be worked out 275
CHAPTER 8
NORMAL STRESSES
Page
8.1 Introduction 278
8.2 Stresses due to central normal force. 279
8.3 Stresses due to bending moment. 280
8.4 Double bending 289
8.5 Combined axial force and bending stresses 295
8.6 Eccentric thrust 299
8.7 Eccentricity about both axes 304
8.8 Core of plane areas 311
8.9 Extreme stresses by means of core 313
8.10 General equation of stress 318
8 . 11 Sign conventions 320
8.12 The neutral axis 321
Examples to be worked out 330
CHAPTER 9
SHEAR STRESSES
XIV
9.9 The torsion formula 371
9 .10 Power transmi tting shafts 377
9.11 Torsion of non-circular solid sections 379
9.12 Torsion of open thin-walled sections . 382
9 .13 Torsion of closed thin-walled sections 384
9.14 Combined shearing force and torsion stresses 389
Examples to be worked out . 391
CHAPTER 10
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
xv
-1-
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
Statics is that branch of Mechanics which deals with the determination
of forces keeping a rigid body in a state of equilibrium. There are two
methods of solving problems of this nature; graphical and analytical. The
selection of the method depends on the type of the problem and on personal
preference of the student. Among the problems that are solved more
i
advantageously by graphical methods are the determination of the member
forces and the resultant deflection of various truss joints. The author finds
that not only is a knowledge of graphical methods helpful in the solution
I of probfems such as these, but also that it emphasizes the analytical solution
and helps the student to visualize the physical meaning of the p.roblem at
hand.
In this book, therefore, graphic statics will be dealt with in details and"
discussion of its application to various problems. will be .made in the appro-
priate place.
1.2 DefinitioDs
Rigid body: Structures and structural members are referred to as rigid
bodies. In the exaot sense, a rigid body is one whose dimensions never
change under any applied forces. It must be remembered that there is no
perfect rigid body as structures are made of materials that deform slightly
under. the application of loads.
Force: A force is .any action that changes the state of body from rest
to motion or vice versa. It is completely spe~ified by : (I) magnitude in
terms of a chosen unit; kilogramme (kg) or ton (t), (2) point of application,
(3) direction. The last two particulars may be replaced by the line of
action and sense of direction (arrow head). For example, a force of 3 t.
acting at point a and in a direction making an angle of 30 with the x-axis
could be equally specified by saying 3 t. acting along line ab from a to b .
A force is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. Hence
it may be represented graphically by a line drawn through the point of
application and having a length equal to the magnitude of the force to
a suitable scale. The slope of this line indicates the direction of the force
2
f
I (bl
!
f
(e)
Fig. 1.4
forces has a purely rotational effect on any rigid body. Referring to Fig. 1.5
and taking moments about point m then, moment of couple = P X 0 +
P X mn = Pr; The same result can be obtained by taking moments about
n, 0, or any other point in the plane
of the forces. Thus, it can be deduced
that the moment of a couple about any
point in its plane is constant and is
equal to the .product of one of the
forces and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the two
forces. ~O "
Resultant: The resultant of a system
of forces acting on a rigid body is a
single force or couple, which has the Fig. 1.5
(a) ( b) (d
Fig. 1.6
Fig. 1.6 c. In constructing these triangles, either force may be drawn first
and then the other force is laid out from the end of the.first vector. The
resultant is then obtained in magnitude and direction from the closing
vector of the triangl~ drawn from the beginning of the first vector to the
end of the second. Its line of action must pass thro"gh the point of inter-
section of PI and P 2 otherwise it would not have the same effect as the two
forces.
If a force R is required
to be resolved into two
components PI and P 2 any
two of the four quantities
defining .the two components;
magnitude ~nd direction of
each, must be given and
the other two are fOWld from
Fig. 1.1
the force triangle.
5-
Analytical method Referring to the triangle of forces shown
in Fig. 1.7,
ac J ad + dc2
2
Equations 1.1 and 1.2 give the magnitude and direction of the resultant R.
X R cos 9 1.3
Y R sin 9 1.4
Given the rectangular components, the magnitude and direction of the
resultant are given by :
R = J X2 + y2 1.5
Y
tan 9 1.6
X
( a) (b) (el
Fig. 1.9
------r-~-7~------X
F;g. I.lO
Y
tan e
x
ExaDlpie 1.1 Determine graphically and analytically the resultant of
the concurrent forces shown in Fig. Lil a.
Graphical solution: Starting from point a, Fig. 1.11 b, draw vectors
representing forces 2, 3,5 and 4 t. The resultant is given by R (vector ab)
which scales 1.8 t and acts through point 0 in the direction shown in the
force polygon, Fig. L II b.
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1.11
I
Analytical solution : Choosing the rectangular axes as the x and y
axes, and resolving along these directions then referring to Fig. 1.12,
1 y
[
!
i
Fig. Ll2
-8-
X 2 cos 30 - 3 cos 60 - 5 cos 15 + 4 cos 45
2 x 0.866 - 3 X 0.5 - 5 X 0.966 + 4 X 0.707
1.73 - 1.50 - 4.83 + 2.83 = 1.77 t +-
Y - 2 sin 30 + 3 sin 60 - 5 sin 15 - 4 sin 45
2 X 0.5 + 3 X 0.866 - 5 X 0.286 - 4 X 0.707
- 1.0 + 2.60 - 1.43 - 2.83 = 0.6fi t !
R J 1.77 2 + 0.66 2 = 1.84 t+-
0.66
tan 8 0.373, i.e. 8 20 27'
1.77
a
P2
c
q
p "7 r
----
R R
(a) d
Fig. 1.13
P 2 and P3 is required. Its magnitude and direction are given by the closing
vector ad in the force polygon abed shown in Fig. 1.13 b. The line of action
of the resultant is determined as follows : Choose any point 0 in the force
polygon and jojn oa, ob, DC, and ad. Take any point p on the line of action
of PI> (Fig. 1.13 a). At p resolve PI into two components;;:;; and Db. Ex-
tend the line of action of component ob to intersect the line of action of
P2' a~ q. At this point resolve P2 into two components bo and oc. In the
same manner resolve P 3 at r into % components 00 and ad. Thus, the
I -9-
The diagram constructed from the force polygon is called the poIm
tiUJgram, 0 is the pole, an.d each of the lines oa, ab, and od, a rq. The
diagram' constructed from the lines spqrt on the space diagram is called
the link or funicular polygon and each of the lines sp, 1"1, qr and rt, a link.
It is important to remember that a link. is drawn ~tween the lines of action
of two forces which are adjacent to each other and also paraIIel to the ray
directed through the intersection of these two forces in the force polygon.
Fog. 1.14
X DC = X, + X) - X, -
Y l:Y = Y, + Y1 + YJ 1
R J Xl + Y'
Y
laDe
X
- 10-
The last two equations give the magnitude and direction of the result-
ant. Its position is determined from the condition that the moment of
the resultant about any point in the plane must be equal to the algibraic
sum of the moments of the given system of forces. Hence, choosing any
point 0 and taking moments of the given forces, or for convenience in this
case of the components of the given forces, about this point then,
Y a = Y, a, + Y2 a 2 + Y, a,
Y, a, + Y2 a2 + Y, a,
or a ... 1.7
:EY
i.e. the resultant passes through a point distance a ; given by equation 1.7,
from the chosen point o.
( b)
Fig. 1.1 5
I x
54.65
9.43
~ 5.8 m.
r p 5 equal and opposite to the resultant R were added to the given force
I
system, the resultant would be zero and therefore the force polygon must"
close as shown in Fig. 1.16 h. This indicates that the algebraic sums of the
components along any chosen rectangular axes are zero.
~2 /Pt
II ~ --X\
R \
/
/'
~
l
I \P4
C.) (b I
Esau:aple x.3 For the system of concurrent wrces shown in Fig. 1.17
determine graphically and analytically.
(a) The single force required to keep them in equilibrium.
(b) The two balancing forces along xx and yy.
(c) The two balancing forces; one of magnitude 18t. and the other
acts along xx.
y , e
Bt g~-r----
\. I / /
\ I /
X \ I /
lOt
/
5t 'i b (;
it
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1.17
F 10 -
10 -
8
5.66
X 0.707
+ 5 -
+ 10
4.33 -
X 0.5 -
6.2 = -
5 X 0.866 - 18 X
(Note that the negative sign for F means that its direction is opposite
to that assumed).
a
PI
l~ P3
~
~k
0
I P4
d
( a)
( b)
F;g. 1.18
that the algebraic sums of the components along the chosen rectangular
axes are zero. Also, when the link polygon is drawn, it will be found that
it closes on itself. From the link polygon it is seen that the given force
system is replaced by four pairs of forces, each of which consists of two
equal, opposite and collinear forces. Therefore the original system is-in
equilibrium.
Suppose that P 4 were not collinear with R but acts parallel to it along
the dashed-line shown in Fig. LISa. The force polygon will still close but
from the link polygon it is seen that the given force system is replaced by
three equal and opposite pairs of forces in equilibrium, and a pair of forces
equal, opposite and at a distance r apart and thus forms a couple of
moment equal to oa X r clockwise (oa being measured to force scale and
r to linear scale) . Therefore, the given system of forces is not in equilibrium.
If the force polygon closes but the link poll'gon does not, the given
system of forces will be equivalent to a couple.
Analytical: LX o 1.10
LY o 1.11
1.12
(b) The magnitude only of one force and the magnitude and direction
of another force.
This is obvious when one notices that any two of the three forces can
be replaced by a resultant force through their point of intersection and
that in order that the third force may be in equilibrium with the resultant,
their lines of action must be coinsident.
PI P2 P3 -r~
a b Ra 2
b' 0
+~
Ra, ~\O~ _
a -- -
Closln
Rb
Rb 3
---L-!.
Cal (bl
Fig. 1.19
to PI' P, and P,. Choose a pole 0 and join 01, 02, 03 and 04. Draw a link
parallel to ray 01 between PI and the known line of action of R . Similarly,
draw successively the links between PI & P2' and P2 & p)J and then
between p) and the line of action ofRbo Since R. and Rb are both vertical,
point 5 in the force polygon (Fig. 1.19b) must lie on the line 1234. Also,
since PI. P2' PJ , R. and Rb are known to be in equilibrium, the link
polygon must close, which condition is satisfied by drawing the line a'b'
which is called the closing link. This link lying between R. and Rb in the
space diagram mU!1It have a corresponding parallel ray in the polar diagram.
Hence, 5 is the point of intersection between ray 05 drawn parallel to the
closing link and line 1234. Vector.; 51 and 45, therefore, represent R,. and
~ respectively.
Fig. 1.20
= 0 = Rb a - PI al - P2 a 2 - PJ &)
PI a l + P, a, + P, a,
a
f
I:Y ~ 0 ~ R. PI"':' P, - P, + R.
R, ~ PI + P, + P, - R. t
-17-
Note that a check can be applied to the values thus obtained from the
rrv1b = 0 condition.
E"alnpie 1.4 Fig. 1.21 shows
a system of parallel forces. Find
analytically and graphically the
equilibrants A and B passing
through a and b if A .and Bare Fig. 1.21
parallel. " \
:\
Analytical solution:
Since A and B are parallel and since the equation :EX = must be
satisfied, it follows that both A and B must be parallel to the given force
system, i.c. vertical.
LM~ 0 = B X 5 - 4 X 4 - 4 X 3 - 2 X I
16 -1- 12 -1- 2
B
5
6 t. t
LMb 0 = A X 5 - 2 X 4 - 4 X 2 - 4 X I
A = 8 + 8 + 4
= 4 t. t
5
21 l, t 41
ar-~------~~--.b
r-:
Ra: 41 2 '_-':::::::::....
G. ------- o
: Closjn'=_F1ink Rb :61
Seal.
L. 1 em. =4 t.
(al ( bl
Fig. 1.22
Draw the force polygon for the given forces to a suitable scale. Choose
any pole 0, join 01, 02, 03 and 04 and draw the corresponding link polygon.
- 18-
From 0 draw a parallel to the closing link to intersect line 1234 in 5. Then
vector 51 represents equilibrant A and vector 45 equilibrant B. From the
diagram shown in Fig. 1.22 b, these scale 4 t. and 6 t. respectively.
(a)
c
",
",
",
",
/"
( b)
/
/
R
resultant R is found in the usual manner. bb' is extended to meet the line
of action of R in c. Since three nonparallel forces in equilibrium must meet
in a point, the equilibrant through a must also pass through c. Knowing
the directions of R. and R b ) their magnitudes are obtained from the force
polygon (Fig. 1.23 b) by resolving R along ca and cb .
-19-
(b) By use of the link polygon.
Draw the part of the force polygon corresponding to the given forces
PI> P, and P,. Choose a pole 0 and draw rays to points I, 2,3 and 4.
Fig. 1.24
Through the given point a, draw a link parallel to ray 01 between P, and the
unknown line of action ofRa' Similarly, draw successively the links between
P, & P" and P, & P, and then between P, and the known line of action
of R b. This last link intersects the given line of action of Rb at b. For equ-
ilibrium, the link polygon must close and ab will be the closing link. Draw
the corresponding ray in the force polygon (Fig. 1.24 b) parallel to the
closing link. This ray must pass through the intersection of the vectors
representing Ra and R b Now this point of intersection lies on the ray paral-
lel to the closing link and also on the line drawn from point 4 in the force
polygon parallel to bb and is thus determined. Vectors 51 and 45, there-
forel give the magnitudes and directions of Ra and Rb respectively.
Analytical method :
Choose any two rectangular axes, for convenience taken as bb and the
normal to it through the given point a, and resolve all the forces along these
chosen axes. Then applying the three equations of equilibrium, and refer
ring to Fig. 1.25,
i LX = 0, X. X, + X, - X,-+
~ Y, a, + Y, a, + Y, a J
LM.~ 0 Yb f
I LY 0 , Y. YI + Y, +
a
Y, - Yb f
~
- 20-
,
I b'
I
I
Xa __~__~~~~~~__+-___
tVb
Ib
I
Exaltlple 1.5 For the system offorces shown in Fig. 1.26, find graphically
and analytically the equilibrants A and B passing through a and b if B
is vertical.
}'ig. 1.26
Graphical solution:
The force and link polygons are drawn and the resultant R is found
as shown in Fig. 1.27. Extend the line of action of R to meet the vertical
through b in poin t c. Join c to a. ca and cb are the lines of action of the
equilibrants A and B respectively. R is resolved along these two directions
in the force polygon and the forces arc scaled. These are found to be :
A = 7.1 t. and B = 5.3 t.
Analytical solution:
4 4
I:Ma = 0 = 9 B-2 X 8 - 2 X 6 X 5 X 2
)2 J2
B (16 + 12 + 14.2 + 5.68) = 5.31. i
9
- 21-
2, 2,
8~ 53 t
I
I Force Scale'
I , em. =41.
I
I
c
Fig. 1.27
4-
,
l:X - 0 - x. - --
JT JT
4
~
, X. - 5.68 t. +-
4 4
l:Y = 0 = Y. - J 2 - - 2 -2 + 5.3
J2
Y. = 4.38 t. t
A = J 5.68 2 + 4.38 2 = 7.16 t.
and makes an angle B with the horizontal,
4.38
tan B = - - = 0.772
5.68
B = 37 40'
!
- 22-
the given lines of action are neither parallel nor concurrent. If the given
lines of action have a common point of intersection but this common point
of concurreI1cy does not lie on the line of action of the resultant of the given
system of forces as shown in Fig. 1.28 a, or if the given lines of action arc
~-J
(~)
II;"J (b)
R
X
'\ vI zl -\
Y
( d)
(e)
Fig. 1.28
parallel but not parallel to the resultant as shown in Fig. 1.28 b, a solution
is not possible. This is obvious as in both cases the unknown equilibrants
may be replaced by a single force which is impossible to be collinear wid:
R and therefore can never be in equilibrium. If, however, the given lines
of action and the resultant of the given system of forces have a common
point of concurrency as shown in Fig. 1.28 c, or if the lines of action arc
parallel and also parallel to the resultant as shown in Fig. 1.28 d, a solution
is possible but not determinate. This can be verified from the analytical
conditions; two equations and three unknowns.
_--,a'
Fig. 1.29
- 23-
Consider the system of forces PI! P 1 and p] shown in Fig. 1.29, and
suppose that it is required to find three forces acting along the given lines
aa', bb' and ee' to keep the given system of forces in equilibrium.
-- --- p-
---
f
X
z
(a)
( b)
Fig. 1.30
This problem may equally be solved by use of the link polygon. Refer-
ring to Fig. 1.31a, replace any two of the required equilibrants by a single
force (in this case X and Yare replaced by P which must pass through
the point of intersection of their lines of action d). Proceed to find the two
equilibrants Z and P, the first being given by its line of action cc' and the
second by its point of application d, as in the previous case. Once P is
- 24-
found, it will be a simple matter to resolve it along aa' and bb' to obtain
X and Y as shown in Fig. 1.31 b.
b
z
d c
x r-- - -Closing
- - -link
" - -P3 - - ----;,..
a
( a)
--~~--i=====~Q
( b)
F'g. 1.31
Analytical method :
x c
F;g. 1.32
resultant vector in the force polygon. The moment is then given by the
product of the intercept y and the polar distance H. This can be verified
as follows:
p;'k
\
'1 c
n
(a) \
R
\
( b) \-H-l
Fig. 1.33
The sum of the moments of the given forces is equal to the moment of
their resultant about point m. Then,
Mm = R r
Triangles aod and npq are similar, and if H is drawn perpendicular
to ad then,
R
.l..
H r
or H Y = R r = Mm
The method just illustrated is general in_ the sense that it can be used
to find the moment of a part of the given system of forces. Suppose, for
instance, that it is required to compute the moments of PI and P2 about
a point s (Fig. 1.33 a) . This is equal to the moment of RI2 represented by
vector ac in the force polygon and whose line of action is located by the
intersection of the appropriate links of the link polygon. Hence, the
moment is equal to the product of the resultant R12 and its arm rl which
.is again equal to the product of the polar distance HI that is the perpendi-
cular distance from the pole 0 to R'2 and the intercept Yr of the line parallel
to RI2 drawn through s between the links locatir.g the resultant R 12 .
This concept is very useful in the graphical determination of the bend-
ing moment diagrams which will be described later in section 3.9.
- 27-
m o
Ca) (b)
Fig. 1.34
Obviously this ray is the locus to the pole whose corresponding link poly-
gons pass through m, and henGe there is an infinite number oflink polygons
satisrying this condition.
1110 mn
/I 10m"'
4
(a) (b)
Fig.' 1.35
second by its line of action nn' which is assumed vertical for convenience.
Passing the first link in the link polygon corresponding to any pole 0
through point m and proceeding as described in section 1.9, point 5 in the
force polygon defining R,. and Rn is located (Fig. 1.35b). Had the pole 0
been chosen as desired, the resulting link polygon would have passed
through m and n and the closing link would have been mn. The corres-
ponding ray to this link must be parallel to mn and also pass through point
5. Hence, any point on ray 50' may be chosen as the pole whose corres..;
ponding link polygon will pass through m and n. Again, it is apparent
that there is an infinite number oflink polygons that can be drawn passing
through two given points. It should he noticed that the open link polygon
m p q r n provides two equilibrants to the given system qf forces along 0'1
and 40' and that m p q r n is the line of pressure.
is the locus to the pole whose corresponding link polygons pass through
points m and p. Hence, for the link polygon to pass through all the given
three points, the pole 0' must be the intersection of the two locii 55' and
66'. In this case, only one pole can he located and hence only one link
polygon may be passed through three specified points. It should be noticed
that the open link polygon through m, p and n is the line of pressure and
that it provides two equilibrants at m and n along 0' 1 and 40'.
In
Ilro mp'
5' 0'
II to mn II to m n
Fig. 1.36
- 30-
(i) Find analytically and graphically the resultant of each of the two
systems of forces shown in Figs. 1.37 a and b.
51 31
(a I
(b)
F;g. 1.37
(2) Find analytically and graphically the result~nt of the system of-
forces shown in Fig. 1.38 if they are equi-angu1arly spaced in the following
two case:
8 2
7 __---.::,~-_ 3
6 t.
5
F;g. 1.38
Force number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Case 1 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 kg..
Case 2 10 4 2 2 - 4 0 5 2 kgs.
(3) Figs. 1.39 a and b show two joints in a truss. Determine analy-
tically and graphically the forces in members A and B.
i"
I -31 -
121 _ _.....,..".......,..,..._ _ A
AW-- B
~
660..
8t 31 4t
B
Cal (bJ
Fig. 1.39
(4) Figs. 1.40 a and b show two systems of forces in equilibrium. Find
the values of P and e in each case.
lOkg
P Cal
Fig. 1.40
a b
Fig. 1.41
- 32-
Skg 8 kg 3, 6,
3kg ----=-- -
t
6 kg 2m
2t I
f-- 3m -J 1,1
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.42
6
~' I
---- ~' c
I
45'
4, I
l __ 6cm.--Jd
Fig. 1.43
(a) the two equilibrants if the first acts along line ab and the second
paises through point d.
(b) the three equilibrants along lines be, cd and ad.
5m
(a) lb)
_la
Fig .1.44
(9) Using the three-force theorem, find the reactions of the structure
shown in Fig. 1.45 if the reaction at b is vertical.
----r
4m
(10) A horizontal rigid bar is acted upon by the forces shown in Fig.
1.46. Determine graphically the two equilibrants A and B passing through
point:s a and b and satisfying the following conditions:
Fig. 1.46
(a) A is vertical.
(b) B i. vertical.
(c) A and B are parallel.
(d) A and B arc equal,
-34-
(II) Resolve the two forces given in Figs. 1.47 a and b along directions
X, Y and Z.
T
3m
61
I
L X
~ 2 -l2-J
(a) ( b)
F'g, I 47
1t C
(a) ( b)
Fig, IA9
(14) Two posts are rigidly fixed at the base and acted upon by forces
A, B and C, If due to these forces tbe -reactions at the base consist of a force
and a moment as shown in Figs. 1.50 a and b, determine analytically and
graphically the forces A, Band C,
- 35
1A~B -.I
3.0m
4.0m.
C_-""''"'+ -t-
I
4.0m
2.0m. I
( a)
( b)
F;g. 1.50
~.
string fixed at a and b. If the maximum force carried by the string should
not exceed 5 kg., what is the least possible length of the sting between .
I a and b ?
t
a (0,60)
2t 31 2.'.)1 b(100.20)
t
Fig. 1.52
- 36-
forces _with a horizontal closing link through point b and use this polygon
to determine the bending moment at point n.
(17) Draw the link polygon that passes through points a, band c
shown in each of Figs. 1.53 a and h.
81
31 I
b
51 I
~I
J.
-t ~ 4
F
C
b+-J.
36
"toLem += 61"1
+- -P 3 5t. 5m
(a) ( bl
Fig. 1.53
- 37-
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Loads
Forces acting on a structure are called loads. It is not intended to
discuss load computation as this is dealt with in most design books. Hence,
throughout this book loads will be assumed as given and it is only for con
venience that they are classified as :
(I ) Dead and live loads : Dead loads consist mainly of the own weight
of the structure. If the dimensions of the structure are known, dead loads
can be computed provided that the Ul).it weights of the materials of con-
struction are known. In practical deslgn, the dimensions of structures are
not known and therefore they have to be assumed guided by data concern-
ing the dead weight of other similar existing structures or by some imperical
formula. Live loads are loads that vary in position such as the weight of
pedestrians, locomotives and vehicles. On dealing with such loads atten-
tion must be given to their pJacing on the structure so that the load func-
tion considered; reaction, shearing force, bending moment, deflection,
J etc., may have its maximum possible valu~.
t (2) Concentrated and distributed loads : A c01)centraled Load is a
t
~.2. Reactions
~ supports to counteract the action of the applied loads are called reactions.
These reactions are in effect the equilibrants to the loads acting on the
I
,
I structure.
I There are three main types of supports. Each type provides certain
kinds of restraints.
t
38 -
(a) ( b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.1
- 39-
is called link support or pendulum. It has the same action as the roller
support, i.e. it provides onc reaction component along the link.
To summerize, in genereal a roller support at point a provides onc
reaction component Va' a hinge support provides two components Xa and
Y a while a fixed support provides three reaction components Xa' Y a and
Mao It must be remembered that one or morc of these reaction campon
eots may be zero for structures under particular cases of loading. Further,
it is to be known that a reaction component may act in either sense, i.e.
the vertical component Y may act upwards or downwards, the horizontal
component X may act to the right or to the left and finally the moment M
may act either clockwise or antic10ckwise as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Exam.ple 2.I Find the reactions for beam ab loaded as shown in Fig. 2.2 a.
Solution: The centre line of the beam, with the unknown reaction
components and all the given loads, are drawn in Fig. 2.2 b. At a, two
(a ) --4::::
51l
;;;.:t=-
7 51
b
l ..L:5C. 'I JL
i ~3m __~I_l~2~
,
f
r Fig. 2.1
rr
- 40-
reaction components X. and Y a may exist as the end is hinged. At
b, there cannot be but one vertical reaction component Y b as the end is
on a roller. For convenience the inclined force is replaced with its horizon-
tal and vertical components as shown. Applying the equations of
equilibrium,
IX = 0 = X. - 3
X. = 3 t. -+
LM. 0 ~ Yb x 6 - 4 x 4 - 6 x 3
16 + 18
Yb
6
= 5.67 t. t
LMb 0= Y a X 6-6 x 3-4 x 2
18 + 8
Ya - 6
= 4.33 t. t
Check: LY = 0
5.67 - 6 - 4 + 4 .33 0
&aunple 2.2 Find the reactions for beamab loaded as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Solution : As in the preceding example, the centre line of the beam
with the unknown reaction components and all the given loads, are drawn
in Fig. 2.3 h. At a, two reaction components Xa and Y a may exist as the
end is hinged. At b, the reaction Rb acts normal to the supporting plane
as the end is on a roller. For convenience in applying the equations of
equilibrium,Rb is replaced with its two components Xb and Y b which in
this particular problem are numerically equal.
t ! 3.\! I
Ca)
2t ~
. l- 2 ~ 3m -4 2---jb
&. t J3.SI
~b=Yb
Cb)
y.. f- 2 -L.3m --L 2 ~b
Fig. 23
-.41 -
l:M, 0 = Yb X 7 - 3.5 x 5 - 7 x 2
Y
b
= 17.5 + 14 = 4.5 t. t
7
Since the slope of the supporting plane at b is I,
Xb 4.5 t +-
l:Mb 0 = Ya X 7 - 7 X 5 - 3.5 X 2
Ya
35 + 7
=6 t. t
7
l:X o = X. - 4.5
X. 4.5 t.~
Check: l:Y 0
7 + 3.5 - 6 - 4.5 0
ExalDple 2.3 Determin~ the reactions for the overhanging beam shown
in Fig. 2.4
Solution: For calculating the reactions, the distributed load is replaced
with an equivalent concentrated load. This load is equal to the sum of
the distributed load on the beam. As the intensity of the distributed load
varies abruptly at b the portion of the load between a and b is replaced
with one concentrated load = 1.5 X 5 = 7.5 t. acting at the centroid of
the distributed load of this portion, i.c. at 2.5 m. from a. Similarly, the
rest of the distributed load is replaced with a concentrated load = 2 X 2
= 4 t. at 1 m. from h. The rest of the procedures are similar to those
( a)
a
5.0m
- 42-
in the preceding examples. Referring to Fig. 2.4 b and applying the three
equations of equilibrium,
~X 0 = Xa
Xa - 0
~Ma 0 =4x 7 + 4 X 6 + 7.5 X 2.5 - Yb X 5
28 + 24 + 18.75
Yb =
5
14.15 t. i
~Mb - 0=4 X 2 + 4 X 1 - 7.5 X 2.5 + Y. X 5
18.75 - B- 4
Y. 1.35 t. i
5
Check : ~Y = 0
It/m ~2.5t4
a-t{~I~~~I~I~I~f~*~*~I~!~t___
- 3
Caj FI 3.0m -1
( b)
Fig. 2.5
- 43
l:X 0 ~
X, - 1.5
X. 1.5 t. --+
l:Y 0 Y, - 3 - 2
y. ~ 5 t. i
l:M. 0 3 x 1.5 + 2 x 3 - M,
M. 10.5 m.t. (an ticlock wise)
Check Tak~ng moments about any point, say b then,
l:Mb ~ 0
3 X 1.5 + 10.5 - 5 X 3 ~ 0
Exa.m.ple 2.5 Determine the reactions for beam abed under the given loads
if it is supported by three link members arranged as shown in Fig. 2.6 a.
Solution: An inspection of the supporting conditions of the given
structure shows that there are three reaction components RbI Rc and Rd
of fixed directions along the link members bb', ee' and dd' respectively.
These together with the applied loads are shown in Fig. 2.6 b.
c' d'
(a)
( b)
Fig . 2.6
-44-
Applying the three conventional conditions of equilibrium; l:X = 0,
I:Y = 0 and l:M = 0, three simultaneous equations are obtained, which
when solved give the three unknown magnitudes of Rb Rc and R d "
Although this solution is quite permissible, yet it is not very clever as it
involves the solution of three simultaneous equations. A direct solution
may be carried out as [oHows :
By taking moments about the point of intersection of the lines of
action of Rb and Rc the only unknown which enters the equation will
be Rd' Thus,
rMo 0 3 X 0+8 X 1 +1 X 3 - Rd X 5
8 + 3
Rd
5
~ 2.2 t.
t
Similarly, rMp O~ 1 X 2 + 8 X 4 + 3 X 5 _Rb X 5}"2
2 + 32 + 15 6.93 t. '\
5} 2
rMq 0 ~ 1 X 2 + 8 X 4 + 3 X 5 - R. X 5 /""2
2 + 32 + 15 6 .93 t.
5) 2
Check :rY 0
rx ~ 0
ExaDlpie 2.6 Fig. 2.7a shows the centre line of a truss. Find its reac-
tions for the given system of loads.
and acted upon by the sa m e loads wi ll have the same r eactioi1s as thos ~ of
the given structure. To emphasize this point, cons idcl' the arbitrary shape
shown in Fig. 2.7 b which is support ed in the same manner and subjected
to the same sys tem of loads c-.s the original structure. Applying the equa-
tions of equilibrium,
3t
3.0m
, Vat---
4x2= 8m
-,---
f
2._~_
vb=ff Xb
~ (b)
4x2 = 8m
Fig. 2.7
LM, = 0= 2 x 3 + I x 5 -I- 3 x 2 + 3 x 4 + 3 x 6
- Yb X 8 - 3 Yb /J-:;;
6 + 5 + 6 -I- 12 + 18 = 4.83 t.
t
1-
8 + v 3
Yb I J 3" = 4.83 1/ 3" = 2.8 t. <!-
o= I + 2 + 2 - 2.8 - X,
X. 2.2 l. <!-
LMb 0 = Y, x 8 - 2 x 3 + 2.2 x 3 + I .< 2 - 3 x G
- 3 x 4 - 3x2
Y,
6 - 6.6 - 2 + 18 + 12 + 6
4 . 17 l. i
8
- 46-
Check::EY = 0
4.17 - 3 - 3 - 3 + 4.83 = 0
Had the supports a and b been on the same level. The solution for the
reactions would have been much easier, for in that case a direct solution
for the vertical components of the reactions could have been obtained
directly from the equations :EM, = 0 and :EMb = O.
-
Xa
Vb
Fig. 2.8
c c
:E M
a c
= 0 or :EM
c
o
b
I \
Fig. 2.9
transmit but a vertical force from one part to the other, and that it is free
to translate horizontally and also to rotate, it follows that:
(I) The sum algebraic of the horizontal component. of the forces acting
on either part to the right or to the left of c must be equal to zero.
(2) The sum algebraic of the moments about c of the forces acting on
either side of c must be zero.
In an equation form these conditions are expressed as :
e e
(I) ~X ~
0 or ~X ~O
a b
e e
(2) ~ Me ~ or ~M ~O
a b e
Either equations in (1) and one of the two equations in (2) together with
the three equations of equilibrium applied to the structure as a whole are
sufficient to determine the five reaction components X a , Y a , M a , X b , and Y b ,
ExalDple 2.7 Fig. 2.10 shows a three-hinged polygonal arch. Find its
reactions under the given system of loads.
Solution: There are four reaction components; X a, Y a, Xb and Yb"
51
101
2.51
c
41 --., j
t
_-+t 3m
4m
~ a bJ\fO * Xb
Vaf-!.-4~n4-5m-+-4-+4Vb
Fig. 2.10
- 43-
50 + 160 + 55 + 24 + 8
Ya
22
= 13.5 t. t
o Y b X 22 - 2 .5 X 2 - 10 X 6 - 5 X 11
- 4 X 16 - 4 X 20
Yb 5 + 60 + 55 + 64 + 80
12 t . t
22
c
~c o= 12 X II - 4 X 9 - 4 X 5 - Xb X 8
132 - 36 - 20
Xb 9.5 t. +--
8
l:X o= X. 9.5
X. 9.5t .....
Check l:Y o
13.5 - 2.5 - 10 - 5 - 4 - 4 + 12 0
I (a)
Xa
41
211m
(b)
Fig. 2.11
8 + 36
11 t. t
4
I:Y=O=4+6x 2 - 11 -- Yc
Yc 4 + 12 - 11 = 5 t. t
For part ac,
I:X 0 - X.
X. 0
I:Y 0 = Y. - 2 X 2 - 5
Y. 4 + 5 9 t. t
o 2x2xl+5x2-M.
M. 4 + 10 = 14 m.t. (anticlockwise)
Cheek : I:Mb 0
2 X 8 X 2 + 4 X 2 + 14 - 9 X 6 = 0
Example 2.9 The three-hinged frame abed has two hinged supports at
a and d, and an intermediate hinge at c as shown in Fig. 2.12. Determine
its reactions under the given system of loads.
Solution: There are four reaction components X a , Y a , Xd and Y d ,
l:Md = 0 = Y. X 8 - 2 X 10 X 5 + '2 X 2 X 1
- 50-
211m
1111 I LU
b
c -,
211m 2m
~1
4m
-
Xa
-J.
l2m tVa
L
8 m
.3~
Ydt'2~
Xd -.l
F;g. 2.12
Ya 100 - 4 = 12 t. t
8
1M. = 0 = Y d X 8 - 2 x IO x 3 - 2 x 2 x 9
+
60
8
36
= 12 t. t
o Xd X 6 + 2 x 2 x 1
4
- 0.67 t., i.e. 0.67 t -..
6
I:X 0 = X. + 0.67
X. = - 0.67 t. , i.e. 0.67 t. +-
Check : A partial check can be obtained from :!:Y = 0
2 x 10 +2 x 2- 12 - 12 = 0
This check does not include the horizontal components Xa and X d "
c
:!:Mc = 0 = X. X 6 + 2 . x IO x 5 - 12 x 8
X =
100 + 96
= - 0.67 t., i.e. 0.67 t. +-
6
which is the value obtained before from the independent equation :EX = O.
I-
I
- 51 -
EsalDple 2.10 The frame abed is fixed at a and hinged at d, and has
two intermediate hinges at "b and c as shown in Fig. 2.13. Determine its
reactions under the given vertical and horizontal loads.
25 tIm
I
t:
-E
.....
ci
Ma(~xa
~,om
Fig. 2.13
<
EM = 0 = X . x 8 - 8 x 2
<
16
2 t. -+
8
o= Y. X 10 + 2 X 8- 12 X 2.5 X 6- 8 X 12
180 + 96 - 16 = 26 t. t
10
EV o = Va + 26 - 2.5 X 12 - 8
V. 30 + 8 - 26 = 12 t. t
- 52 -
:EX - 0 X. - 0.5 X 8 - 2
x. 4+ 2 = 6t.+-
:EM, - 0= M. + 0.5 X 8 x 4 - 6 X 8
M 48 - 16 = 32 m.t. (anticlockwise)
Check : :EM = 0
32 + 0.5 X 8 X 4 + 2.5 X 12 X 4 - 6 X8- 12 X 10
32 + 16 + 120 - 48 - 120 = 0
0
,.1', ,
,. I
,. ,. I "- ,
/ I ~ 11 I
(a) ( b)
Fig. 2.14
Unstable
Fig. 2 15
Fig. 2. 16
Fig. 2.17 shows a beam supported on three link members which are
neither parallel nor concurrent and hence it is stable. Also, the three
reaction components could be determined from the three equations of
equilibrium. Therefore, it is statically determinate.
II
Stable _ stallcally determinate
];~jg. 2.17
a
$Iable_ slalically delerminale
Fig. 2.19
The frame shown in Fig. 2.20 is fixed at a and b and is provided with
three intermediate hinges at c, d and e. It has six reaction components
which could be determined from the three equations of equilibrium in
addition to the condition equations provided by the three intermediate
hinges. The given structure is therefore statically determinate.
Slable- slalically
delerminale b
Fig. 2.10
- 56-
The beam shown in Fig. 2.22 is fixed at both ends. It has six unknown
reaction components which are three in excess to the number of equatiOn!
available. Hence, the beam is statically indeterminate to the third degree.
Fig. 2.23
t l -+--3m
Fig. 2.24
311m 211m.
e:
6m.l. 6m.l. 3m.l .
a 9 9 b
tl.~L.5 m-L j , 2
Fig. 2.27 Fig. 2.26
41 3.75 I
111m b
I- 3m
a
1
L 2 l -.. m -+- 2 J lom -1-2J
Fig. 2.31 Fig. 2.32
11 25 t
3. 2t 61
a 2 tIm b 1 tIm e 417 311m
2.l4m
Fig. 2.33 Fig. 2.34
2 tIm
,-- e
3 211m
t- .
a b
f
5m
21m 21
1
e d
lom
L L a b
L Fig. 2.37
5m ~
I
1 2-J-4m--J.J
Fig. 2.38
,-
l
- 59-
21 1.2 11m
T 1,1 i 1. 5 tim
~
Gm
1
1 a
6m
r b ~
L 8m .1.2j
Fig. 2.40
Fig. 2:39
101
10m
b---1
l2L I, ..L5m-.!.-5m-!- I, --1.2..1. \..2 .l.2.l.2 ..... _ 8 m --.J
1
(21). (22) Determine the reactions of the two frames shown in Figs.
2.43 and 2.44 and also the forces in the link members de.
1.5 11m
",Iffffff.f' !
!
r-e
1-:: d
4 m III
~ a b --i.~ 51
71 b
31 31
"11m a
3t
211m
ITm e
C
Knee bracln
J
t
3.5m
3m
L a
t
2.5
L b
L2.)...2 +-3..\-3 -1..2+ ,J L 2 -l-- 2 -+ 2-!
~
(25) - (33) State whether the structures shown in Figs. 2.47 _ 2.55
are stable or unstable and statically determinate or indeterminate.
Give the degree of indeterminancy in every case.
..A..
Fig. 2.50 Fig. 2.51
I 0
A
Fig. 2.54 Fig. 2.55
l- -61-
I CHAPTER 3
3.J Introduction
The main aim of structural analysis is to find out whether a structure
can carry safely all the loads that may act on it during its life time. This
involves a comparison of the greatest values of the internal forces produced
by the applied loads and the resistances of the structural element under
consideration according to its dimensions and material of construction.
In this chapter various internal forces will be studied. At this elementary
stage, however, discussion will be limited to straight members, in which
the axis joining the centroids of successive cross-sections is a straight line,
subjected to loads lying in a single plane which also contains an axis of
symmetry of every cross-section. Under these two conditions, members
will bend in the plane of loading without twisting.
Pz
X
Cal
___ -+_-.+-:M
N
r_..::A!.---l Q
Q
( l>l (c)
Fig. 3.1
3.2 Del"udti_
Normal force : The force N acting along the axis of the member in
Fig. 3.1 c is called. normal force or t"nut. Thrust at a section is defined as the
algebraic sum of the components along the uis of the member of all the
forces on either side of that section. When the axial force tends to pun two
parts of a member apart, thrust is termed positive and when it tends to
press them together it is negative.
Shearing force: The force Qacting tangential to section xx in Fig. 3.lc
is called shetPingfarce. Shearing force at a section is defined as the algebraic
sum of the components perpendicular to the axis of the member on either
side of that section. Shearing force acting upwards to the left or downwards
to the right of the section is termed positive while shearing force acting"
downwards to the left or upwards to the right of the section is negative.
Bending moment : The moment M at section xx in Fig. 3.1 c is called
~ moment and is defined as the algebraic sum of the moment. of
all the forces on either side of that section. Bending moment tending to
N
Ii .
N N
.,1
. + ve thrust -\19 thrust +\19 shear -ve shear
(al (b)
Fig. 3.2
- 63-
produce tension in the lower fibres of a structural member and compression
in the upper fibres is termed positive and vice versa.
Sign conx~ntions for thrust, shearing force and bending moment are
shown in Figs. 3.2 a, band c respectively.
Beam : One of the most common structural members is the beam. It
is a member which is subjected to bending by loads generally oblique to
its longitudinal axis. Several examples arc shown in Figs. 3.3 a-h. The
~ 0#- ---4= I
:.-. ____ L
(a)
- L
(b)
--o-j
t- L
(c )
::A:
l- - L
(d)
==t
L ( e)
L -1- II L
(I)
E.
0 :zs::
AO
J
0
L- L1 f l.2
(g)
----4-- L)
.JiL
i
..-- L, 1" L2
(h)
3 L3
Fig. 3.3
beam shown in Fig. 3.3a is called simple beam, that in Fig. 3.3 b is said
to have an overhang or an overlulnging beam, that in Fig. 3.3 c is a cantilever,
that in Fig. 3.3 d is a double overhanging beam, that in Fig. 3.3 e is a
restrained beam, that in Fig. 3.3 f is a fixed or fixed-ended beam, that in
Fig. 3.3 g. is termed a cantilever beam, while that in Fig. 3.3 h is a con-
tinuous beam. For all beams the distance L between supports is called a
- 64-
span. In continuous or cantilever beams there arc several spans which are
not necessarily of the same length.
Thrust or normal force diagram (N.F.D.): This is a diagram with the
centre line of the member as base line and ordinates representing the values
of the thrust at successive cross-sect.ions; compression and tension being
drawn on opposite sides of the base line.
Shearing force diagram (S.F.D.) : This is a diagram with the centre
line of the member as a base line and ordinates representing the values of
the shearing force at successive cross-sections; positive shear being drawn
upwards and negative downwards.
Bending moment diagram (B.M.D.) : This is a diagram with the centre
line of the member as a base line and ordinates as the values of the bending
moment at successive cross-sections; positive bending moment being drawn
downwards and negative upwards.
Although it is only necessary to sketch these diagrams and mark the
significant ordinates with their numerical values, yet it is always desirable
to plot them to a convenient scale. This is very important to the designer.
as it helps him to determine the critical most highly stressed sections.
Exatn.ple 3.1 Calculatc the thrust, shearing force and bending moment at
sections c and d of the beam shown in Fig. 3.4.
Solution: The first step is finding the unknown reactions. These are
found by the methods described in chaptcr 2 and are shown, with
the appli ed loads after being resolved into vertical and horizontal compon-
ents, in Fig. 3.4 b.
Section c is investigated first. As mentioned before, the part of the
- 65-
beam on either side of the section may be used but it is obvious in this case
that the forces on the part to the left of the section are simpler.
5t :J 6t
\]4 O.Stlm
(a) a
c d E'
-+- 1 -<-- 1 -I--- 2 m --<
4
6
O.Stlm
(b) 3t 3t
2m --'-_ 1 -I-- 2
6t
rig. 3. 1
By definition.
N, 0
Qc 5 t., upwards to the left of the section, i.e. + 5 t
To demonstrate the advantage of using the left part instead of the right
one, computations are re-carried out using the right part.
N, - + 3 =
3 0
This indicates the importance of determining the thrust and shearing force
- 66-
Example 3.2 Draw the N.F., S.Y., and B.M.Ds. for the beam and loading
given in example 3.1.
Solution : The loads and reactions are reproduced in Fig. 3.5 a. The
41 161
31 0.5 11m
a 31
(a) 51 e
2~
J'T
I-- 2 m 6I
3 I 3I
-
( b) /:l.F.D.
5 5
(e) + i I
5.F.D
5 -
61
( d) B.M.D
~ 10
t-
/
11 m.1.
Fig. 3.5
- 67-
thrust on a section just to the right of point a is zero and remains so until
just to the left of point d. Just to the right of d, the thrust is - 3 t. which
means that th,e N.F.D. rises abruptly from zero to 3 at this point, and since
no additional horizontal loads are applied between point d and b, the
thrust remains constant throughout this part of the beam as shown in Fig.
3.5 h. The shearing force on a section just to the right of a is + 5 t., and
therefore the S.F.D . rises abruptly from zero to + 5 at this point, and since
no additional vertical loads are applied between a and d, the shear remains
constant throughout this part of the beam. Just to the right of point d, the
4 t. concentrated load has caused the shear to be reduced from + 5 to + 1.
Between d and e the shear remains + I t. and the S.F.D. follows a horizon-
tal line. Just to the right of point e the 6 t. concentrated load has caused the
shear to be further reduced to - 5 t. In part eb, the shear on any section
at a distance x to the right of point e is Q= - 5 - 0.5 x, which indicates
that the S.F.D.in this part is a straight line increasing numerically from an
ordinate of 5 t. at point e to 6 t. at point b. This last value may be more
simply obtained considering a section just to the left of point b and con~
sidering the forces to its right which in this particular case is 6 1. upwards,
i.e. Q = - 6 t. The S.F.D. is shown in Fig. 3.5 c. The bending moment
at a section distance x from point a in part ad is M = 5 x. Therefore, the
B.M.D. starts from zero at point a and increases linearly to an ordinate
of 10m. t. at point d. In part de, the bending moment at any section dis~
tance x from point d is M = 5 (2 + x) - 4 x = 10 + x, or more simply
M = 10 + x where 10 is the moment at section d and x is the moment of
the resultant vertical force to the left of d. which is the shearing force at
d. Hence, the B.M.D. in this part is a straight line increasing from an
ordinate of 10 at d to 11 at e .. Finally, in the part eb the bending moment
at any section distance x to the right of e is M = II - 5x - x 2j4. There~
fore, the B.M.D. starts at II at point e and decreases along a curve to zero
at point b. This last part of the beam may be investigated more simply by
considering a section at a distance x from point b, then the bending moment
t at any section in this part is M = 6 x - x2j4which means that theB.M.D.
I
is zero at b and increases along a c urve to an ordinate of ] 1 at e which is
the same result obtained before. The B.M.D. is shown in Fig. 3.5 d.
Example 3.3 Construct the N .F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the overhanging
beam loaded as shown in Fig. 3.6 a.
- 68-
. 2
a) Jil~I~m _1_fll _ _J
...JaL-,41
1 I/m~~ I~
_~~I
C
I
1 rri
1 2m 12m
21 4 m.1.
( b)
c a b
5.75 225
1.75
S.F.D
(c) 2 2.251
4
3
(It) \5 m.l.
S.M.D
2.5 +
F;g.3.6
Solutiop : Reactions,
l:M, = 0 = 4 + 1 X 4 X 2- 2 X 1 X 0.5 - 2 X I - Y. X
4+8-1-2
y. =
4
= 2.25 t. t
l:Mo = 0 = 2 X 5 + 2 X 1 X 4.5 + 1 X 4 X 2- 4- Y. X 4
Y = 10 + 9 + 8 - 4
= 5.75 t. t
4
t X = 0 - x. , X~ = 0
Check, l:Y 0
2 + 2 X 1 + 1 X 4 - 5.75 - 2.25 = 0
Straining actions : Since all the loads are normal to the axis of the
beam, there is no thrust at any section of the beam. Starting from the left
end, just to the right of point c the shearing force is - 2 t. In the part ac,
the shear on any section at a distance x from point c is Q = - 2 - 2 x,
which indicates that the S.F.D. in this part is a straight line decreasing
t
'"
- 69-
from a value of - 2 at point c to - 4 just to the left of point a, but just to
its right the shear is increased by the value of the reaction to + 1.75 t., i.e.
at point a there is a sudden change in the S.F.D. from - 4 to + 1.75. In
the same manner the remainder of the S.F.D. shown in Fig. 3.6 c may be
easily verified. The bending moment at a section distance x from point
c in part ac is M = - (2 x + x 2 ). Therefore, the B.M.D. starts at zero
at point c and varies along a curve to an ordinate of - 3 m.t. at point a.
Similarly, in part ad. the B.M.D. is a curve increasing to an ordinate of
-~ 1.5 m.t. at a section just to the left of point d. However,just to the right of
point d the B.M.D. has increased by 4 m.t. to + 2.5 m.t. Therefore, at the
point of application of a concentrated moment, there is a sudden change
in the B.M.D. similar to that in the S.F.D. due to concentrated loads.
Finally, the B.M.D. in the part db is a curve decreasing from an ordinate
of"+ 2.5 at d to zero al b. The B.M.D. is shown in Fig. 3.6 d.
r -_--'...L..-'Q"'<-_d_Q._ _ _~S.F.D.
Fig. ::t.7
- 70-
J w dx = J dQ
X, ~,
I
x,
w dx = Q, - Q, ... 3.2
i.e. the change in the sh-:aring force between two sections 1 and 2 is equal
to the total load between these two sections. Therefore, if no load is applied
to a part of a beam between two sections, there will be no change in the
shearing force and the S.F.D. will be a straight line parallel to the base
line between these two sections. This conforms to equation 3.1. At a
point of application of a concentrated load, there will be a discontinuity
in the S.F.D. and the difference in ordinates from one side of the load to
the other will be equal to the concentrated load .
- i1 -
dx
l:M = 0 = Qdx +M - wdx - - (M + dM)
2
dM
Q= ... 3.3
dx
I.e. the slope of the B.M.D. at any section is measured by the ordinate of
the shearing force at this section. Therefore, if the shear is constant in a
part of a beam, the B.M.D. will be a straight line in this part. However,
if the shear varies in any manner the B.M.D. will be a curve. At the point
of application of a concentrated load, there is an abrupt change in the
ordinate of the S.F.D. and therefore an abrupt change in the slope of the
B.M.D. at such a point. Further, the ordinate of the B.M.D. is a maxim..
urn or a minimum at the point of zero shear. According to the sign conven..
tiODS used, and starting from the left end, then if at any point the ordinate
of the S.F.D. changes from positive to negative then the bending moment
is a maximum (maximum positive) at this point. If, on the other hand,
the ordinate of the S.F.D. at a point changes from negative to positive,
the bending moment isa minimum (maximum negative) at this point.
7Xl
Q dx = t
Ml
dM
".
J
X,
Qdx = M 2 ... 3.4
Io. i.e. the change in the bending moment between two sections I and 2 is
equal to the area of the S.F.D. between these two sections.
~
- 72-
values of shearing forces and bending moments at the points where the
shapes of the diagrams change or at sections where the maximum or
minimum occur, full knowledge of these diagrams is obtained.
Pb Pa
From statics, Y a
L
t and Yb
L
t
S.F.D. : Between a and c the load is zero and therefore the shear is
constant and equal to + Pb fL. Similarly, between c and b, the load
being zero, the shear is constant and equal to - PaIL.
p
a b
Pb
L
a L l Pa
L
L
PI>
5FO
L +
Pil
T
B.11.O
+
~
l
Fig. 3.8
B.M.D. : Between a and c the shear is constant and therefore the bend-
ing moment varies linearly from zero at a to + Pab/L at c. Similarly,
in part be the moment varies linearly from zero at b to + Pab /L at c.
(Note that the maximum moment o:curs at c where the shear changes
from positive to negative).
IP
P/2 l/2 -L
L
l/2
P/i
P/2
+
S.F.O
12
a.M.O
-t
-,PL,-
Fig. 3.9
a b
P a a P
P
S.F.O. +
P
BM.O.
+
POI a
Fig . 3.10
- 74-
(d) Simple beam with a uniformly distributed load covering the span.
wL
From statics, Ya = Yb = +
2 I
NL
~I:[[JJ~Wj:[]J[[[I!b1wL
a
T L - ....... 2"
wL
r +
SF.O.
8.M.0.
+
w~
- 8-
Fig. 3.11
_ wLx wx'
M - --- --
2 2
i.e. the B.M.D. varies parabolically along the span. The form of the
B.M.D. can now he sketched. The maximum moment occurs at the point
of zero shear, i.e. at mid-span and has a value wL2/8.
The S.F. and R.M.Ds. are .shown in Fig. 3.11.
a:-------1)M
MIL L MIL
8.MD.
Fig. 3.12
.---~-+-----. b
-~/L
/ -- -- -- -lMIL
S.F.D. : Between a and b the load is zero and therefore the s~ear is
constant and equal to + P.
B.M.D. : Between a and b as the shear is constant, the bending moment
varies linearly from zero at b to - PL at a. Note that for cantilevers the
S.F. and B.M.Ds. can be drawn without calculat ing the reactions. This
is done by starting the computations from the free end. The S.F. and
B.M.Ds. are shown. in Fig. 3.14.
a,a
p
PL
L f
p P
S.F.D. +
PL
B.M.D.
Fig. 3.14
2
wll2
U' ~ ,',
w
. Iff I I I1fLl.U..
b
wL L
Lr--
+
21==-----
Fig. 3. 15
S.F.D. : Theroughout the length of the beam the load is constant and
therefore the shear varies linearly fro m zero at b to + wL at a.
-77
B.M.D. : As the shear varies linearly along the beam the bending
moment varies parabolically from zero at b to - wL 2/2 at a. Note again
that both the S.F. and B.M.Ds. can be drawn without calculating the
reactions. The S.F. and B.M.Ds. are shown in Fig. 3.15.
3 7 Principle of superposition
Tlu ejft.1 of sev.,..1 IatuIs ting sirmJt_ly .n .. elastic 6041 " ,,,. s.me
.1''''
as tIu oI,.br.i .nun ifftcts 'If lhue I#..u wlun ...,. /Dad ocls sep,rokly'.
This principle is the base to the elastic methods of structural analysis
and is applicable provided that :
(1) The body is elastic, i.e. it regains its original shape on the
removal of the applied loads.
(2) Stresses are proportional to strains, i.e. the material of the body
obeys Hook's law.
l
I (3) The geometry of the structure does not change during the applica-
l tion of loads; elastic strains being neglected.
!
The principle of superposition may best be explained by the following
f examples.
~
& n or, as shown un the centre line as base line in Fi-gs. 3.16 g. & o 'respe-
ctively. By drawing the S.F. and B.M.Ds. for individual cases to the same
~
scale the ordinates for the final S.F. and B.M.Ds. in Figs. 3.16 g & 0 can
be scaled by dividers. Sometimes it is useful to draw the B.M.D. in parts
I
f
I
r
~
I,"
- 78 -
! ! !
b
L
( a)
!P S.F. Os. w
(b) wL /2 (e)
p all wLn
+ wL
(d) - Pa + T wL
L T
(Pb wL
+ ~
L 2 + Final S.FD.
or
~ -
Ig )
(I)
( Pa w L )
L 2
P B.M.Os. w
(h ) (k )
Pb Pa wL wL
L L 2 2"
-t-
+
Pab wL2
(I) L 8"
(m)
Final 8.M .O.
or
;-
( n)
(0)
Fig. 3.16
I - 79-
w
wL (b) wL ( c) M/Ll)M
M,L
2" T S.F. Os.
wL
T + -j-
(d) M,L MIL
wL e
T (rl M)
+ 2 - L
-- _. or Final S.F.O.
(I) ( g)
(wL +..M...)
2 L
w
i- + ( m)
(I) :Ji..l2
8
or
( n) Final B.M.O.
(0 )
Fig. 3.17
/
- 80
(I) Make a neat sketch of the beam on which all the applied
loads are clearly noted and located by dimension lines from the supports.
(2) Compute the unknown reactions and indicate them with their
proper sign on the sketch drawn in step I.
(3) Replace all the inclined forces, given or calculated, by compon-
ents acting parallel and perpendicular to the beam axis.
(4) Start from the left end and .compute the values of the thrust at
the various sections along the beam where the thrust .changes. -This is
carried out by direct computation as explainea in section 3.3.
(5) Proceed from left to right along the beam and establish the shape
of the S.F. and B.M.Ds. by using the principles given in section 3.5. Com-
pute then, the numerical values of the ordinates at the points where the
shapes of the diagrams change and at points where maximum or minimum
values occur. These values are usually computed by the methods described
in section 3.3.
EXaJDple 3.6 Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the beam shown
in Fig. 3. I 8.
Solution
Reactions
o= 10 X I + 8 X 2 + 10 X 4 - Yb X 5
66
5
= 13.2t. i
o= 10 X I + 8 X 3 + 10 X 4 - Ya X 5
74
Ya 5 = 14.8 t. T
1:X o Xa - 6
Xa 6t.-+
N.F.D
N (in ad) 6 t.
N (in db) o
I - Bl
, 61
~
14.
a
81~...-1 ~
c
~'UI
N.r.D.
-
6 61
14.8 f--
T 4.8
S.F.D.
32 -
13.2 I
8.M.D.
\ 14.8~ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ 13.2
+/
19.6ml.
Fig. 3.18
S.F.D.
Q (in ac) = + 14.8t.
Q (in cd) = 14.8 - 10 = + 4.8 t.
Q (in de) = 4.8 - 8 = - 3.2 t.
Q (in eb) = - 3.2 - !O = - 13.2 t.
B.M.D.
M. = 0
Me = 14.8 X 1 = + 14.8 m.t.
Md = 14.8 X 2 - !O X 1 = + 19.6 m.t.
Me = 14.8 X 4 - 10 X 3 - 8 X 2 = + 13.2 m.t.
or Me = 13.2 X 1 = + 13.2 m.t.
Mb = 0
- 82-
Note that the maxim um bendin g momen t occurs at the point
where
the shear is :;~ ero.
Exam.p Je 3.7 Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds . for the beam shown
in Fig. 3.19.
'.
,
a t' _:---\ m.!.
b
3.5 Ie c/ ~
f.-2 3m 3m_ 0.5,
N.FD
3.5
+
SFD
0.5 ,
I 8.M.D
~
~
1.5 m.t
+
5.5
7
Fig. 3.19
Solutio n:
Reactio ns
IM. 0 = 4 X 2 - 4 - Yb X 8
4
Y. [I = 0.5 t. i
o= 4 - 0.5 Y
y. 3.5 1. t
N.F.D.
Since no a.."(ial loads arc applied to the beam, the N.F.D. is
zero
S.F.D.
Q (in ad = + 3.5 t.
Q (in cb) .;. 3.5 - 4 - 0.5 t.
- 83-
B.M.D.
M, = 3.5 x 2 = + 7 m.t.
Md (left) = 3.5 X 5 - 4 X 3 = + 5.5 m.t.
Mb = 0
Note that the slope of the B.M.D. along cd is the same as that along
db as the S.F. is constant in both parts.
Example 3.8 Draw the N.F. , S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the beam shown in
Fig. 3.20. Also calculate the position and value of the maximum positive
bending momen t.
6m
N.F.O
310-_ _
-t- S.F.O
61
B.M.O
+ Mmax.
4 Om.!
Fi~. 3.20
- 84 -
Solution:
Reactions
"'M 0 = 3x6 X 2 X 6 Y X 6
"'. -2- S - b
36
Yb = "6 = 6 t. 1
_ O=3X6 _ 6 _ y
2
9 - 6 = 3t1
N.F.D.
& in the previous example since all the loads are perpendicular to
the axis of the beam, the N.F.D. is zero.
S.F.D.
& the load varies linearly, the S.F.D. varies parabolically.
Q. = +3t.
Q b =.:.... 6 t.
B.M.D.
Since the shear varies parabolically, the B.M.D. is a cubic curve. As-
sume the point of zero shear at a distance x from a.
I x
3 - - xx - = O
2 2
x = 2 J3n1.
I 2 I JT
Mm.. = 3 X 2 J3- - X 2 J3x - - X-
2 2 3
X 2 J3 = + 4 J3 m.t.
Elaunple 3-9 Find the best position of support b of the beam shown
in Fig. 3.21.
Solution : The best position of a support is usuaIly that which corres-
ponds to the maximum positive and maximum negative moments- being
I
l
I - 85-
f
li
f
F;g. 3.21
f
f Reactions
IM. - 0 = I X 8 X 4 + 0.5 X 8 - Yb (8 - xl
t Yb =
36
a=x
l o= 0.5 x - 8 (4 - xl + (8 - xl Y.
~
I Y. -
32 - 8.5x
8 - x
lI
36+ 32-8.5x
Check: IY 8 _ x - 8 X I - 0.5 = 0
x2
M.... negative = 0.5 x + - 2-
32 - 8.5x I 0
8 - x - xy -
32 - 8.5x
y=
8-x
U .. (
6"'~U poSltlVe =
32 - 8.5 x
8_ x
)2 -
32 - 8.5
8-x
)1
~(32-8.5X)2
2 8 - x
- 86-
x + x2 = ( 32 -
8 -
8.5
x
x)2
Solving this equation which is more simply done by trial,
x == 2 m.
Exatnple ~. JO Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the inclined beam
shown in Fig. 3.22.
71
I
71 3m --L- 3m . .-.j
Fig. 3.22
Solution
Reactions
I X 6 + 8
From symmetry, Ra = Rb =
2
= 7 t. t
Resolve all the loads along and perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
The components of all the loads are shown in Fig. 3.23 a. From these com
panents the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. are drawn in the usual manner and
are shown in Figs. 3.23 b, e & d respectively. Note that the B.M.D. in this
case is the same as for a horizontal beam having a span equal to the horiz-
ontal projection of the given beam and acted upon by the same vertical
loads. T o generalize, when inclined beams afC subjected to concentrated
vertical loads or distributed vertical load per unit length of the horizontal
projection, the B.M .D. is identical to that of a horizontal beam of a spall
length equal to the horizontal projection of the inclined. one and acted upon
by the same vertical loads.
I
I
I
- 87 -
I
f
f
(b)N.F.D.
(d) B.M.D.
F,g. 3.23
AU' the beams considered till now have been statically determinate.
For statically indeterminate beams, once the redundants are determined
they may be treated as external loads and the procedures for drawing the
N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. are basically the same as for statically determinate
beams.
3.9 Graphical lIlethod for determining the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds.
Thrust, shear and bending moment can be determined graphically by
means of the line of pressure. This method is suitable for curved beams
or arches and will be discussed later (section 4.5).
the construction of the S.F. and B.M.D. is more easily carried out by the
link polygon method which is described in the following.
Consider a simply supported beam ab subjected to a system of vertical
loads Pb P 2' and P3 J as s!"lown in Fig. 3.24 a. Draw the polar diagram for
the given force system to a suitable scale (Fig. 3.24 b). The reactions RI
and R2 are determined in the usual manner by closing the link polygon
(Fig. 3.24 c). The S.F.D. is found by projecting the various loads from the
force polygon on their lines of action as shown in Fig. 3.24 d.
a b
(a)
X,+--",
a /I to C.l.
f---4---- r
S.F.D. + b
o
(d)
S.MD.
(c)
( b)
Fig.3.H
[ Referring to Fig. 3.25, the load diagram is divided into vertical strips and
l
l
I
(a)
Ra P1 P2 P:! P4
- - - - - - -
S.F.D
(b)
'"'" i'-
- 1-- -
r---.
-
- -
........ :::-
I
B.M.D.
(c) '""'t- -
~
hi, 1'-- - f--
~P H~
left are concentrated or distributed. The final S.F.D. will be a curve join
ing the ends of strips with equal give- and-take areas. Also the final B.M D.
will be a curve touching the link polygon at the ends of strips as shown in
Figs. 3.25 band c. It should be remembered that these diagrams are
approximately correct and the shorter the length of the strip the more
accurate will the result be. Further) points of particular interest or points
of application of concentrated loads should be taken as ends of strips.
Example 3.11 Find graphically the S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the overhanging
beam shown in Fig. 3.26 a.
Solution: The polar diagram (Fig. 3.26 b) is drawn to scale J cm =
4 t. For convenience the polar distance H is taken 16 t. The link polygon
is constructed in the usual manner and the closing link is drawn as shown
in Fig. 3.26 c. The reactions are determined by drawing a ray parallel to
the closing link", The S.F.D. is constructed by projecting the forces on their
lines of action and is shown in Fig. 3.26 d. Fig. 3.26 c is the required B.M.D
to scale I cm. = 32 m.t. in which 32 is the product of the polar distance
lInear scale' 4
1 em : 2m.
51 b
-----~----~--~
41 +
---~ - ----t----j
(d)
16 I ----..J
( b) Ye:O.5c 11!_~---t~-=-~
1-
Fore .. seal .. --'~r1.
1 em =" I (c)
Fig. 3.26
- 91
(16 t.) and the linear scale (I em. = 2 m. ) . For example, the bending
moment at point c is measured to be Yc X 32 = 16 m.t. The signs may
be found by inspection.
Exantple 3.12 Construct the S. F. and B.~1.Ds. for the cantilever shown
in Fig. 3.27 a.
Solution : 'Starting at the free end, the force polygon in Fig. 3.27 b is
drawn. The pole 0 is taken at H = lOt. hori zonta lly to the left of the
starting point of the force polygon. This is done [or convenience so as to
obtain a B.M.D. with a horizontal basco The link polygon is drawn as shown
1cm= 1m
*"1-----'iL~I_----It
~ 2mi2m
( a)
r 101 I
o~ - - - - -~---+---~ S.F D
I
~:: T
_ _ _ __ + __
f--__' _ ---I
(b) - - - - +--------I(dl
Force scale
1em = ~ 1
t
y=16 en .
L L - -_ _-'---_"'=::O-l 8.M.O.
(cl
Fig. 3.:0
in Fig. 3.27 c. This is the required H.M .D. with scale I em. = 10 m.L,
in which 10 is the product of the polar dis lance ( 10 L) and the linear scale
(1 em. = 1 m.). With this scale the bending momcnt at the fixed end is
measured to be :
The S.F.D. is obtained in the uSl\al way by projecting the forces on their
corresponding' lincs of action and is shown in Fig. 3.27 d.
- 92-
E.aunple 3"3 Construct the S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the simple beam
shown in Fig. 3.2f! a.
Solution: The distributed load is replaced by a series of concentrated
loads. This is done by dividing the load diagram into strips. In this case
four strips, each 2 m. long, are used.
} 6 tim.
\ ' \ I 1 t!m
lInear scale a
\ 4l \
, 41/
\
\ , 3.~' "12.~
b
lem:1.Sm e ( e f
2 I- 2 m ~ f- 2 ... f-- 2 --0
(al
4.8
~
"" """
R~
a +
- .
"'-
3.2 I~ -
i'-...
L"
Rb -
- t-- 1-- --
.~
.- - - - - -
-------
p,-
(d l
,0 t ---./
Force sea Ie
, em = 4 t .......
k:::: ... _'--_ + -i"--~
'-CL:-L. - ..... __~
(e)
Fig. 3.28
2.6 + 2.2
P, = 2 x 2 = 4.8 t.
2.2 + 1.8
x 2 4.0 t.
2
P3 _ 1.8+1.4 X 2
2
32
. t.
r
- 93 -
P<. ~ 1.4 +
2
I
x 2
=24
. t
The centroids of the trapizoidal strips are found by the simple graphical
method illustrated in Fig. 3.28 a. The polar diagram is drawn and the polar
distance is taken 10 t. (Fig. 3.28 b). The link polygon (Fig. 3.28 c) is then
drawn and the closing link is found. A ray parallel to this closing link will
determine the. reactions. The link polygon represents the B.M.D. and the
S.F.D. is found in the usual manner by projecting the forces on their cor-
responding lines of action. It is to be noted that the ordinates of these
diagrams are exact only at points a, b, c, d and c. The values at these
points are joined by a curve as explai~ed in section 3.9. This is done and
the final S.F. and B.M.Ds. are shown in Fig. 3.28 c and d.
- 94-
(1) - (8) Draw the N.F., S.F. and R.M.Ds. for the statically deter-
minate beams shown in Figs. 3.29-3.36.
6m.t. 6 rnt.
=) ;>
Fig. 3.29 Fig. 3.30
31
11
~3
4
(9) , (10) Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of the two beams shown
in Figs. 3.37 and 3.38. Calculate the position and value of the maximum
positive bending moment.
-95-
3.75 t
1.5tlm If
3m
\.51
~
Fig. 3.39 Fig. 3.40
l
~2m r211l
ct"li""'~.
4 m.1.
60' 60
a' t) c'
Fig. 3.41 Fig. 3.420
"J.tl:!r:"Jtr".pr~tJ.tt' i
(17) For the balacony beam
shown in Fig. 3.45 draw the N.F.,
S.F. and B.M.Ds. if:
(a) the beam is fixed at point d.
(b) the beam is hinged at a and
supported or a roller at d.
(c) the beam is hinged at band 01--"
supported on a roller at c.
Compare the values of the maxi-
Fig. 3.45
mum moment in each case.
(18), (19) Long open water tanks are full of water to the level shown
in Figs. 3.46 and 3.47. Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.D. of all the parts
of the tanks.
..L
0.5
T
2m
LL-_--..-.,..-J
L~'-4I__
I
_4m ---J....1-jI 1-1 4----l m -I- 1
Fig. 3.16 Fig. 3.47
361 241
Lx
Fig. 3.48
['
l 97 -
Fig. 3.50
BL.CO.oO)
y
I
I I
U
Fig. 3.51
- 98-
(24) Show that the change in the B.M. between the points x = 1 and
x = 2 (Fig. 3.52.) is equal to the area under the S.F.D. between these two
points.
Fig. 3.52
(25) For the beam shown in Fig. 3.53., find graphically the S.F. and
B.M.Ds. Show that the change in the shear between points band c is equal
to the area under the load diagram between these two points. Also show
that the change in the B.M. between points a and c equals the area under
the S.F.D. between these two points.
41
3 tIm. 2 tIm
c
1.5 .1-,.5 -L-,.5-1-1
Fig. 3.53
(26), (27) Find the value of P acting on the two beams shown in Figs.
3.54 and 3.55 so that the maximum positive and negative moments are
equal.
1 tIm
R! I , I ! ! ! ! lJ ! ! ! ! I ! 'l!Zl
L 10m t,p 4m~
Fig. 3.54 Fig. 3.55
(28) For the trussed beam shown in Fig. 3.56, find the forces in the
link members and draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for the beam.
r
- 99-
211m
2: ~'!III Ild
lll
III t[~
(29) - (31) For the statically indeterminate beams shown in Figs. 3.57,
3.58 and 3.59 draw the S.F. and RM.Ds. if :
Fig . 3.58
Fig. 3.59
- 100-
CHAPTER 4
401 DefiDitioDS
Connections : There are two main types of structural connections :
(1) Hinged or pin-connection allows relative rotation between the
ends of the connected members and hence no momen t can be transmi tted
from one member to the other. Referring to Fig. 4.1 a, the action of
member A on member B cannot be but a single force R acting through the
centre of the hinge. Such a joint may be formed by a proper pin or by
riveting.
fa) ( b)
(2) Rigid connection does not allow relative rotation between the ends
of the connected members. The angle between two rigidly connected
members remains constant as th~ structure deforms under load. In general,
the actioh of a member A rigidly connected to another B is equivalent to
a force R and a moment M as shown in Fig. 4.1 b. Such a joint may be
formed by riveting, welding or by monolithic casting.
Rigid frame: A rigid frame, or as often briefly called "Frame", is a
structure composed of a number of members connected together by joints
all of which or some are rigid.
Consider a frame and let it have m members, j joints and also let there
be r external reaction components. In general, a cross-section in a member
has three straining actions; thrust, shearing force and bending moment,
which when determined corresponding values at any other section along
the same member may be computed. Thus, the number of independent
unknowns is equal to 3 m + r. On the other hand, if the frame is in equ-
ilibrium, every joint in it is in equlibrium, and since a rigid joint is gen-
erally subject to a system of forces equivalent to a force and a couple the
number of the available equations of equilibrium is equal to 3 j; three
equations for each joint.
~
n = 3 m + r - (3 j + s)
ExalDple 4.1 Classify the frames shown in Figs. 4.2 a-k as being unstable,
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. Indicate the degree
t, of indeterminancy in each casco
I
-102-
%l~
I I II I 1
Ca) Cb) (el
(g) (h)
Fig. 4.2
a 4 3 3 12 12 Determinate
b 4 3 7 12 16 Indeterminate- 4th degree
c 8 10 3 24 33 Indeterminate- 9th degree
d 7 3 7 3 24 24 Determinate
e 7 2 7 4 23 25 Indeterminate- 2nd degree
f 7 7 6 21 27 Indeterminate- 6th degree
g 8 2 7 9 26 30 Indeterminate- 4th degree
h 6 6 6 18 24 Indeterminate- 6th degree
k 12 14 12 36 54 Indeterminate-18th degree
-103-
I
~
then this comparison is sufficient for deciding that the frame is unstable.
If, however, 3 j + s is equal to or less than 3 m + r it does not automa
tically mean that the frame is stable. To explain this statement, consider
the frame shown in Fig. 4.3 a.
~
<
(a) (b)
Fig . 4.3
6 m 6
s 4 r 6
3j + s = 22 <3m + r 24
A companson between the number of the available equations and the
number of independent unknowns will show that the frame is statically
indeterminate or redundant to the second degree. However, it is obvious
that there is nothing to prevent it from collapsing in the manner shown in
Fig. 4.3 b, and is therefore classified as unstable.
This example shows that blind comparison between the number of the
available equations and the number of independent unknowns does not
necessarily yield the right answer. It is not argued that the method
is sometimes useful but it is advised that when adopted, it should be used
with care .
- 104-
Fig. 4.4
the top members as shown in Fig. 4.4 h. In choosing the positions of the
cuts, it should be kept in mind that the reduced structure remains stable.
Noting that generally t~e number of unknowns at each cut section is equfll
to three (Fig. 4.4 c), the degree of indeterminancy of the given frame, n =
3 X 4 = 12. The redundants chosen in this case are the N.F., S.F. and
B.M . at eG'.ch of the cut sections.
The student will do good if he classifies the frame; given in example
4.1 according to this method.
l B.M.D. lying inside the frame are positive and those outside the frame are
negative. The determination of the tension side of a member is of great
I
importance in the design of structures. For reinforced concrete structures
the tension side defines the side where the main reinforcement should be
placed and in metallic structures the compression side generally calls for
additional investigation with regard to the -stability of the member
considered.
Member ab
This member is in equilibrium under the forces and moments shown
in Fig. 4.5 b. The force 8 t. acting downwards and the clockwise moment
of 16 m. t. acting at b, represent the action of members be and cd on mem-
ber ab which are found by considering the equilibrium of the latter as a
free-body. The corresponding N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. are shown in Fig.
4.5 b.
Member be
The moment and forces maintaining member be in equilibrium
-106-
11
11
c--"T
2m
1m
d
N.F .0.
b 2J.lmJ-2-l
5.F.D. ~
B.M.D
(d)
8t 16 m.t
Sln9: 0316
cos9:09~8 (b)
16m.1.
8t 16 m.1.
N.F.D SF.D SMD
Fig. 4 .1
together with the corresponding N.F.) S.F. and B.M.Ds. are shown in
Fig. 4.5 c. The N.F. and S.F.Ds. are obtained in the usual manner by
resolving the forces along and normal to the axis of the member.
Member bd
The applied force and the actions of the rest of the frame on member
bd together with the N.F., S,F. and B.M.Ds. are shown in Fig. 4.5 d.
-107-
ExaD'lple 4.3 Draw the free-body, thrust, shearing force and bending
moment diagrams of all the members and the joints of the frame shown
in Fig. 4.6 a.
Solution : LX o ~ I-X.
X. t.--.
o ~ I X 2.5 + 2.5 X 2 - Y. X 5
1.5 t. t
o = 2.5 - 1.5 - Yb
t. t
The free-body, N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of members ac, cd and db are
shown in succession in Figs. 4.6 b, c and d. Free-body diagrams for joints
c and d are shown in Figs. 4.6 e and f respectively.
Example 4.4: Fig. 4.7 a shows a frame in a shed. Draw the free-body,
N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for member abo
'" co
co
....
to
c
II
oJ>
- 0
, oJ> "
"
,-
.0
>-
I
E
'"
'" -i
E
'"..;.
....~
1
"
;:.;;
x
..
" -.
'"
00 '"
II II
CD CD
~
.. "
~
r
l -\09-
2.2H
(a)
Xc : 0.6 Rc
Va: 12.21
t25t 2.251
'!,I 2.1. _,1_61
3.2H451
41 .7~1
1
s
112.21
(d)
9.951
+
10.8ml.
12.2-L 241
N:f .0. S.fO. 8100\[
(e) (f) ( 9)
fig. 4.7
-110-
EXaJIlple 4-5 Draw the free-body, thrust, shearing force and bending
moment diagrams for all the members of the three-hinged frame shown in
Fig. 4.8 a.
Yb 5.6 t t
l:Y 0= Y. 8 X 1.1 - 5.6
Ya 3.2 t. t
,
l:M,
, o = 3.2 X 3 - X, X 4
Xa 2.4 t. ~
l:X 0= Xb - 2.4
Xb 2.4 t. ~
The free-body, N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. for members ac, cd and db are
shown in Figs. 4.8 b-d. Note that ac is a link member, i.e. subject to axial
load only. Ifwanted, N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of the whole frame may be
obtained by combining the corresponding diagrams of the vanous
members. This has been done and the result is shown in Figs. 4.8 e- g.
All the frames considered until now have been statically determinate.
For statically indetenninate frames, once the rerlundants, whether external
reaction components or internal straining actions, are determined, the
procedures for drawing the N.F., S.F. and B.M .Ds. are basically the same
as for statically determinate frames.
EXllD1ples 4.6 - 4.I3 Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of the statically
determinate frames shown in Figs. 4.9 - 4.15.
-111-
9.6 m.1
8.M.o. --
S-FO.
Cel
N.F.O.
l
2 randc0'Im:onmr:j~
~l-'
11
m. t
-;;-2.41
. ;:- ",y 13.21 5.61
1.11 m
c
8m 10m
b~-:-....
2.41
( a) 5.61
561
t Cd)
N.r.O.
5.61
1 l~C ~
.
5 61
r
N.F'.O.SF.D. B.M.O
3.2 ,
~ 241
;:O.~ 2.4
4.6Sm.1.
BMD.
(I) (g)
Fig. 4.~
-112-
8t
r 3 7m ,I 5t
I,r'n
_L
I, 10 m ~I ~ I, m---k I,m --..J
Fig. 4.9 Fig. 4.10
4I
2-l/m 111m 2m I t fm
--
E
6m
t
6m
on I
0
L L
L6m ~m -l-3J ~2J..2~m Fig. 4.12
-+2-l.2J
Fig. 4.11
b l
31
111m
2m ~
=i
o.fsm fm --
'"
3
~2 8m ~
Fig. 4.13
~113 ~
-E
1-= ~
II'>
ci
i..
if
10 m ___ j2 tTl L
Fig. 4 .14 Fig. 4.1.5
8I
;
~
~.
31
N.F.D
,
I
31
( a) ( b)
"rill
,
51
L 6
SED. 6~~1
. 21 mi.
B.M.D.
(e) (d)
.,
I
I
I
Fig. 4. ~6
-114-
51
+ N.r.o.
2.51 2.5 I
251 2.51
(a) (b)
'S.F.o. 8.M.0
31 61
(e) (eI)
Fig. US
-115-
41
I
I
111m 111m I 1,1 1,1
61 61
(al (b)
14m.\. 14m.t
6
S.F.D. B.M.D
1.91
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.19
31 .1 11m
31 0
10.51
OJ>
::::
3 N.F.O.
f'3-.5 I 2.51 t
I a) .- 8m .1
Ib)
5 .5 I 5.75 ml.
2.5
3
S.F.D.
7.S ( d)
Ie)
Fig. 4.20
2.S"t 1m
--
E
st
24m"l(~
1721
(al
12t
11 Ji[.:l+:..:D::t::::.--=:::t:r:r::-=-rrr-:-:-
S.F.O
51 11
24 m.l.
(e) (d)
Fig. 4.21
111m 2 ') t
ilHtlil!1
38
5.175 585
-E
N.F.D.
8 .5 t
(a)
t lOI
(b)
23
0.225
65 4.5 / , 21
,+ ( 1.125 7?-_rh-
~2:::ct:::r:3;c.5 2 475 3.8 2 6
I . S.FD BM.D.
0.5 I 3.5t
(d)
(c 1
Fig. 4.22
-117-
+5 Tbree-hinged arches
An arch is a structure which developes horizontal reaction components
as well as vertical components even when it is subjected to vertical loading
only. The main advantage of the arch is that the horizontal reaction
components produce moments that counteract those due to the vertical
components.
FIxed arch
Fig. 4.23
Fig. 4.23 shows three different types of arches; the three-hinged, the
two-hinged and the hinge/ess or fixed arches.
Among these three types, the three-hinged arch is the only statically
determinate one and hence is the only one considered here. The three-
hinged arch can be analysed by either analytical or graphical methods.
Analytical solution :
The four reaction components of the arch can be calculated, in the
manner described in section 2.4, from the three equations of equilibrium
and the fourth condition equation that the bending moment at the inter-
mediate hinge is zero. Once the reactions are detennined, the bending
I moment at any section along the arch can be detennined in the usual
manner by calculating the moments of all the forces either to the right or
the left of the section. Determining the thrust and shearing force, how-
ever, requires more work as the resultant of all the forces to the left or the
right of the section must be resolved into components along the tangent to
the arch and the normal to it at the section considered. If the shape of the
- 118-
arch is represented by an equation, then the slope of the tangent can
be determined from the first derivative of the equation. As most arches
are parabolic or circular, this presents no difficulty. The method is
illustrated by a numerical example.
y 61 61 6!
10 m 10 m 10 m loml
c e r10m
Xa a b J X
Xb
40 m
Va Vb
Fig. 4.74
Solution:
I:M. = 0 = Yb X 40 - 6 (10 + 20 + 30)
Yb = 9 t. t
I:Y - 0 = Y. - 3 X 6 + 9
Y. = 9 t. t
c
I:M
c
= 0 = 9 X 20 - 10 X 6 - 10 X.
X. - 12 t. -+
I:X - 0 = 12 - Xb
Xb - 12 t. +-
...,.
.~
"
~ If a section is taken through point d, the free-body diagra'l' of the part
of the arch on the left hand side of the section will be as shown in either
Fig. 4.25 a , or 4.25 b .
."
At x = 5, Y = Yd = 5 - 0.025 X 52 = 4.375 m.
I
I
Since the 'Slope of the arch changes from point to point, it is easier to cal-
culate the reactions X, Y and M acting on the frec body. Thus, referring
I to Fig. 4.25 a,
l y
l d 1 X
f
121
91
a
5m
L (a)
M
y
1- M
b 171 b 121
(e) (d)
91 91
b 121
(f)
191
Fig. 4.25
~X o 12 - X X 12 t ......
~Y o 9-Y Y 9 t. J,
~Md = 0 = 12 x 4.375 - 9 x 5 + M
M = - 7.5 m.t., i.e. M = 7.5 m.t. (clockwise)
M is the bending moment at section d. The thrust and shearing force
can be easily expressed in terms of X and Y. Thus, referring to Fig. 4.25 b,
Nd = - (Y sin e, +X cos e,.l
= - (9 x 0.6 + 12 x 0.8) = - 15 t.
Qd = Y cos e, - X sin e,
= 9 X 0.8 - 12 X 0.6 = 0
Similarly, when a section is taken through point e, the part of the arch on
-120-
the right hand side may be considered as a free-body. However, since this
section coinsides widy a concentrated load, two sections; j ust to the right
and just to the left of the load must be considered. The former is shown
in the free-body diagram in Figs. 4.25 c or d, and the latter in the free-
body diagram in Fig. 4.25 e or f.
(
:~) . = 1 - 0.05 X 30 =
2
1(- 30
Graphical solution :
Many engineers prefer the graphical method to the analytical method
of solution not only because it is quicker but also as it gives the values of
the reactions of the arch, thrusts, shearing forces and bending moments
at various points along its axis in one operation.
The determination of the reactions is based on the fact that the bending
moment at the intermediate hinge is zero. Con<;ider for example the thn'e-
hinged arch shown in Fig. 4.26 a. According to the principle of superposi-
tion , the final reactions to the applied loads is equal to the sum of
the reactions to two load systems corresponding to the loads on either side
of the intermediate hinge acting separately as shown in Figs. 4.26 band
c. It is easier to find the reactions for each of cases (b) and (c) as the reaction
-121-
on the unloaded side must pass through the intermediate hinge if the bend~
ing moment there is to be zero. The problem thus reduces to finding two
equilibrants to a system of forces, one given by its point of application and
(a)
Fig. 4.26
the other by its line of action. These may be easily found by the methods
described in section 1.9.
With reference to Fig. 4.26, the method of determining the reactions
is summerized in the following :
(I) The resultant P, of the loads shown in Fig. 4.26 b is determined
by means of a polar diagram with pole 0 1 and its corresponding.
link polygon.
(2) The reaction components A, and B, due to these loads are found
by resolving PI along line be and through point a. Once their directions
are known, the magnitudes of these compmients are found from the polar
diagram shown in Fig. 4.26 d.
-122-
P2 P3
P4
c
e(\\
\~(\9
0 P2
B 3
( b)
( a)
5
Fig. 4.27
f
I
I
-123-
the three hinges then the magnitudes of the reactions are simply obtained
~
by measuring the first and last rays in the corresponding polar diagram
and their lines of action coinside with the first and last links in the line of
l pressure.
Once the line of pressure is drawn, the thrust and shearing force at a
point hetween any two loads are readily obtainable by resolving the cor-
responding link along and perpendicular to the tangent to the arch at
that point, and the bending moment is the product of the force represented
by the link in the panel where the point lies, and the perpendicular dis-
tance from the point to the link. For example, the thrust and shearing
force at point d (Fig. 4.27) is found by resolving the force represented by
link pq along the tangent and the normal to the arch at d. This is done
on the polar diagram as shown in Fig. 4 .27 a. Also, the bending moment
at point d is the product of force 02 in the polar diagram, by the distance
r which is the perpendicular from point d to link pq.
A special case of practical importance is the three-hinged arch sub4
jected to vertical loads. The thrust and shearing force at any point along .
the arch axis may be found in the manner described above. The deterrn 4
ination of the bending moment, however, is further simplified. This is
explained with reference to Fig. 4 .28. The bending moment at point d
on the arch is given by ;
r
Md = 02 r 02cosecos e =Hxy
i.e. the area between the arch axis and the line of pressure represents the
bending moment diagram. When at any poin t, the vertical ordinate y
Ol?----U
Fig. 4.28
-124-
of this area is multiplied by the polar distance H, the product gives the
bending moment at this point.
61 81
t
1m
2I
41
.a
21-
16 m
Fig. 4.29
Solution:
Following the procedure described in this section the determination
of the reactions is illustrated in Figs. 4.30 a, band c. From the force poly-
gon in Fig. 4.30 c, the reactions A and B scale 8 t. and 14.5 t. respectively
and act in the directions indicated.
1.fle thrust an~ shearing force at point d are scaled from the force poly-
gon in Fig. 4.31 b.
N = 9.5 t. (compression), Q = 2.2 t.
and the bending moment at point d is the product r (to the linear scale
and force 03 (to the force scale); Md = 0.4 X 10 = 4 m.t .
-125-
( a)
8t
." 11
\
\
(b) Pr
Linear Scale 0,
'cm = 2.5 m
force scale
, cm: 41
(c)
F;g. 4. 30
61 5t 2t
__--2
d
r :04 m
(a)
-126-
(2) (22) Draw the N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of the frames shown in
Figs. 2.37 . 2.40, 2.43 . 2.46 and 4.33 4.44.
31
61 211m
2m
t:: -
3
~m
L
~ ~ 2 I.--- 10 In ---! l-2
Fig. 4.33 Fig. 4.34
, ; I II
2m
-
E
,
111m
-,
2m
10m
f
4m
I 1
~
~ ..1.:'-
I
L 6m _,11---6m-!2 ;--.--.- Sm ---1
Fig. 4.35 Fig. 4.36
-127-
~
..
l._-lt/m hzproj
2 \ 1m
.-1
2m o2m
U\ 2m
"t--
2m :::-1 t
T- 34m
2.5m _J I /;m
.
0.51
2m
II ~
f-J 2 ~ 4m-~ I
2 r--- ~4m-..j 2
,
+- 2 I--
fig. 4.37 Fig. 4.38
211m 08t/m
2t
L
1m
5m r-e-
L 2m -
-~ 2 I tiC'>
Fig. 4.39
-L J 3
J!
i--- 3m
Fig. 4.40
J
2t 4I /; t 2I
211m
r
4m
1 tIm
! 4m
2m
--
3
I
-L
I I I
-I 2 t-- 6m ---t 1 ~
Fig. 4.41 Fig. 4.42
-128-
i 11m
-
\- 2m I, 10m ~ 10m --J
Fig. 4.43
2I 211m
10m
L
f- 10m -I- 10m .4- 10m ~ 4m--j
Fig. 4.44
21/m 211m
C! c
f 2m
2m
Ca) Cbl
~
I
d d J
10m ----...J I. 10m
211m
t c
2m (el
i d
W5..l. 2.5 m ~
Fig. 4.45
- 129 -
(a) draw the N.F., S.F. and B.MDs. for each case.
(b) determine the position and value of the maximum positive moment.
(c) study the three systems from the statical point of view.
(24) _ (27) Draw the N.F., S.F. and R.M.Ds. of the statically indete-
rminate frames shown in Figs. 4.46 - 4.49 if:
1.5 tIm 11
21 --1
41 2m t
21 2m
6m
1 211m
-t
L a
6m
a
3m
L 8m ----..j 2
Fig. 4.46
b --.-l
L L 6m
Fig. 4.47
b ~
-1
411m 2 tim
1111I;11001!1 'iiii"
t c a
61
b
1.5 m
T
4.Sm
3 m--+-3 I4m
dJ
b
L a
m '" c e
-.J 2 ~- 6m-L 6m .--J L 2
111m
Fig. 4.48 Fig. 4.49
- 130-
CI ~I
Y
--1'75 m..j.....?
3.2m
d c e -----l-l
3.6m
b ---+ 6 ~m
28m
X
8m 6m
I: 14 m
Fig. 4.50
(29) The axis of the three- hinged arch shown in Fig. 4.51 forms a
semi-circle. The bcackets inside the arch are rigidly connected to it.
Calculate the thrust, shearing force and bending moment at the quarter
points, e and f.
f
f 3m
, +-
5m
,
I 2m
I
Fig. 4.51
[I IiJtEIf::i;jkE,m ]J~f1*jll2_t~lt4_t_.tl~4t_jr
ri]tC:+EIt
c
a
I 8m
(3\) For the three-hinged parabolic arch shown in Fig. 4.53, draw
the bending moment diagram under a .uniformly distributed load of 2 t./m.
of horizontal projection on : (a) part ac, (b) part bo, (c) the whole 'pan.
Explain why the bending moment diagram for the case of loading in
(c) zero.
I e
,
3.6m
6.4m
b J.
1 a
-L6m
I: 8m
14m
Fig. 453
-132 -
CHAPT ER 5
Trusses conside red in this chapte r are plane and co-plan er with
the
applied loads. Apart from this type, there are space trusses in
which the
membe rs are situate d in more than one plane. Howev er, in
many cases,
the analysi s of space trusses may be reduced to the casc of a
numbe r of
plane trusses.
Ca) C b) Ce)
Fig. 5.1
It raay be IlobCed that no mc,ntion, as yet, has been made to the. criteria
of internal and external indeterminancy. This has been doce on purpose
as the computation of the external reaction c:omponents is sometimes related
to the disposition of the truss members and it is difficult, therefore, to
distinguish between internal and external indeterminancy. The following
examples may illustrate this point.
L - - -_ __
- \34-
Fig. 5.2. shows a truss resting on two hinges at a and b which provide
4> 3 reaction components but is still statically determinate as an additional
condition is furnished by equating the moments of all the forces either
Fig. 5.2
p
d
/
...-
/
/
/
I
I
I
,
"-
- Cb l
Fig. 5.3
-135-
Fig. 5.4 a shows a truss resting on two rollers and a hinged support
which provide 4>3 reaction components but is still statically determinate.
The reactions may be found with reference to Fig. 5.4 b as follows:
Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.5
LM. o
f
LMr = 0 o
d d
LY o and LX o
are five equations which when solved simultaneously give the five rea
ction components at the supports.
-137-
(b)
Fig. S.U
(2) Any part of the truss is a rigid body kept in equilibrium by the
external forces including the pre-calculated reactions t03'eth~r with the
reactions acting upon it by the rest of the stru-:ture.
(4) Each of the truss members is a link member which may be replaced
by equal and opp::>site forces at its ends.
members only meet. After finding the forces In these two members, an
adjacent joint at the end of onc of them will have two unknown forces only.
These may be found in a similar manner bearing in mind that each
m~mber of the truss, being a link member, exerts equal and opposite forces
on the joints at its ends. The procedure is repeated until all the joints have
been considered and hence all the forces in the members determined.
Example 5.1 Find the forces in all the members of the truss shown In
11 21 21
f
!
2m
d
c
k 2x2 = 4m -+ 2m
4.;1
Fig. 5.7
I:Ma= 0 2 X 2 +2 x 4 + 1 X 6 - Yc X 4
4 +8+ 6
Yc - 4
4.5 t. t
IMc 0 Y a X 4 +1 X 2 - 2 X 2 - 1 X 4
4 + 4 - 2
Ya
4
1.5 t. t
IX - 0 X.
-139-
Check at joint d, -, .
LX 1 - JTcos 45 0
LY - J2 cos 45 0
Usually, it simplifies the problem a great deal to detect the zero members
Ina truss and omitt them before carrying out a complete analysis.
Referring to Figs. 5.8 a and b, the following two rules may help to spot
the zero memben.
(b )
Fig. 5.8
(2) Ifajoint is acted upon by only two member forces F, and F2 which J
do not have the same line of action then both forces must be zero.
( b)
I
l t
l By ruk number (1) given in this section, the truss given in Fig. 5.9 a
may be shown to have six zero members; marked 0 in the figure. Thus,
regarding the analysis, the given truss may be replaced by that shown in
Fig. 5.9 b which has seven unknown member forces only against the seven-
teen forces of the original truss.
bF---~~
a
(b) (a)
Fig. 5.10
The three unknown forces F 1 , F 2 and F 3 may be found from the three
equations of equilibrium applied to the part of the truss on either side
of the section. If instead of applying the conventional equations of
equilibrium; LX = 0, :ty = 0 and EM = 0, use is made of the substitute
equilibrium conditions; I:M. = 0, I:Mb = 0 and I:M. = 0 (section 1.9)
where a, band c are three points in the plane and not on the same line.
The forces are then obtained directly. Thus, with reference to Fig. 5.10 h.
Fig. 5.11
- 143-
l----:=--'-_F
Fig. 5.12
Fig. 5.13
Sometimes the moments equation does not give directly the required
force. Such cases are usually encountered when the forces in the diagonals
of trusses with parallel chords are desired.
F,
(bl (al
Fig. 5.14
For example the force F, in member (I) of the truss shown in Fig. 5.14 a
cannot be determined by the application of the moments equation as the
other two members do not intersect. This force, however, can be obtained
directly by applying the equilibrium condition l:Y = O. Thw, with
reference to Fig. 5.14 b, l:Y = 0 = Y. - P, - p. - F, sin 9, gives
the value of F,.
The analysis of a trws by the method of sections will be iIIwtrated by
a numerical example.
144-
EsalDple 5.2 Find the forces in members fe, fc and be of the truss
shown in Fig. 5.7 using the method of seClions,.
21
11 f 21 Fl
9
a "" -~
c
1 ') 1 4.5 t
(a) ( b)
F:g 5.15
Consi der the equilibrium of the part of the truss to the leftIof the
section - Fig. 5.15 a.
:EM, 0 = FI X 2 + 1.5 X 4 - 2 X 2 - 1 X 4
4 +4 - 6 1 t.
2
:EM, = 0 1.5 X 2 - 1 X 2 - FJ X 2
3 2 1
FJ -t.
2 2
:EY o 1.5 - 1 - 2 - F, X
F, = - 1.5 }2 t.
Positive F's correspond to tension and negative F's to compression.
These values check with those obtained in Example 5.1 by the method of
- 145-
,I
I
joints. The part of the truss to the nght of the section might have equally
l
I
been used. Referring to Fig. 5.15 h, the equations of equilibrium would
l be as follows:
x 2 - F, X 2
I LY o
X 4
4.5 -
+
2 -
2 X 2 -
1 + F, X
4.5 X 2
1
)2
These equations give results identical to those obtained previously.
+ F, X 2
tV
Fig. 5.16
Let Lab and F ab be the length and the force in member abo Now
imagine the forces at all joints to be resolved in the same directions x and
y. The components of Fab at a, parallel to the x and y axes are then,
and F Yb - Y.
.b L
.b
and
The ratio Fab \vhich is common to both components, is caUed the jorce
Lab'
- 146-
coefficient of member ab and is denoted by fab . Thus,
_ F ab
[ab - -- and
Lab
When the resolution of forces at a joint is made, the forces in the members
are always ~umed to be tensile and the terms, (xa - x.), (Ya - Yb)'
etc.; in the equations are considered positive or negative according to
whether they tend to move the j oint in the positive or negative directions
of the x and y-axes.
Exasnple 5-3 Find the forces in all the members of the truss shown in
Fig. 5.7 which is reproduced in Fig. 5.17 using the method of force
coefficients,
II 21 21
rk--~-~
2m
i~!___~_-+-_...3d
15 1'-- 2 m -L 2 m _,""Z..:.S 12rn--J
Fig. 5.17
2 fab =0 fab =0
and F.. = fab Lab - 0
Considering now the equation for the y-directioD,
2 fab - 0 ab
-0 2 0
a
2 f.. + 1.5 =0 ag - 'I. 2 - Jl3
g
2t;.,+2r,., = 0 gf - II. 2 - 1/2
- 2 r,.,- 2 t;..- I=() gb II. 2J2 J2/2
b
2fbe-2f.. - 2fab - 0 be II. 2 '/2
2 f b, + 2 r,., = 0 bf - II. 2 - '/2
2 f,. + 2 f,. - 2 t;., = 0 fe '/2 2 I
f
-21;,,-21;-.-2=0 fc - 3/. 2JT 3J2J2
c
2fcd - 2 f.. -2f.,= 0 cd - '/2 2 - I
2 fcc + 2 fer + 4.5 = 0 ce - '/2 2 - 3
Table 5.1
14B -
b
d
P at the apex is called load ab, the reaction at the left support is load ca,
and the reaction at the right support is load be. Similarly, the force in
the horizontal member is force de or force cd according to which end of
the member is being considered.
(a)
(b) j'~
Y1
Force de
(c)
Fig. 519
- 149-
l triagnle of forces for the forces meeting at the left or the right supports
- Figs. 5.19b and c.
l The triangles of forces drawn for individual joints and shown in Figs.
5.19 a, band c can be combined to form a single diagram called a stress
diagram - Fig. 5.20.
The directions of the arrows in the truss diagram, which indicate the
action of the member forces on the joints, are obtained by considering
each joint to be the centre of a clock and the letters are read clockwise
rouIld it. Thus, having drawn the stress diagram consider, say, the joint
at the left support. Reading clockwise round this joint, the inclined
member is ad. On the stress diagra,m, the direction from a to d is down.
ward to the left. Therefore, the arrow is placed in the truss diagram thus J
near the joint. The horizontal member is dc, and d to c on the stress dia
gram is a direction left to right so the arrow is placed thus -+near the joint
The directions of the arrows in the other members are found in a similar
manner.
[ (I) The external reactions are determined. This" can be done graphi-
cally but it is u.<:ually more convenient to use the analytical method.
For cantilever trusses, this step may be done with:mt.
(2) Using Bow's notation, a force polvgon, for the external lo3.ds in
cluding the reactions, is drawn.
(3) StaJ:ting with a terminal joint, where no more than two unknown
member forces meet, the force polygon for this joint is drawn. This is done
on the force diagram drawn in step (2).
&1
d c PI.
bJ.
Truss diagram Slress diagram
Fig. 5.20
(5) These arrows are transferred to the other end of the member in
a reversed direction.
(6) A joint at the end of one of the members whose force has been
determined in step (3), and where no more than two other members meet
is considered next.
(7) The procedures are continue 1 until all the joints have been con-
sidered. The result is a complete- stress diagram from which the magni-
tudes of the forces can be scaled, and a truss diagram with arrows at both
ends of all the members. A member with arrows thus +---+ is in
compression and that with arrows thus --+- +- is in tension.
Solution: The notations used are as shown in Fig. 5.2 lao The stress
diagram drawn to scale 1. em. = I t., is shown in Fig. 5.21 h. The final
result is given iIi Table 5.2 .. Positive signs indicate tension and negative
signs indicate compression.
Member bg cg dh hg hj jb ek kj kl la if
Force o 1.5 -0.5 +0.7 -0.5 + 0.5 + 1.0 -2.1 -3.0 1.0 +1.4
Table 5.2
- 151 -
c
11 21 21
h
J
c
k
a "
1,SJ ~.51
(a) (b)
l a ,----y
~
Fig. 5.21
F;g. 5.22
In the truss shown in Fig. 5.22, for example, a direct solution cannot
be started since all the joints of the truss have more t,han two members.
In. the truss shown in Fig. 5.23, the solution may be started by con-
sidering the equilibrium of joint a after the components of the reactions
have been determined. The next step will lead to either joint d or
joint e, at which three unkno \"n member forces meet. If the analysis is
started at joint b, similar situatil1n will develop at joints i and k.
- 152 -
Fig. 5.23
Exalllple 5.5 Find the forces in all the members of the truss shown in
Fig. 5.24 b.
1.51 31 I 1.5 31 31 3t 1.51
31 / C
-""'-:--;"-1'-
31
B
......_ _ _ 4x 3 = 12 m
(a)
6.75J
( b)
Fig. 5.24
- 153-
I 5I 3I
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
b
II
1,51 7') I
a
5.2 <; t 6.751
lal
a I _ _ _~!)!-_--' c
~-+----ld
m
J
n f
P
o=--~9
( L -_ _ _ _ _ _~h
Cb)
Fig. 5.25
154 -
o = 5.25 x 6 - 1.5 x 6 - 3 )( 3 - F x 3
+ 4.5 t.
Now member AB can be replac ed by two equal tensile forces at joints
A and B, and the stress diagram may be drawn starling from either joint
A or joint B.
The stress diasram drawn to scale 1 em. = 2 t. is shown in Fig. 5.25 b,
and the notations used are shown in Fig. 5.25 a. he final result is given
in Table 5.3.
Member bk kj dl lk em ml mj fn nj go on op pj ph
Table 5.3
Since a complex truss does not satisfy the definition of simple trusses
including the ambiguous {:ases, the methods described in the previous
sections do not provide a direct solution of this type of truss:::s.
Fig. 526
- 155
fl0m which, X
( ) :: 'b
Once the force in member db is found, it may be treated as an external
load applied at joints d and b and the analysis completed by the methods
used earlier for simple trusses. Alternatively the forces in every member
of the original truss may be obtained by superimposing the forces in
Figs. 5.26 band d, or by applying the following relation for indivi ~ual
:qlembers,
F = Fo + F, X
- 156-
4m --v-- 4 m--j
4t (a) (b)
(e)
Membe~ Fo FI F = Fo + FIX
ab + 5/2 + 5/6 -5
be +1 + 2/3 -5
ad - 7/2 + 5/6 - 11
bd + J 5/2 - J5J6 +2J'j
eg -5 + 2/3 -11
bg +4 J5/5 - 2 J5/l5 + 2 .../5
de -J5 + J5/3 - 4 J5
;- 4 J5/15
fg - 8 V 5/5 + -4J-S
ec - J'i - 2 J2/3 + 5J2
,f - 5 J2t2 - 5 J2/6 + 5./2
ef 0 + 1 - 9
bf +9 J Io /IO + JIOiIO .0
Table 5.4
- 157 -
X=_(FO) FI bf
x
10
JIO
-9
E:umpleo 5.7-5.14 Calculate the forces in all the members of the trusses
shown in Figs. 5.28-5.35 by the method of joints.
21
21 31 51 11 41
k h I9 f
t 3m
a b c d ~
I.. 4.3 = 12 m ~I
Fig. 5.28 Fig. -'.29
1 5 I e
9t
d
41-t_'IC
.....hr--"i9 - ,
2m
r=--t;-~----3If -i-
2m
d-l
Y b =14+6=
4 5t. f
I:Y 0 = 7 -
= 5 - Y.
Y. = 2 t. f
I:X = 0 = 2 - X.
X. = 2 t._
Now resolving horizontally and vertically at ~ach joint in turn,
At a, Fad. + 4/5 Fac - 2 = 0
3/5 Fac . +2 = 0
F'd = + 14/3 t., Fac = - 10/3 .
At. d, Fdb - 14/3 = 0
Fdc - 7 = 0
Fdb =: + 4/3 t., Fdc = + 7 .
"
- 159-
Y
e
= 9 + 30 + 9 + 43 = 8 t.
12
t
IT =0=2+3+5+1+4-8-~
Ya = 7 t . t
At a, Fak 7 = 0+
Jab = 0 , Fak = - 7 I.
At k, Fkb X + Fk i = 0
J2
I
rkb X -+2-7=0
J'2 Fkb -- + 5 v, -
2t.,F ki = - 5 t.
I
At b, F.. - 5 J 2 X -- ~ 0 = 0
JT
I
Fbi + 5 J 2 X - = 0
JT
F.. = + 5 t . Fbi = - 5 t.
I
At j, Fih + F ic X - - + 5 = 0
JT
I
Fjc X - - 5 + 3 = 0
JT
Fic = + 2 .J"2 t. , Fjb - 7 t.
AI h, F.. + 7 = 0
F.. + 5 = 0
Fha - 7 I. , Fhc
-160-
I I
At c, F,d + F" x --- - 5 - 2 ) 2x - - = 0
JT .J2"
I I
F'B X - - 5 + 2 )2 x - - = 0
)2 )2
F.. = + 3 )Tt. , F,d + 4 t.
I
At g, Far + 7 - 3 ../'2 x -- = 0
)T
I
F.. + 3 )'2 x -- + I = 0
)'2
F.r = - 4 t., fad - 4 t.
At d, + Fd - 4 = 0
)2
I
--4=0
)2"
I
At f, F dr X -- - 4 = 0
)T
J
Pdr X -f-- + F r. + 4 = 0
, ..; 2
Fr. = - 8 t.
At e, t is last joint provides a check on the results,
LX = 0
LY=8-8=O
At c, Fe. + 1.5 0
Fe< 0
Fcc = 0, Feb = - 1.5 t.
I
At e, Feb X + Fer X -- = 0
.../"2 .../T
I I
Feb X X -+3 = 0
.../ 2 - Fer
.../T
Feh = - 1.5.../2 t. , F.r = 1.5 + JTt.
I I
At h, Fhd + Fbb X - - + 1.5 + 1.5 X -- = 0 J"2
.../"2 J"2
Fhb X --- 1.5 JTx =0
.../2 J2
F;b = + 1.5 .../ 2 t. . F.. -4.5 t.
I
At d, Fdr X --4.5 = 0
.../"2
I
Fdr X - - + Fdb 0
.../"2
Fdf = + 4.5 .J 2 t. Fdb - 4.5 t.
Yb 1.875 t. t
:EY - 0 = 4.8 - 1.875 - Y.
Y. 2.925 t. t
:EX 0 = X. - 3.6
Xa 3.6 t. ~
Generally, difficulty arises in such a truss at eith~r joints d or f if the
analysis is started at joint a, or :;\t joints h or k if the analysis is started at
joint b, due to the presence of three unknown member forces. However,
by inspection, it could be seen that members ij, jk, kh, hj and jc have zero
forces for the given case of loading.
Consequently, no difficulty will arise in this particular ca~c if the
analysis is started at joint h.
At b, Fbc X 4/5 + Fbd = 0
F b , X 3/5 + 1.875 = 0
F b, = - 3.12 t. , Fbd = + 2.5 t.
At a, Fad + Far X 4/5 + 1 X 3/5 - 3.6 = 0
Far X 3/5 - I X 4/5 + 2.925 = 0
Far = -- 3.54 t. , Fad = + 5.83 t.
At d, F.;. X 0.54 - Fdr X 0.6 + 2.5 - 5.83 = 0
Fde X 0.84 + Fdr X 0.8 = 0
Fd, = + 2.85 t. , Fdr = - 3 t.
At f, resolving along member ac and normal to it,
Ffg +
Fr, X 0.935 3.54 = 0+
Fr, X 0.35 + 2 - 3 = 0
Fr, ~ + 2.86 t. , Fr. = - 6.8 t.
At g. resolving along member ac and normal to it,
F" + 6.8 = 0
F.. + 2 = 0
FBe = - 2 t. , F., = 6.8 t.
At e. Foe X 0.54 - 2.85 X 0.54 - 2.86 X 0.935 + 2 X 0.6 = 0
Foe = + 5.6 t.
Solution 5.Il (Fig. 5.32) :
:EM. = 0 = 9 X 4 + 4 X 3 - Yb X 8
6 t. t
0= 9 - 6 - Y.
Ya 3 t.t
:EX 0= 4 - X.
X. 4 t. ~
- 163 -
At a, F" - 4 = 0
F" + 3 = 0
F" = 4 t., Fac = - 3
At c, Fcd X 4/5 + Fcd X 4/5 +4 = 0
Fcd X 3/5 - Fcc X 3/5 + 3 = 0
FCd = - 5 t., Fcc 0
At b, Fbe = 0
F br .+ 6 = 0
Fbe = 0, F br = - 6 t.
At f, Frd X 4/5 + Fre X 4/5 = 0
Frd X 3/5 - Fre X 3/5 + 6 = 0
Frd = - 5 t. , Fre - +5 t.
At e, Fer X 4/5 - 4 = 0
Fer X 3/5 + Fed = 0
Fed = - 3 t.
From symmetry, Va = Vb
Xb = 0
= + 5 t. , Fa. = - 4 J10 t.
2 2 I
At c, + Fcd X - + 4 JTo X -- = 0
J5 J13 JfO
3 3
- - Fcd X - - 5 + 4 J 10 X - = 0
J5 J13 JiO
Fcd = + 5 J!3/4 t. , Fcc = - 13 J5/4 t.
- 164-
2 2
At d, Fde X + F.. - 5 x 4 /5 - 5 ) 13 X -- o
)13 -4- )13
3 3
F de X + 5 ) 13 X --5 X 3/5 = 0
jl3 4 )is
Fde = - )13/4 t. , F.. = + 7 t.
Since the truss and the loads are symmetrical there is no need to con-
sider further joints.
Yb = 6 ~ 14 = 5 t. t
l:Y = 0 = 7 - 5 - Ya
Ya = 2 t. t
l:X O=2-X.
X. 2 t . ..-
I
At e Fed X -- - F~ X = 0
)T ,jT
I 1
F"" X -- + Foe X -+ 7 = 0
)2 )T
F"" = - 7 )2/2 t. , Foe = - 7 )2/2 t.
7)-2- 1
At c, Feb ' X 415 - X -- + 2 = 0
2 ) 2
7/2 I
3/5 + F +- X - = 0
ea 2 }T
Feb = + 15/8 t. , Fe. - 37/8 t.
7)2-
At d, Fad X 4/5 - -- X o
2 .,,12
7}2 I
Fad X 3/5 + -- X -- + Fdb = 0
2 }2
Fad = + 35/8 t. , Fdb - 49/8 t.
- 165 -
+ F.< + 2 J5" X = 0
J"T J5
F. r = + 4 J"T t. F.< - 6 t.
I
At f, o
J'i
+ 4 t.
At e, Fa< + 6 = 0
F..e = - 6 t.
It is to be noted that in calculating the member forces, no we has been
made of the calculated reactions. This is generally true for cantilever
trusses. if the analysis is started from the free end.
t
- 166-
EsaDlples 5.15 5.20 Find the forces in the marked members of the
trusses shown in Figs. 5.36-5.41 using the method of sections.
21 21 21 21 21
'21
1 I II 1.21 ,-~~--~~--~4
10m
l-- C
2m . d " f
L 4x3=12m
r L4L4X4=16m~
-
a
11 11 21 21 11
11 11
2t k
~
3m
,,It,
mac ~
4=8~3X4=12 ~
Fig. 5.38 Fig. 5.39
101 101
41
d ~.
I 41
10m
6m
10m
11m
bJ
I- 6m
Fig. 5.40
hit : 12 m J l3 +3rn.j
c
Fig. SAl
- 167-
Yb
_ 3.6
-
+ 7.2 + 10.8 + 7.2 = 24 t. t
12
a
I~ 1.21 Fde~
J~ ~ "J~
/0.61 1.73 m ~9 )
~ -::-.:::.
'I f Ff C
2 .4 I C a
Fig. 5.42
21 2t 11 21 21
b, \
h ~I
----""7 ,
Fkd ~.- F,e
, ...- ...-
41 ?d
d (a) (b) 6'
6t a
Fig. 5.4"3
~Mh ~ 0 = 6 X 12 + 4" X 6 - 2 X 16 - 2 X 12 - F k X - - X 12
j2
Fk ~ + IOj'2/3 t.
For member ie, consider section b-b shown in Fig. 5.43 b.
~Y = 0 = 6 - 2 - 2 - 2 - Fk
F~ = 0
\ ~Y o 6 - 3 = 3 t. f
,
~M ~ 0 3 X 6 - 0.5 X 6 - I X 4 - I X 2 - X. X 3
a '
18 -- 3 - 4 - 2
X = 3 t. ~
3
~X 0 ~ 3 -Xb
Xb = 3 t. +-
- 169-
0.51 11 b
.51 a
e Ffh
- - - --;?'
.".
/"
,-
./
31 31 b
a
31
31
Cal Cb)
Fig. 5.44
, Consider section a-a as shown in Fig. 5.44 a.
For member ef, take moments about point c.
l:Mc = 0 = 3 X 6 - 0.5 X 6 - 3 X 3 + Fer X 4
Fer = - 1.5 t.
Consider section b-b as shown in Fig. 5.44 h.
For member fh, take moments about point g.
l:M. = 0 = 3 X 4 - 0.5 X 4 - 3 X 2 - X 2 + Frh X I
Frh = - 2 t.
For member eg, take moments about point 1:
2
l:Mr = 0 = 3 X 2 - 0.5 X 2 - 3 X 3 - Fe. X X 2
l
, F.. = - JSt.
J5
l Solution 5.18 (Fig. 5.39)
l:M. = 0 = I X 12 + 2 X 8 + 2 X 4 + 2 X 6 - 3 X 8- Yb X 12
t
Il
Y b = 24/ 12 = 2 t.
n 0=3+1+2+2 + 1 - 2-~
Y. = 7 t. t
l:X 0 "" 2 - Xb Xb 2 t. +--
~~
b 21 11
l
a 1I
JI' -
I '
I,
~ Ffi: 5/ 6
Fed 21 21
a ....~
2I b 21
(a) ( b) (e )
Fig. 5.45
- 170-
For member cd, consider section a-a as shown in Fig . 5.45 a, and take
moments about point j.
~M ~ 0 ~ 2 X 4 - 1 X 4 - 2 X 6 - Fcd X 6
Fcd ~ - 8 /6 ~ - 4 /3 t.
For member fe, consider section b-b as shown in Fig. 5.45 b, and resolve
at joint f.
~X =, 0 = Fr; X 4/5 + F rc X .4 /5
Fr; + Frc ~ 0
For member ig, consider the equilibrium of joint i shown in_Fig. 5.45 c.
~Y 0 ~ 2 + 5/6 X 3/5 + F;g
Fig = - 2.5 t.
:Mc = 0 = 12 X 3 - X. X 6
X. = 6 t. +-
~X O=6-X b
Xb~6t.--.
For member ee, consider section a-a as shown in Fig. 5.46 a, and take
moments about point d.
~Md = 0 ~ (6 - 6) 12 + 12 X 6 + Fc. X 6
Fee = - 12 t
- 171 -
a b
Fbe
61
18 I
6t
112 t ( a) la t
( b) (el
Fig. 5.46
For member ef, consider section b-b as shown in Fig. 5.46 b and take
moments about point i.
!:M; = 0 = Fer X r
Fer = 0
Member ed cannot be obtained directly. It may be found by first
calculating the force in member be and then resolving vertically at joint e.
With reference to Fig. 5.46 c,
!:X = 0 = 6 - Foe X
J-S
2
!:Y o= 18 + Fbe X
Fbe = - 30 t.
By consideriq.g the equilibrium of point e and noting that Fer = 0,
Fed = Fbe = - 30 t.
b~
. -'-T'''c--..,,'t-t
" t
a
12 t 12 I
61 261 61 261
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.47
For member eh, consider section a-a as shown In Fig. 5.47 a and take
moments about point d.
l:M. = 0 = 26 X 6 12 X 4 + Foh X 6
FOh = - 18 t.
Considering the equilibrium of the part of the truss below section b-b,
EsaDlples 5-21-5-23 Calculate the forcesln all the members of the trusses
shown in Figs. 5.30, 5.33 and 5.34 by the method of force coefficients.
Solation: The solutiom ofproblms 5.21-5.23 are presented in Tables
5.5-5.7 respectively.
l - 173 -
~ a 2 fa' = 0 af 0 2 0
2 rae + 3 = 0 . ae - 3/2 2 - 3
c 2 fo + 1.5 = 0 ch - 3/4 2 - 3/2
2 fce = 0 ce 0 2 0
-
e 2f,.+2f,,= 0 eh - 3/4 2/2 -3../2/2
2f,. - 2f" - 2f,, =0 ef 3/4 2../2 3../212
h 4 f'd + 4 f. b- 2 f.,- 2 f. o = 0 hd - 9/8 4 - - 9/2
4 fOb + 2 fhe = 0 hb '3/0 4j2 - 3y l 'i/2
f 2 f'a = 0 fd
4 f'b + 4 f'd- 2 f,,- 9/8 4../2 9J2i2
-4f'd-2f,,+6~0 fb - 3/4 4 -3
Note that the last two equations provide a check on the results since
they are satisfied when the values of the force coefficients already found are
substituted in them.
a 4 f.d + 2 f" = 0 ad 1 5 5
3 f. d + 6 f" + 9 - 0 ac - 2 2../10 - 4../10
r
- 174 -
31 J1 31 21
31
1-1~._ _ 6x2: 12 m
Fig. 5.48 Fig. 5.-1-9
21 21 21
51 )(
Fig. 5.51
"
- 175-
1--- - 21
t 2m
3r
-t
2m
+-
2m
-l-
L
c
I
~2mj 1 I- 1.5m--! I- 2m-+ 2 m~
1- Fig. 5.52 F;g. 5.53
Having found the reactions (Example 5.16), and lettering the forces
~. as shown in Fig. 5.54 a, the stress diagram can be drawn as show~ in Fig.
5.54 h. The magnitude of the forces can be scaled from the stress diagram,
while their type can be noted from the arrows marked on Fig. 5.54 a.
~
21 c b
21 21 21 21 ~----,
41
j
n
0
61 P
; Q
Forcll Sealll
tem = 2 1
h
(a) (b)
r '----.....If
Fig. 5.51
t
,
I
- 176-
31 3I ! 31 jr<:-- - - - - - . b
c d
b
,,-+----"~--?i c,I,P
A'-'------'''''''--1g
a h 9 f r.:-------;~'-<o--1h
61 11 11 11 61 "--+---c,<---~ a ,d,;
Force Scale.
1 em = 2 t e
(a) (b)
F;g. 5.55
~Ma = 0= 2 X 12 +4 X 10 +4 X 6 +4 X 2 +3 X 2- Yb X 12
Y b = 8.5 t. t
~Y 0 = 2 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 2 - 8.5 - Ya
Ya = 7.5 t. t
0 = 3 - Xa
Xa = 3 t. +-
---Ig
Force Scale:
r
1 em = 2 1
(a) (b) h
"
Fig. 5.56
51
2 'S ,
b P<il.'
Force Scale
c,e
5 Gt
1 em = 2 t
( a) (b)
F;g. 5.57
l:M. = 0 = 2 (10 + 8 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 6 + 4 + 2) - Y b X 12
'Yb = 7 t. t
l:Y 0 = 2 X 5 - 7 - Y.
Y. = 3 t t
l:X = 0 = 2 X 3 - X.
Xa = 6 t. +-
Having found the reactions, and lettering the forces as shown in Fig.
5.58 a, the stress diagram can be drawn as shown in Fig. 5.58 h.
178 -
21 21
2t t
r c ~,f
21 I<
P 9
21 d a
h
I
61 C
b F"orc9 Scale: m
31 1 cm = 41
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.58
F---=-i
c
15 r 751
Fig. 5.59
It should be noted that, as for .an cantilever trusses, the stress diagram
could be drawn without calculating the n.'actions.
kY o 6 + 6 - 9 - Y.
Y.=3t t
kX 0=2-Xa
X. = 2 t. +-
The stress diagram and the type of the mt':mber lorces are shown in Fig.
5.60. Again,. it should be noted 'hat the su"s diagram in this case could
be drawn without calculating {he rt!'actlOns .
61 6! r----, b,d
71 d ~
m e
Force Scale;
Icm=2!
2t
b a
3! 9! f
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.60
Exam.ple 5.31 .. 5.34 Draw the stress diagrams for the trusses shown in
Figs. 5.61 - 5.63 and Fig. 5.3 1.
4x 4 = 16
Fig. 5.fjl Fig. 5.62
- 180-
31 31
31 1.51_1
1
r 4m
~
L3...L- 6m
Fig. 5.63
From symmetry, Y. = Yb = 5 t. t
In this case, the stress diagram can be started at either joints a or h.
However difficulty will arise at joints c and d or e and f. A force in one of
the members, taken for convenience as member gh is computed by the
method of sections, and then the stress diagram is drawn in the usual
manner.
Fig. 5.64
As both the truss and loading are symmetrical, one. half of the stress
diagram is enough. This is shown in Fig. 5.65:
- 181
_____~7.~5~1____~
g,h"
a
Fo ree Seal e .1 em; 21
(a) (b )
Fig. 5.65
21 21 a
oo---+-"'*""..,-~
56 III
a...J..
Fig. 5.66
~Mc - 0 = 5 x 12 - 2 (8 + 4) - F x 5.6
F = 36/5.6 = 6.42 t.
21 21 21 21 21
b e e f 9 h~_ _ _ _-=,Il
i e
Jf_~1
6'~<1
k~-b--~~~~d
Force Scale:
a
, ern: 21
m
Fig. 5.67
The stress diagram for half the truss and the type of member forces
are shown in Fig. 5.67.
- 182-
31
a
1.5,
a
61
Fig. 5.68
EM. 0 = 6 X 3 - 3. X 3 - 1.5 X 6 - F X 4
F = 0
Now that the force F has been found, the stress diagram can be
started at joint a. For symmetry, the stress diagram for half the truss only
is given. This is shown in Fig. 5.69.
31
1.51 b
1.51
c
Force Scale;
1 em = 2,
a
61
Fig. 5.69
3.6 h
b Force Scale
e t2.9251
1 em =2 I
F;g. 5.70
&a.nple 5.35 Calculate the forces in all the memhers of the complex
truss shown in Fig. 5.71.
Fig. 5.71
Solution 5.35 :
Member ef is removed and a substitute member ab is added as
shown in Fig. 5.72. The details of the calculations are listed in Table 5.8
c ~-'-"""'--d
e c --r--__
__ e d
..IE-----~b
SI f SI
Fig. 5.72
- 184 -
Member Fo F, F
ac, bd 0 - 7/2 - 35
ce, de 0 - J37/2 - 5 J37
,
af, bf T 5J5 - J5/2 0
. 1-
be, ad 0 + 3 v' 2 + 30 JY
ef 0 + 1 + 10
ab - 10 + 1 0
Table 5.8
The factor X is found from the condition that the final force in
the substitute member ab should be tero. Thus,
(-FO)
-10
X - 10
Flab
- 185-
(I ) - (21) Find graphically the forces in all the members of the trusses
shown in Figs. 5.73-5.93.
Check analytically the forces in the marked members.
21 21 21 21 81
3m 3m
.L
1.!!l-
81
1.5 m
1m
+--
-----r
3m
2m
+--
2m
--t
3m
+--
----1
2m 1.5 m
,-r-
f
2I
L
18 m 11
2t 21
tl 11
21 2I
11 18 m
->-
18m 1.8 m
'-1.--':::'" --+
18m 1.8 m
1 ---l=t
~ 4x3 :12m - - - 1 1--_ _ 4x3 = 12 m
4xl, :16
1bktd=t
I----l,xl,=16m~ I
Fig. 5.79 Fig. 5.80
21 21 21
I, t
f
3I
1--+--)1:-....2-"-' -+
1..5m
4.5m
--.l
J
J(---')!
J:---i;:*-k:-f-:;,~=--'--l--J~
3m
q
f---- 8x 1.5 = 12 m . ~ _ 6 <2 5 = 15~' 31 I=j
I
1.5 I 1.51 21 21 21 21
~ 1~.5~1~__~,,~~~~
2m
I 4m
~
L 3 ...)1. 5j1.5l- 3 J
Fig. 5.87 Fi~_ 5.BR
" /,v,,,,jSA'= I
-
I I.~~ 20 m .,. 20 m
--J~'i
Fig . 5.89
2.5t 51 51 5t 2.5\
r
L f-----=+---:::::~~~::::=-1
2m
I 4 6 = 24m - - ---t
Fig. 5 so
,
3m
3m
-fsr>'~
51 - - -rj
,.5
-1 --!
I
1.5
2m
IE---->o-....~~~~ k<=_-+-_~J.-
6t
1--1._ 3x 2 = 6 m ----.l ~2m J.-2 m--4
Fig. 5.92 Fig. 5.93
(22) , (23) Calcula te the forces in all the membe n; of each of
the two
comple x trusses shown in Figs. 5.94, 5.95.
Sf 1.5
T
3'
CL--.l..-~ -C.!
f-3m 5t
3"'--1 t
Fig. 5.94 Fig. 5.95
(24) , (26) Find the forces in each of the truss membe n; and
draw the
N.F., S.F. and B.M.Ds. of the ,columns in each of the sheds
shown in
Figs, 5.96-5.100.
0.5 ,
, .51
11 2I
t " It
fo.s
2m
l 11 2m
I
4m
t-
4m
11 - .
3m
'<oc---=:::.l( e -+
3m
i6m
4~"=16m .1
Fig. 5.98
d
1m
--+
1m
61 3m
Fig. 5.99
Lit
1.5 d
21 2.2 I 2 t It
+-Ir--l--~
2m
I-c--- - 6 x 2 12 = m, _ __ ~.1
Fig. 5.100
- 190-
CHAPTER 6
6. I Introduction
6." Definition
Fig. 6.1 shows the influence lines for the bending moment and shear-
ing force at section c. By definition, ordinate ml is the value of the bending
moment at section c when a unit load is at section 1. Similarly, ordinate
q1 is the value of the shearing force at section c when the unit load is at I.
I
-191-
a c b
Fig. 6.1
!
I-
6.3 Properties of the influence lines
l
unit load is placed at that section, the following general rules hold:
Thus, referring to Fig. 6.2, the moment at c due to the shown load
system is given by
I.LMc
q3
F;g.6.2
Thus, referring to Fig. 6.3, the moment at point c due to a single con-
centrated load P is a maximum when P is at c. Similarly, the shearing
force at c has its maximum positive value when the load P is just to the
right of c, and its maximum negative value when P is just to the left of c.
I c
~
IL.Mc
+
Il +
.L.Qc
Fig. 6.3
I
1
part.
This may be easily proved with reference to Fig. 6.4.
wl/m
I Ia. bl
'1 - , '2
rx~~'~
I-- a .
Fig. 6.4
Thus, F=!wdxf=w!fdx
o 0
f
:.
-194 -
To illustrate the application of rules (3) and (4), consider the simple
beam shown in Fig. 6.5 which is subjected to a uniformly distributed Jive
load long~r than the span of intensity 2 t.fm.
Fig. 6.5
For maximum positive Qc the load should cover the part be. Then,
.. Qc= 2
max. posItIve (0.6 X6) =3.6
2 t.
For maximum negative Q c the load should cover the part ac. Then,
. Q
max. negatIve c = 2 ( - 0.42 X 4) = - I .6 t.
If the load covers the entire length of the beam, the shear at c will be
given by :
Q
,
= 2 (0.6 2 6_
X 0.4 X
2
2 t.
acting, and the live loads placed in such a way so as to produce maxi-
mum effects. The values of the load functions resulting from these com-
binatiom' are call~d the extreme values of these functions. The extreme
values of a load function, therefore, define upper and lower limits of the
range within which the load function considered may vary.
( 0.6 X 6 0.4 X
Q.., (due to D.L.) 4) - 1 t.
2 2
The extreme values for the shearing forte at c are thus given by :
Y = (L - x)
and
a L
a r e D ( a)
I-- x ~
I
L
~ a ------i
1
+ I. L Va
(b)
-r (e!
L- - I.lYb
__ a
(d)
I.l Me
+ xa
Ix (L_a)
Fig. 6.6
To com~truct the influence line for the shearing force at any given
section, consider section c at distance a from the right suport as shown in
Fig. 6.6a As the load moves from a to c, i.e. to the left of c, the shearing
force at c is negative and is equal to the reaction at b, i.e. Q c= - x/L As
the load crDSSes c, the shearing force is no lQnger equal to the reaction at
b but to (1 - Vb )' or more conveniently, to Va' Thus as the unit load
moves from c to b, i.e. to the right of c, the shearing force at c is positive
and is equal to the reaction at a, i.e. Q c= + (L - x)/L The influence
line for the shearing force at c is thus as shown in Fig. 6.6. d. The critical
ordinates at c are readily obtainable from similar triangles.
- 197 -
To construct the influence line for the bending moment at any given
section, consider section c shown in Fig. 6.6 a. As the load moves to the
right of c the bending moment at c is positive and equal to Y. (L - a),
x
bending moment at c is positive and equal to Y b X a, or Me: = - r X a.
The influence line for the bending moment at c is thus as shown in Fig.
6.6 e. The maximum ordinate at c can be"calculated either from similar
triangles or from the first principles due to the action of a load of I t. acting
a (L a)
L
I t should be noticed that the influence lines of all the load functions
considered are linear functions of the distance x. This is characteristic of .
all statically determinate structures. Therefore, in order" to construct
the influence line for any load function of any staticaliy determinate
structure only main ordinates are calculated and then connected by
straight lines to form the required influence line. For instance, for the
influence line fOT the reaction Y a, the unit load is first placed at a and
then at h. When the load is in the fonner position, Y a = 1 and when it
6.6 Maxhnum S.F. and B.M. ,.t a given section in a sillllple bealIIl
c D
(ill I
], 12
L
(c)
I- ~ --I
(d)
a _
~
IL.Me
I~ ~
(f)
F;g.6.7
a , b
(a)
11 I, 17
L
I.LQe + ( b)
~
(e)
P,
(d)
IL.Me (e)
(f)
Fig. 6.8
the various poosible load positions may be calculated and the biggest value
is the maximum required.
P, Pr
<
I, Ir
In the methods which have been given for the calculation of maxim
urn shearing force and bending moment due to live load systems it
was assumed that the section at which the maximum shearing force or
moment to he calculated is known. It is often necessary to calculate the
absolute maximum shearing force and moment in the beam. By the
absolute maximum shearing force and moment, it is meant the biggest
value that can occur at any section of the beam under a given live load
system.
-201-
I ..:.:..
l P f-
l .
I P, J~ t IP t s
3 4 11=\ l~ jP:1 t 4
JA5
F;g. 6.9 F;g. 6.10
f-
r
I
I Fig. 6.9 shows the load positions for various live load systems; single
l concentrated load, uniformly distributed load shorter than the span, uni-
formly distributed load longer than the span and a series of concentrated
loads, to produce absolute maximum positive shearing force. Fig. 6. 10
f
l shows the load positions to cause absolute maximum negat.ve shearing
force. These load positions correspond also to the maximum upward reac-
The answer to the first question is determined by trial, but the second
is found by the following rule :
;-
I
I
-202-
The absolute maximum moment occurs under one of the loads which
are applied to the beam such that the middle of the beam is equidistant
from this load and the resultant of all the loads on the beam.
A special case of importance is when the loading system consists
of two equal concentrated loads. In such a case, the absolute maximum
moment occurs under either of them when it is at a distrance d /4 from the
middle of the beam, where d is the spacing between the two loads. This
is true provided that both loads lie on the span otherwise the absolute
maximum moment occurs at the middle of the beam and its value equals
PL/4.
(3) the extreme values for the shearing force and moment.
b c a (a)
4
16 m
025
I.LQ ( b)
0.75
I.L.Mc (c)
3
Fig. 6.11
-203-
Solution : The influence lines for the shear and moment at care
shown in Figs. 6.11 band c.
0.75 X
Qe (due to D.L.) = I - 4 t.
2
16 X 3
Me (due to D.L.) = I X 24 m.t.
2
Maximum positive Q c due to L.L. occurs with the load covering part ac
and is -equal to :
0.25 X 4
2 X - I t.
2
Maximum negative ~ due to L.L. occurs with the load covering part bc
and is equal to :
_ 2 X 0.75 X 12 = _ 9 t.
2
Maximum positive Me occurs with the load covering all the span and is
equal to :
16 X 3
2 X 48 m.t.
2
Solution : The influence lines for the shear and moment -at points c
and d are shown in Figs. 6.12 b - e.
-204-
0.5 J 5 21
II j I b
( al
( b)
(e)
(d)
I L.Md Ie)
Fig. 6.12
Maximum positive Q.., may occur with the first load just to the right
of c, but since the first load is light compared to the loads that follow,
there is a possibility that the maximum positive shear may occur with
the second load (3 t.) just to the right of c. In such a case Q.., is calculated
for both positions and the bigger value is considered.
For 0.5 t. at c,
FC;>T 3 t. at c,
Thus, the maximum positive u.c occurs with 3 t. just to the right of c and
is equal to 5.725 t.
-205-
For maximum positive Me' apply the rule given in section 6.6.
With the 3 t. load at c it will be found that:
Thus, the maximum moment occurs with the load of 3 t. at c and its
value is found from the infl~ence line in Fig. 6.12 d.
[
+3 +5
l 'Maximum positive Me ~ 0.5 X 1.125 X
t. at
d, that:
8.5/5 > 2/5 and 3.5/5 < 7/5
Thus, the maximum moment occurs with the load of 5 t. at d and its
value is found from the influence line in Fig. 6.12 e.
10 10 10 10 5 51
4 j , I , ! "a_ _ _ _ _ /\b (a )
!.L.Me (d)
+
6.2:'
Fig. 6.13
Solution:
Applying the rule given in section 6.7; the absolute maximum moment
occurs at d with the position of the load as shown in Fig. 6.13 b. The
influ~nce line for the moment at d is shown in Fig. 6.13 c, from which,
25 X 6.25
X w = 302.5
2
w = 3.872 t./m.
-207-
b --t
b
t- C --j
e Ca)
Ll L2_
f-..
+ (b)
I. L.Ya
-- l.L.Yb
b/L 1
-- 1 t-
(e)
1+ L2 (d)
Ll.Qd Ll
==;7L 1
~L 1 I +--------
l.L.Q I + 1 (f)
1 loMe /- e
(9)
Fig. 6.14-
in Fig. 6. J4 c.
Exam.ple 6.4 Construct the influence lines for the reactions, shearing
forces just to the left and just to the right of support a, bending moment at
support b, shearing force and bending moment at section c of the double
overhanging beam shown in Fig. 6.15 a.
Solution: The required influence lines are shown in Figs. 6.15 b-h.
The student is advised to construct these influence lines independently
and check his results against those given.
The procedures adopted for constructing the influence lines for various
load functions in simple and overhanging beams can be easily applied to
cantilever beams. A unit load may be applied at a number of points
along the beam where a sudden change of the load function under con-
sideration is expected and the ordinates calculated at these points are then
connected by straight lines to arm the required influence line. It should
-209-
r
a
4
,6mc
I
b
(al
f-- 5m 10 m ~.5-
15 h
+ 1
5 (b)
I.L.Ya
1.25
1 + (e I
I.L.Yb
Idl
- I.L.Qal
I 1
1
0.5 + ).2'
U.Qilr
'2.5
I.L.M b ./- If)
~.6 ,
0.5
~04 I.LQc .2 5. (9)
3
~ __
I.LMe
1 .....______
---, (hI
~.4
Fig.6.l5
Consider, for example, the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.16 a, and
consider first the influence Iroes for the reactions. When the unit load is
a p b q c r d
I
( a)
,j
~1-+ ~ ~J. t-a3 --1. ..liL -" l"-
t--- Ll ~
t- l2- t-- l 3 _ t-l2- II
r+------ !=.
1l.Ya (
. II
ll l 2
...--
~ -j-
~ I.l.Yb ( c)
rLl _al
.l+~ I.LQJ!. ( d)
~_al
II l2
f[1
It-
r+--- Ll.Qa. ( e)
13-a3
T-. r- JLQr (f)
~~l t-
~tt!
I.L.Ma (9)
I~al)
II
(l2-a2 )
L H.Ma (hI
1.l.M..t. ( k)
~3-a3)a3
Fig. 6.1 6
-21I -
Ya and
When the unit load is at d, both Y a and Y b are zero, and as long as the
unit load moves outside part ad of the beam the reactions Y a and Y b will
remain zero. Hence, the influence lines for Y a and Y b are as shown in
Figs. 6.16 band c.
Next consider the influence lines for the shearing forces at points p (in
the end-supported span), q (in the overhang) and r (in the supported or
suspended span).
As the unit load moves to the right of point p, the shearing force
at p is positive and is equal to Y a, and as the load moves to the left of p,
the shearing force is negative and is equal to Yb- Hence the influence
line for the shearing force at p is as shown in Fig. 6.16 d.
The influence line for the shearing force at section r IS the same
as that of a simple span cd. As long as the load is outside span cd,
it will have no effect on the shearing force at r. Hence, the influence line
for the shearing force at r is as shown in Fig. 6.16 f.
Next consider the influence lines for the bending moments at points
p, q and r.
As the unit load moves to the right of point p, the bending moment
at p is equal to Yaal- When the unit load is at a or any section along part
df, the bending moment at p is zero. Hence, the influence line for the
- 212-
As the unit load moves from a to q,. the bending moment at q is zero,
as is the case in the overhanging beam. When the unit load is at c, the
bending moment at q is equal to (L2 - a 2), and when it is at d or beyond,
the bending moment is zero. The influence line for the bending moment
at q is thm as shown in Fig. 6.16 h.
The influence line for the bending moment at r is as for a simple span
cd and is as shown in Fig. 6.16 k.
Example 6.5 For the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.17 a, construct
the influence lines for the reactions, the shearing force and bending
moment at sections p, q and r.
Solution:
The required influence lines are shown in Figs. 6.17 b-I.
0.25 X 2 0.75 .X 6
Q, (due to D.L.) = 2 (0.25 X 6 +
2 2 2
0.25 X
0.25 x 6 0.25 X
max. p03itive Q, (due to L.L.) = 4 ( 2 + 2
2 ) =4 t.
I.L.M (f )
I.l.Q (9 )
(h)
0.25
(~ )
0.5
I. II)
1.5
F;g. 6.17
-214-
1.5 X
.
maxImum . ue to L.L.) __ 4(-0.5 X 6
. M r (d
negatIve
2 2
= - 12 m.t.
The extreme values for Mr are: 30 m .t. and - 6 m .t.
Xf
... 6.2
L
~M. = 0 = Yb X L +X X f - I (L - x)
L-x Xf
.. 6.3
L L
c
~Mc - 0 = Y. X a - X (r + h) .. . 6.4
From similar triangles,
fa
h = ... 6.5
L
Substituting from equations 6.2 and 6.5 in equation 6.4,
xa
or X = -- ... 6.6
1.r
,
,
I,, 1I x
r
l
1 Xb
f
f
(al
Va a ,I. b
L
a c
11 tx b (b)
cI a b Vb
L
(c)
(d)
LL.Ya
ab tan
Lr_
- I.LYb
+ (e)
Ix sine
(t)
xsine
s e)
( h)
I.L.Md
Fig. 6. 18
-216-
Consider now a simple beam having the same span and loading as
the three-hinged arch, then the reactions of a beam such as shown in Fig.
6.18 bare:
y/. _ x. . .. 6.7
L
L-x
y~ = ... 6.8
L
and the moment at point c, in the same location along the span of the
beam as that of the intermediate hinge in the arch IS,
V'a X a M'
_ _c
x - ---"--
r r
... 6.10
Once the influence lines for the reaction components are constructed,
the influence lines for the thrust, shearing force and bending moment at
a given section d can be cunstructed in the usu31 way by moving a unit
load once to the right and once to the left of the section and in every case
I Qd
Md
Y. cos e - X sin e
Y. Xd - X Yd
Nd e-
Y b sin X cos 61
Qd (Yb cos e + X sin e)
Md = Y b (L - xd) - X (Yd - f)
or,
Nd Y'b sin e - X (tan a sin e + cos e)
Qd - Y' b cos e - X (sin e - tan a cos e)
Md Y'b (L - xd) - X rd
Hence, the influence lines for the thrust, shearing force, and bending
moment at point d are as shown in Figs. 6.18 f, g and h respectively.
It should be noticed that for a given point on the arch the angle 8
can be calculated from the shape of the arch.
(b)
(e)
(d)
(f)
-219-
2.8
tan a 0.2
14
I
at x = 4.25, y = 1.6 X 42S -
4.25
rd = 5- - - X 2.8 = 4.15 m.
, 14
Thus the influence' line'! for the reactions, the thrust and bending
moment at section d can be constructed and are as shown in Figs. 6.19
b-f.
&a.nple 6~7 The three-hinged parabolic arch shown in Fig. 6.20 a
is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 1 t.[m. of horizontal pro-
jection and a live load consisting of a uniformly distributed load of
2 t./m. of horizontal projection and a concentrated moving load of 10 t.
Construct the influence lines for the reactions, the thrust and bending
moment at section d. Calculate the extreme values of the thrust and
bending moment at section d,
S"lution :
Taking the origin at a, the equation of the arch can be expressed
as :
(~)
x I
tan e- -
dx x~lO 20 2
2
from which .sin e- 0.446 and cos e 0.893
J5 J-S
100
at x = 10, y = 10 - - 7.5 m.
40
Thus, the influence lines for the reactions and the thrust and .bending
moment at section d can be constructed and are as shown in Figs. 6.20 b-
- 220-
[
10m~
X a b X
-(a)
""'-+q,'P'---- 20m - - - - t - - 20m ---'Vb
y " 1 - - - - - 40 m
+ (b)
l.L.X
+
(e)
I.l.Ya
+ (d)
----
0.44
1x 10
---
-- 3.75 25
(f)
Uold
16m
(g)
(h)
F;g. 6.20
-221-
_ X 2.5 2X 24)
M (d ue to D .L)
. I ( 3.75 2 16 _ _- 0
3.75 X 16
maximum positive Md (due to L.L.) = 2 X + 10 X 3.75 .
2
= 97.5 m.t.
The position of the load for maximum negative Md is shown in Fig. 6.20h.
2.5 X 24
maximum negative M. (due to L.L.) = - 2X -10 X 2.5
2
= - 85 m.t.
So far, in constructing the influence lines for beams, it has been as-
sumed that the live load moves directly on the beam. In cases where the
loading is transmitted to the main beam through secondary beams, the
influence lines for the shearing forces and bending moments must be
modified accordingly.
The locations of the secondary beams along the main beam are called
panel points and the spacings between them panels.
- 222-
e d 9 f
a b (a)
..I. r-
oJ",- Xl
X2
I y ..j j
l
.
l_Xl
ILD. ---r-I -I
. '--
l.lMe (e)
+ ~
l
l_ .2
L
- I.l.Qa .-- (d)
/0
-'
"1
-r
tl.M~ (e)
+
>; ---:-~
:c ie
.....I f.-
~
~ i-'
II 1t" .....I
~
-XI
\
'I ~e;--I -1
f I9 r=
I
(f)
- - X2 - - - - - - - 1
";2-~: ! (g)
-223-
Consider, for example, the beam shown in Fig. 6.21 a. The load IS
Obviously, the influence lines for the reactions of the beam do not
change whether the load is transmitted to it directly or indirectly. Also,
the influence lines for the shearing force and bending moment at point e,
which is a panel point, are not affected by the indirect loading as shown in
Figs. 6.21 band c.
Figs. 6.21 d and e show the influence lines for ,the shearing force and
bending moment at point g within panel ef. For direct loading to the
beam, the resulting. influence lines are as shown by t~e dashed lines, and
for indirect loading, the influence lines are shown by the continuous lines
in the corresponding figures. Note that the variation in the shear and
moment within panel ef is linear. This may be proved with reference to
Figs. 6.21 f and g as follows :
From this relationship it can be seen that the variation of the shearing
force at point g in panel ef is linear.
When x = 0, Q. = - XI IL
L - x2
x = x2 - XI, Qg =
L
Hence the influence line for the shearing force at point g is as shown in
Fig. 6.21 d.
which becomes
L - XI -
L
X
(XI + y) -
-224-
When x =-= 0, M, = (L - x, - y)
L
L - x2
x
L
(XI + y)
Hence the influence line for the bending moment at point g is as shown
in Fig. 6.21 e.
From the influence lines for the shearing force and bending moment
at point g, it should be noted that the simplest method of constructing
such diagrams is to draw them as if the load was carried directly by the
beam and then join the p'oints on the influence lines where the verticals
from the panel points e and f meet the corresponding influence lines.
a c II
6m......J (a)
16 m
---
---'05
~IJ.L~c~~~1J+E:~~==~(b)
0.2 --- --- -- 1
",_--,_...:.1:.::,L::.:'"''Tc!<...--_ _..,.J( c)
Fig. 6.22
-225-
Solution:
The influence lines for the shearing force and bending moment
at point c are shown in Figs. 6.22 a and b respectively. The critical
ordinates are calculated from similar triangles.
mine first the most suitable method for calculating the member force.
The influence line for a member force ma.y be constructed directly by
resolution at a joint, or by taking a section and considering the shear in
a panel or the moment at a point as a unit load is placed at each of the
panel points of the loaded chord of the truss. In general, calculations are
preferably carried out for the part of the truss on the side of the section
which is away from the unit load. Sometimes it is necessary to construct
fint the influence lines for forces in members other than that considered
and use the results in constructing the influ~nce line actually required.
The methods of constructing the influence lines for the forces in truss
members will be illustrated by a consideration of a number of examples.
Exunple 6.9 Construct the influence lines for the forces in members
ee', c'd, d'd, c'd' and de of the truss shown in Fig. 6.23 a.
Solution:
For member ee', the force ean be directly determined from the
consideration of equilibrium of joint c. When the unit load is at c, the
foree in ee' is tensile and equal to unity. When the unit load is at any other
joint, the force in the member is zero. Thus, the influence line for the
farce in member cc' is as shown in Fig. 6.23 b.
For member c'd, the force can be calculated by considering the shear
in panel cd. With a unit load to the right of section a-a, the tension in c'd
equals Y. multiplied by 5/4, and hence is directly proportional to Y,.
Since Y. varies linearly, the influence line is a straight line varying from
zero at b to 5/4 X 18/27 = 5/6 at d. With the unit load to the left of tbe
.ection, the compression in c'd equals Yb multiplied by 5/4 and since Yb
-226-
f
6m
t----7-+-;--\-~____,f_~-~lbJ (a)
I.L.F' cc (b)
5/6
+ (e)
5/210 , .1.F'C'd
1/3 I.L.F'dd (d)
1/2
I.LF'C'd' (e)
1
+ (f)
I.L.F'de
Fig. 6.23
varies linearly, the influence line is a straight line varying from zero at a
to - 5/4 X 4.5/27 = - 5/24 at c. The influence line for the force in
member c'd is thus as shown in Fig. 6.23 c.
,,
-227-
For member c'd', take moments about point d of the forces acting on
onc side of section a-a. vVith th e unil load to the lelt of the section, the
compression in c'd' equals to Y b multiplied by 18 and divided by the truss
height of 6 m., and hence the influence line is proportional to Vb and
varies linearly from zero at a to - 3/2 X 18/27 = - I at d. With the
unit load to the right of the section, the compression in c'd' equals to Y.
multiplied by 9 and divided by 6. Hence, the influence line is a straight
line varying from - 3/2 X 18/27 = - 1 at d to zero at b. This influence
line is shown in Fig. 6.23 e.
It should be noticed that both influence lines in Figs. 6.23 e and f have
maximum ordinates at d which is the centre of moments. This is always
the case and this result can be used to simplify the construction of such
influence lines.
E::s:atnple 6.10 Construct the influence lines for the forces in members
ce", e'd', e'c", c"d, c"d', ef and ef" of the k-truss shown in Fig. 6.24 a.
Solution:
For member cc", the force can be directly obtained by resolving
vertically at point c. When the unit load is at c the force in ce" is tensile
and equal to unity. When the unit load is at any other panel point, the
force in the member is zero. The influence line for the force in member
cc" is shown in Fig. 6.24 b.
JI"':'
6 Fc'd' X 4.5 + Y. X 3 = 0, or Fc'd' - - Ya
1.5 JU 6
Thus the influence line is a straight line varying from zero at b to
-
JI'i
- - X 27/30 = - 0.618 at c. With the unit load to the left of 0, i ....
6
.,
a b ,
e' f c
'/
(a)
30m
1. L.Fcc (b)
(c)
0.618
0.75
+ (d)
LL.F cc'
(. )
0.178
0.196
J.LF cd'. (f)
0.683
0782
I.L.Fd d
(g)
0.156
105
+ (h)
I.L.Fef
0.555
(j )
l.L.Fef'
0333
Fig. 6.24
'.
-229-
at a it is obvious that the force is zero. The influence line for the force in
member c'd' is shown in Fig. 6.24 c.
Thus the influence lillc is a slraight line varying from zero at b to 5/6 X
27/30 = 0.75 at c. With the unit load at panel point a, it is obvious that
the force is zero. Thus, the influence line for the force in member c'c"
is as shown in Fig. 6.24 d.
For the forces in members e"d and c"d', the relationship between the
two forces is determined first by resolving horizontally at joint e". Thus.
8 8
- - Fe"d' + -- Fe"d = 0
J89 J'i3
or Fe"d' - - 1.1 Feild
The value of either force can be calculated by considering section b-h and
taking moments about point p. The horizontal components of the two
forces will cancf"1 each other. As the unit load moves to the right of the
section,
3
Y. X 15 + ( _5_ Fc"d' __ Feild
) 18 = 0
J89 J'i3
Substituting Fetid' = - 1.1 Fe"d
Fe"d = 0.89 Y a
Fe"d' = - 0.975 Ya
Thus the influence lines are straight lines varying from zero at b to 0.89 X
21/30 = 0.623 for Fe"d, and - 0.975 X 2lf:io = - 0.683 for Fe"d' at d.
As the unit load moves to the left of the section,
3 5 )
Yb X 45 + (-- Fe"d - - - Fe"d' 27 o
J'i3 -/89
-230-
Thus the influence lines are straight lines varying from zero at a to - l. 78
X 3/30 = - 0.178 for Fe"d, and 1.96 X 3/30 = 0.196 for Fe"d' at e. Bet-
ween panel points c and d the variation in the influence lines is linear.
The influence lines for the forces in c"d and c"d' are shown in Figs.
6.4 e and f respectively.
For member dd", the force can best be found by vertical resolution
at joint d. Thus .
Fdd" = - 0.35 Fe" d the effect of unit load that may come between
c and c.
The influence line for the force in member dd" is as shown in Fig. 6.24 g.
For member ef, the force can be found by considering section c-c and
taking moments about point f'. When the unit load is to the right of the
section, the tension in ef equals Y a X 21 /6. The influence line varies line-
arly from zero at b to 9/30 X 21 /6 = 1.05 at f. With the unit load to the
left of the section, the tension in ef is equal to Y b X 9/6. The influence
line for the force in ef is shown in Fig. 6.24 h.
For member ef". the force can be obtained by considering the shear
in panel ef. The resulting influence line is shown in Fig. 6.24 j.
Example 6.I I Construct the influence lines for the forces in members
> l l
d'f dd dIe", fe", ef, ee" and aa' of the subdivided truss shown in Fig.
, ,
l,
,
- 231-
f
l
,
f b la)
I,
h2 = 16m
I.U:-df' Ib)
I 1
0.25
I.LFdd Ie)
l
I
I
I
I
0.354
0.707
.' (d)
I
I
I
f.._ ( .)
,l
l
I I.LF.f
(f)
l 1
l
I
I.L.Ff (9)
I, I.LFd. (h)
I
I 0.707
I.L.Faa' (i>
I
I
~
F;g. 6.25
,
- 232-
Solution:
A subdivided truss may be consider~d as composed of a basic truss
into which auxiliary triangular trusses are inserted. There are three
types of mcm bers :
(I) A member in the basic truss only. This is obtained in the usual
manner ignoring the presence of the auxiliary trusses. (Ex.) membersd'fl
dd', d'e" and aa').
For member d'f', the force can be obtained by considering section a-a
and taking moments about f. The influence line is a triangle with zero
ordinates at the supports and a maximum ordinate under the centre of
moments f. This ordinate equals the moment at f divided by the truss
. I X 16
helght of 4 m . ; = I. The influence line for the force in member
4 X 4
d'f' is shown in Fig. 6.25 b.
For member dd', the force can be determined by considering the shear.
With a unit load to the right of section b-b, the compression in dd' is equal \.
to Y a. The influence line is a straight line varying from zero at b to - I
X 8/16 = - 1/2 at f. With the unit load to the left of the section, the
tension in dd' is equal to Vb. The influence line is a straight line varying
from zero at a to I X 4/16 = 1/4 at d. Between panel points d and fthe
variation is linear. The influence line for the force in member dd' is shown
in Fig. 6.25 c.
For member d'e", the force can best be found by vertical resolution
at joint d', Fd'c" = - J2Fdd ' . Thus the influence line for the force in
member d'e" is as shown in Fig. 6.25 d.
For member fe", the force is obtained by considering the shear in panel
ef As the unit load moves from b to f, the tension in fe" is equal to
- 233-
.J2Y a and as the unit load moves from a to e, the compression in fe" is
equal to J'Z
Yb' Thus, the influence line for the force in member fe" is as
shown in Fig. 6.25 e.
The influence line for the force in member ef (or de as they are
identical by consideration of the equilibrium at joint e) can be obtained
by considering section a-a and taking moments about d'. As the unit load
moves from b to f, the tension in ef is equal to Y a X 4/4 = Y a ' and as the
unit load moves from a to c, the tension is equal to Y b X 12/4 = 3 Vb'
Thus, the influence line varies linearly from zero at b to I X 8/16 = 1/2
at f, and from zero at a to 3 X 6/16 = 1.125 at e. Between e and f the
variation is linear. The influence line for the force in member ef, or de,
is shown in Fig. 6.25 f.
For member ee" in the auxiliary truss, the force can be obtained
directly by vertical resolution at joint e. The influence line is shown in
Fig. 6.25 g.
For member de" in the auxiliary truss, the force can be found by
resolution at joint elf; Fde" =- Fee" I ,~./2. The influence line is thus
as shown in Fig. 6.25 h.
For member aa' in the basic truss, as the unit load moves across the
span, the force is equal to Y a . Only when the load is at a it is directly
taken by the support and the force is zero. The influence line is shown in
Fig. 6.25 j.
line is a triangle as shown in Fig. 6.26 b. The shape of the influence line
for the bending moment at point c is the deflected shape of the beam for-
med by introducing an imaginary hinge at c to allow the two parts ac and
a e b
(a!
(b)
(c I
(d)
Fig. 6.26
bc to rotate with respect to each other. Since both ends of the beam are
free, parts ac and bc would rotate, thus deflecting point c downward.
This results in the shape ' of the influence line shown in Fig. 6.26 c.
The shape of the influence line for the shearing force at c is found by cut-
ting the beam at c and subjecting the ends to a shearing force. The de-
flected shape would then be two triangles as shown in Fig. 6.26 d.
Once the shape of the influence line is sketched, the ordinates at the
critical sections are calculated to completely define tbe influence line. In
addition, this method provides an easy and quick way for determining
the parts of a structure to be loaded in order to obtain the maxi~
mum value of the load function for which the influence line is sketched.
This method is seldom used in connectivo with statically determinate
structures, but it is of importance in constructing the influence lines for
statically indeterminate structures.
r -235-
I the influence lines for various load functions are constructed. The student
is advised to solve these problems independently using the principles pre-
sented in this chapter and t~en check his results against those given. He
should also remember that an influence line is not complete unless the
signs and also the ordinates at all critical sections are indicated.
Exatnple 6"2 For the double overhanging beam shown in Fig. 6.27,
construct the influence lines for the reactions, shearing forces at a section
just to the right and another just to the left of support b, and bending mo-
.5
4a 10m
i3L 5
1
0.5
1.5
+
o 5 I.L.Vb
1.L.Qbr +
025 I.L.G.
0,5
I.L .Ma
2
I.L.Me
+
4
Fig.6~
-236-
Exam.ple 5-13 For the frame shown in Fig. 6.28, construct the influ-
ence lines for the reactions, shearing forces at a section just to the right
and another just to the left of support a, thrust at d and bending moment
at c.
c
I"
d 3m
b J
2 !1m 3
75 t
+
I. L.Y,
15
8/5
+
I.L.Yb(-IL.Nd)
2/5
l.L.O al
I
2/5
+
I.L.Qar
5
6/5
+
6/5 6/5
Fig. 6.28
-237-
c d
I~
~5J
a,J
f
2.5 m
5 J
_ 5m~
r- 7.5m 5m .::~
7/5
1
2 5
+
I.L.Ya
----
3/5 -----
!.L'Yb
2/5
4/5
~5 2/5
-r15 t.L.Q"
2
/1+ 1
/ 4
LL.M"
215(2
I.LQf
3/5(2
1.5
I.L.M f
-238-
Esample 6.15 For the eantilever beam shown in Fig. 6.30, constnlct
the influenee lines for the reactions at the supports, the shearing forces
and bending moments ~t sections g and h.
i
a ...::.....9 D.J ~
12 m - ht-P~ "J L....
12m 12m_
~ 0083
O. 5 l.L.Va
1.25
-----
1
-t-
I.L. b
----
0417
1 1.25
+ ~
I.L.Vc 1
I.L.Vd ~
~ 0.083
'0.25 025 !.U 9
~ I.L ~9
025
0.75
. I.LQh ~
---..::.j 0 .5 033
I.L.Mh
~2.25
/'
---
1.5
Fig. 6.30
-239 -
Fig. 6.31,
Exalllp le 6 6 For the three hinged circula r arch shown in
n compon ents, thrust and
constru ct the influen ce lines for the reactio
momen t at section rl.
From the propert ies of the circle,
y. = 4.74 m., sin e
= 0.4 and cos = 0.916 e
r 6 m -l ----~.
c
f
~-)" 4 .7 4 m
6m
t b
12 m 12 m
Va
1
+
I.L.Ya
1
;-
I.l.Yb
1
-+
I. L X
0.916 0.4
-
'0.4 l.L. d
!.L.Ne! on hZ. base
0.3581 .
0.758
~
.116
4.5 4.74
~
P- ~
--;-, ~3
..........
I.L Md
I.L.M ~ on hZ. base
"'"
-241-
E.aunple 6.18 Construct the influence lines for the forces in membel'5
fk, ek, be, hl, ci, mn and id of the truss shown in Fig. 6.33.
c
4x6 = 24 m 2x 6=12
1
I.L.Fik
212
+
l.lFab (or I.L.Fbcl
2/3
'j/6
I.l.F +
'j/6
1-
I.L.Fci
r.L.F mn
.442
0.119
1--_ _ _ _ _ 12x 3 = 36 m
I.L.Fa a'
0.165 I.LFcc
0.61
l L.Fdd '
0.101
..j..
0.411
I.LFd j
0.824
l.L.F je'
0.411
~p1e 6.,.0 . For the three-hinged trws shown in Fig. 6.35, const-
ruct thf! influence lines for the reactions and forces in memben ea', fa',
and fg.
5m
1
I.L Va
b
13
I, +
I
l
I
l
I 1.
1.1
1. L.Ffa'
[
2
l
-
t
-244-
(a) the extreme values of the shearing force and bending moment
at a section 4 m. from the left support.
(2) For the beam shown in Fig. 6.36, construct the influence lines for
the reactions, the shearing forces at a section just to the left and another.
just to the right of support a, and the moments at points b and c.
a c b
3L
__I~. 4m~
(3) For the beam shown in Fig. 6.37, construct the influence lines
for the reactions, shearing forces and bending moments at points c and d.
d a c b
I
L3m
~2j:t~m-1
~ ;0 m _ _ _---II
+ .
F;g. 6.37
f
a b
r- 32
. i f 9
1.6 m
--.l
I 6m _~I_. 2~C
Fig. 6.38
a
r2.~
r 3 11
IL
5m
2
f
Lc
i-3L
9
5m -t-
Fig. 6.39
4
d
-4. ,J
(6) For the frame shown in Fig. 6.40. construct the influence lines
for the reactions, the shearing forces at a section just to the left and
another just to the right of support b and the moment at c.
r- IC
~
6m
L 1
/-Iorn. k
8m -f..
16m
8m
! 6m:J
Fig. 6.40
-246-
4m -, 2m
!
\. 2
a ----.i.
Fig. 6.41
8m -J
(8) If a load moves from c to e on the frame shown in Fig. 6.42, con-
struct the influence lines for the reactions, shearing forces and bending
moments at sections f, g and h .
f-- 5 m--l
c d ,9
~.
i
fi
~7 ..j..3m r. 10m ~3rn..1
4m
!
(9) If a unit load moves from c to d on the frame shown in Fig. 6.43,
construct the influence lines for the reaction components at a and b and
the thrusts, shearing forces and bending moments at sections e, f and g.
c r- 3m 1 t-'.21d
f f
b
9
10m
I- 3 -L- 5m --l 2J
Fig. 6.43
'-
- 247 -
f
2.S m
2.Sm
b a ---*-
L 4m
Fig. 6.44
5m-J
(11) For the beam shown in Fig. 6.45, construct the influence lines
for the reactions at a and b, shearing forces and bending moments at sec-
tions g and h. Find the extreme values of the shearing force and bending .
moment at h if the beam is subjected to a dead load of 0.75 t/m. and a
live load of 1.5 t.lm.
Fig. 6.45
( 12) For the cantilever beam shown 10 F19. 646 . , caIculate the
extreme values of the shearing force and bending moment at section e due
to a uniformly distributed live load of 1.8 t./m. plus a moving concentra-
ted load of 6 t., and a uniformly distributed dead load of 1.2 t. /m.
Fig. 6.46
-248 -
y = O.8x - O.016x 2
b
50m - - - ----1
Fig. 6.47
(14) For the three-hinged frame shown in Fig. 6.48, construct the
influence lines fOF the reactions, shearing force and bending moment at
section d. By means of these influence lines, calculate the extreme values
of the shearing force and bending moment at d if the frame carries a uni-
formly distributed live load of 2 t.fm . in addition to a dead load of I t.fm.
Fig. 6.48
(15) For the three-hinged cantilever frame shown in Fig. 6.49, con-
struct the influence lines for the thrust, shearing force and bending
moment at section h, and the shearing force at a section just .to the right
of b and another just to its left. Find the extreme values of the shearing
force at h due to a dead load of 2 t.fm. and a live load consisting of a uni-
formly distributed load of 2 t.fm. plus a moving concentrated load of 6 t.
"
-249-
,
d a h c
o
b
Fig. 6.49
1
(16) For the structure shown in Fig. 6.50, draw the influence lines
for the thrusts, shearing forces and bending moments at sections g and h.
, d r 2--t
9 c 11
"m I
h j 6m
1- b
10m
L --"-I
a
~ " .p,.).... 4 --l- I, m...j
Fig. 6.50
(17) Construct the influence lines for the forces in members he, cc',
de' d'e', fe' and ee' of the truss shown in Fig. 6.51.
a
. b c d' e f .ti-J
2m.
h lIt..
-r
3m.
t
L I,x3 :.12 m -L
Fig. 6.51
3x3:9m-..j
(18) Construct the influence lines for the forces in members hie', ct ',
ef, ef', e'f' and fT' of the truss shown in Fig. 6.52 .
..
- 250 -
Fig. 6.52
(19) Construct the influence lines for the forces in members be', d'd",
e'd" and ee' of the truss. shown in Fig. 6.53.
, , . ,
a b' c d' e r 9
,
h J
-r,
2m 4rr
a
J;fm t
h -----t-----
t
(20) If a load moves from b to c on the truss shown in Fig. 6.54, con-
struct the influence lines for the reactions and the forces in the marked
memben.
~
--i
a
-1
-.-J
L3a2K6m -4- 3.2 = 6 m--l
Fig. 6.54
- 251-
6m
J-
3 L al~___k::....~~....Jo<::_.J<:::...----'':::'''''--I
b
L 1ox3 :12 m .1. 2x3: 6--l
Fig. 6.55
(22) Construct the influence lines for the forces in members aa', k'b',
be, If', II' and gg' of the truss shown in Fig. 6.56.
a
,
k ti c
. m Ii . .
r
6m
.L
8.3 = 2~ m
Fig. 6.56
I
,,,,,,j
(23) Fig. 6.57 shows a truss supported on two hinges at a and b. If
a load moves from c to d, construct the influence lines for the reactions
and the forces in members gf, fe and ego
..
d
4m
1- a
./-2 6.2:17m
Fig. 6.57
- 252 -
I'
f
3m
C_~ ____~~~~____~__~d--J
L 4
a
8m
4J~
F(g. 6.58
d' e'
(26) If a load moves from a' to c' on the top chord of the truss shawn
in Fig. 6.60, construct the influence lines for the forces in memben de,
dg, bd and db.
I IOJC3=30m I
r-a b f c'
'~r~~~1
>,' 12m ,,8m
Fig. 6.60
'-
- 253-
3.6m
t
1--- - - - - 6. 3 ~ 18 m
Fig. 6.61
-254 -
GHAPI 'ER 7
PROPERTIES OF PLAN E AREAS
,.. Introduc:tima
The carryin g capacit y of a structu ral membe r depend s on three
main
factors ; th~ strengt h of the materia l used, the type of loading
and the
propert ies of the membe r's crosssection. The first two factors
will be
conside red in later chapter s dealing with stresses, while in the
present
chapte r the third factor is dealt with.
The- differen t propert ies of sections which are likely to be determ
ined
in the problem s of structu ral strengt h are :
(I) Cross-sectional area.
(2) Position of centre of area or centroi d.
(3) Momen t of inertia or second momen t of area.
(4) Polar momen t of inertia.
(5) Radius of gyratio n.
(6) Produc t of inertia.
(7) Princip al axes of inertia.
l! should be remem bered that for a particu lar problem it
may not
be necessary to calcula te but a few of these propert ies.
The crosssectional area, A, needs no descrip tion and may be
easily
ealcula ted for most structu ral shapes.
x = ... 7.1 a
A
JydA
y = ... 7.1 b
A
-255-
'/
II
Fig. 7.1
area or the statical moments about the x and y axes n:spectively. These
are commonly denoted by Sy and Sx. Thus,
It follows from the definition that if an area has an ~axis of symmetry, the
centroid lies on it and if, further, it has two or more ~es of symmetry, it
is at their point of intersection. This resnlt helps in detecting the centro-
ids of many areas as may be seen from Fig. 7.2.
o o o
Fig. 7.2
(a) Divide the area into a number of regular parts whose centroids
are known.
(b) Determine the area and locate the centroid of each part.
A
a, y, + a 2 Y2 + a, y,
y-
A
11 _ a2 '
l(
X2
X3
Fig. 7.3
I, = fy 2cIA 7.3
- 2;"7-
Fig. 7.4
x
Fig. 7.5
I
r-l~I~
I (3) I 2.5
12
- )~ I
10cm
X
~~~r(~~~~1xl t
8 .56
L ( )
T1-12C~1
Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7
8cIT
5.62cm 12 J
1,1
I L 1 2 m---4 I
Fig. 7.8
obtained by dividing the sum of the terms in column (4) by the sum of
the terms in column (2). Thus,
636
Y = - = 5.88 em.
108
The moment of inertia of the total area about the x-axis will be ohtained
as the sum of the moments of inertia of the various elements about rhis
axis; the moment of inertia of each element being given by equation
7.4. The terms Ix and Ad 2 for all the elements arc given in c.olumns (5)
and (6) respectively. The moment of inertia of the entire area about the
x-axis is equal to the sum of all the terms in columns (5) and (6). Thus,
A Y Ay I Ad 2
Element
cm 2 . em. em. 3 em", em ."
I 48 2 96 64 728
2 6 5 30 3 5
3 6 5 30 3 5
4 48 10 480 57b 815
Table 7.1
Solution to Examples 7.2 & 7.3 :
The calculations for the other two areas in Figs. 7.7. and 7.8 are
summcrized in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 respectively.
A Y Ay Ad 2
Element
cm. 2 em. cm. 3 (m. 4 cm.'
Table 7.2
-260-
750
Y ~ 8.56 em.
87.5
A y Ay I Ad 2
Element
cm. 2 em. em. 3 cm. 4 cm. 4
12 0.5 6 315
2 9.6 5 48 51.2 3.7
3 12.6 II 138.6 12.6 364
Table 7.3
192.6
Y 5.62 em.
34.2
It should be noticed that if the area has more than one axis of symmetry,
the calculations are simpler as the position ef the centroid is known to be
at the point of intersection of these axes. Also, if the moment of inertia
of onc of the compound areas aboll;t fl; vertical centroidal axis is required,
calculations may still be conducted in the manner outlined above.
Esunple 7-4 Find the moments of inertia for the section shown in
Fig. 7.9 about the horizoQtal and vertical axes through the centroid.
_261
~!tj'th
1. 1j'
I I1, Bcm
x X
Fig. '7 9
3 X 16 3 1.2 X 8
3
)
12 + 4 ( 12 1228.8 em. 4
The moment of inertia of the whole area about the y-axIs will be
obtained as the sum of the moment of inertia of a r~ctangle about its cen~
troidaI axis and the moments of inertia of two triangles about an axis
parallel to their centroidal axes and at a distance d,
16 X 3 3 16 X 1.2 3 16 X 1.2 X
Thus, I, 12 + 2 ( 36 + 2
106.4 em. 4
or
~+ ... 7.8
. .. 7.9a
~ ... 7.9b
A
Fig. . 7.11
- 264 -
x --..-;
Fig . 7.12
corresponding area on the other side which while having onc similar co-
ordinate. the second is of opposite sign. It is obvious therefore that the
sum of the products of inertia of the two elements will be zero, and con-
sequently the product of inertia of the whole area will also be zero. Thus,
it may be stated that when either one of the two centroidal axes is an axis
of symmetry, the product of inertia is zero.
... 7.11
y' y
0(.
Fig. 7.13
Esam.ple 7.5 Find the product of inertia I",y for the Z-section shown
in Fig. 7.14.
J::j~C" Jy/-
2 (2) ,
r
"em
x A
(1
,(3)
Fig. 7.\4
Solution:
The total area is divided into three rectangular elements (1), (2) and
(3). Rectangle (I) is symmetrical about both x and'y axes, hence its pro-
duct of inertia is zero. Rectangles (2) and (3) are symmetrical about axes
through their centroids, therefore their product of inertia may be found ___
from equation 7. 13. __
I,
-~6G-
+ ,
y 1
Icm Y
r
6cm
(1 I
x !O x
err
LI (2)
1
x
)"0- 5 ~
Fig. 7.15
Solution : The total area is divided into two rectangular elements (I)
and (2) as shown. The co-ordinates of the centroid with respect to two
axes x" and y" chosen as the outer edges of the angle are obtained
as follows:
6 X 0.5 + 4 X 3
1.5 em.
10
6 X 3 + 4 X 0.5
y, 2 ern.
10
and the product of inertia is again found from equation 7.13
J,y = 6 (- 1) (+ J) + 4 ( + 1.5) (- 1.5) = - 15 em'
ft should be remembered that the two reference axes x" and y" are arbi
trarily chosen . If the rderence axes were chosen as x' and y' through the
centroids of the two rectangles (1) and (2), another shorter solution may
he worked out.
Since rectangle ( 1) 'is symmetrical about the y' axis and rectangle (2 )
is symmetrical about the x ' axis then I :< ' y , = O. The co-ordinate:s of the
centroid \vith respect to thes.e two axes are:
4 X 2.5
I em.
10
6 X 2.5
y, 1.5 em.
10
'.
-267-
,
-
Fig. 7.16
... 7.16
The first and second integrals of equation 7.16 represent the moments of
inertia of the area about the x and y axes respectively. The last integral
represents the product of inertia IllY' Equation 7.16 may thus he written
as :
Ix' = Ix cos 2 9 + Iy sin 2 B - Ixy Sin 2 e ... 7.17a
Using the trigonometric relation,
x' = x cos e + y sin B ... 7.18
- - 26B -
a similar expression may be derived for the moment of inertia about the
y' -axis.
. .. 7.19 a
... 7.20
.This shows that the sum of the moments of inertia ~bout any two ceo-
troiclal perpendicular axes is constant. It also shows that if one of the
moment$; of inertia is a maximum, the other must be a minimum.
The product of inertia about the x' and y' axes is given by :
If the values ofy' and x' given by equation 7.15 and 7.18 are then substi-
tuted in equation 7.21, the roHowing value for 1,/:': is obtained.
1,// = (I" -_. Iy ) Sin e cos e + Ixy (cos 2 ,1 - sin 2 B) ... 7.22 a
If the relationships
0 028
1'= :21 + 21 Cos 28'28
,SIn = 2I -:21 cos 28 ,and sin 2".
'" = 2 sin8 cos 8
ore substituted in equations 7.17a, 7.19a and 7.22a, the result will by:
II ' Ia + I, + Ia - I,
cos 28 - I sin 28 ... 7. 17 b
2 2 'Y
I, + I, I,.
,
I ' =
2 2
cos 28 + I., lin 2 8 ... 7.19 b
II - I,
sin 2 8 + I" cos 2 8 ... 7.22 b
2
As may be seen from equations 7.17 and 7.19, the moment of inertia
of an area about an inclined axis is a function of the angle B. The angle
e at which the moment of inertia is a maximum or a minimum is obta-
ined by differentiating equation 7.17 with respect to e and equating the
derivative to zero. Thus,
2
+ V( I, 2 Iy ... 7.24
... 7.25
2
where III and Iv are the maximum and minimum values of the moments
of inertia respectively.
The expressions for the moments and products of inertia about inclined
axes given by equations 7.17 and 7.22 are difficult to remember. ]t
is convenient, therefore, to use a graphical solution which is easy to rem-
ember. A careful study of equations 7. 17a and 7.22a.shows that they repre-
sent a ,circle written in a parametric form. That they represent a circle
- 270-
IJ( + Iy I , -- I y
1,0 -- - - - - cos 261 -- Ix), sin 26>
2 2
( 1,0 -
I, +
2
Iy
2
) + I2 XYO =
C'2- - Iy ) 2
+ I \y 7.26
However, in every problem Ix' Iy and Ix), are constants while IxB and Ixy8
are the variables. Hence equation 7.26 may be written in a simplified
form,
7.27
b ... 7.28 b
radius b given by equation i.28 b, but this is not the best procedure for
the purpose at hand. The moment of inertia and product of inertia abollt
two centroidal rectangular axes x and yare usually known. These two
values, Ix and I XY ' define one point on the circle. This Knowledge,
together with the fact that the centre of circle is located on the
abscessa at (Ix + Iy )/2 is sufficient to plot the circle. The procedures
[ are outlined below with reference to Fig. 7.1 7.
I.
y
j( lv,o)
u
.----
...
Fig . 7.17
(2) Locate the ccntre of the circle, which is on the horizo n tai a xi s
at a distance of (I, + 1y) /2 froal the origin 0
(3) Locate the point x of co-ordinates Ix and Ix), with respect to the
origin; Ix), measured upwards if positive and downwards if negative.
(4) Connect the centre of the circle found in (2) with the point loca-
ted in (3) and determine this distance which is the radius of the circle.
(5) Draw a circle with the radius found in (4). The two points of
in tersection with the horizontal axis give the values of the two princi pal
m o men ts of inertia Iu and Iv.
- 272 ~
(6) The directions of the u-axis make'S an angle -8, found from the
geometry of the circle, with the x-axis. A clockwise rotation of the axis
to be found corresponds to a clockwise rotation round the circle. The
v-qxis is obtained in a similar manner and makes an angle e with
the y-axis.
By following the above procedures in constructing Mohr's circle of
inertia, the complete problem of determining the magnitude of the prin-
cipal moments of inertia and the directions of the principal axes may be
solved.
ExaJDple 7.7 Find the moments of inertia about the principal axes
through the centroid of the area shown in Fig. 7.18. Find also the mom-
ents and products of inertia about axes XI and YI at an angle 15 clock-
wise to x and y axes respectively.
L
5
I L----;
!Oem
Fig. 7.18
Solution:
The moments and product of inertia about x and y axes are
obtained as follows:
5 X 30 3 (IOX5 3 ,
I, 12 + 2 \ 12 '
IOx5x12.5 2 ) 27098 em.'
30x5' (5XI03 )
Iy = - 1-2- + 2 -1-2- + IOx5x7.5 2 = 6774 em'
Mohr's circle may now be plotted from these three values. The centre
I, + Iy )
of the circle has the co-ordinates ( 2 ' 0 or (16936,0), while
pOint x has the co-ordinates (I, , I,y) or (27098, - 9360) as shown in Fig.
7.19 a. Therefore,
u /""
,
" 20 x
o
9360
LJ
16936 ~
~;
x, 27098,- 9360)
1-0-_ 27098
(~ )
(b)
Fig. i.19
29 42 40'
The principal mom~nts of inertia are equal to the distance from the
origin to the centre of the circle plus or minus its radius.
Iu == 16936 + 13800 30736 em.'
Iv == 16936 - 13800 3136 em.'
Sini:e point u on the circle is anticlockwise from point x, the u-axis is
anticlockwise from the x-axis at an angle,
4240'
9 = == 21 20'
2
-274-
The moments and product if inertia about the x 1 and y 1 axes are
obtained from the co-ordinates of points Xl and Y1 On the circle. Since xl
and y 1 axes are 15 0 clockwise from x and y axes, the points x 1 and y 1
on the circle will be 30 0 clockwise frum points x and y respectively. Thus
from the geometry of the circle in Fig. 7.19 b,
16936 +
13800 cos 72 40' 21076 em.'
Hem
,- -
(----~
---) a:
~1~ 6m -r. [T 2
I' 60 qn ------j
16 I
-~1
1-- 42 -I 18 l--
Fig 7..26 Fig. 7.27 Fig. 7.28
- 276-
Ix 1350 em.'
I,
A
e
= 114 em.'
211 em"
1.92 em.
~
3lf : el
yl -"+-jo-
x
( 13)- (20) Find the moments and product of inertia about horizontal
and vertical axes through the centroids of each of the areas given in Figs.
7.32 to 7.3!>. Then find, either analytically or semi-graphically using
Mohr's circle of inertia, the principal moments of inertia and the direc-
tions of the principal axes showing them on sketches of the areas in each
case.
-r.~ ,I em,
l-
-j8f.-1
-"
f
I 3. [12
10
IfJ- .~m 1
L
--l 6.5
Fig. 7.32
~ ~8~
Fig. 7.33
F Fig. 7.34
~m~ : -
cmLJ
6
l..; 6 ~- ~
f:F
i
4cm
I ,
12 ;.-_
2cm
Ll00~I00~
tt
Fig. 7.38 F'ig. 7.39
-278 -
CHAPTER 8
NORMAL STRESSES
8.1 Introduction
Stress is the force intensity at any point and has the unit of force per
unit area, or ton per square centimeter (t. /em. 2 ) in common engineering
units.
The axial force and bending moments produce normal stresses, i.e.
perpendicufar . to the section, while the shearing forces and the twisting
moments produce shear stresses, i.e. in the plane of the section.
In this chapter, the stresses due to axial loads and bending moments
will be found separately and then superimposed.
Finally, in chapter 10, the combined effect of normal and shear stres-
ses; principal stresses will be considered .
.- 279 -
~~____-4I_:______________i-_N~~.
,
Fig . 8.1
f = N/A
The positive sign is used when N is. tensile while the negative sign is used
when N is compressive.
'1--
J
N
(a ) (b) (c )
Fig. 8.2
Solution:
". X 2.5 2
Area of boh at a section in the shank = --4-- 4.91 cm. 2
4
Stress at a section in the shank = 4.91 0.82 t. /em. 2
". X 2.12
Area of reduced section 4 3.46 em. 2
4
Stress at a section at root of thread = 3.46 = 1.16 t. /em. 2
Elaunple 8.2 A short hollow steel tube 10 em. external diameter and 7.5
em. internal diameter is subjected to an axial compression of 37 t. Cal-
culate the stress in the tube. ""
Solution:
Solution :
Let the side of the square = a m.
72
1.44 m. 2
5 x 10
a - 1.2 m.
Fig. 8.3 shows an originally straight beam acted upon by two end
couples of moment M . Under pure bending, the beam will be bent in a
circular arc of radius R . If the beam is considered as composed of long.
itudinal fibers, the fibers in the upper part of the beam will be contraCl<:d
and those in the lower part will be extended. The fiber on some inter-
mediate plane, called the neutral plane. will be neither contracted nor
extended. The intersection of the neutral plane and the plane of the
cross-section is a line' called the neutral axis of the cross-section; NA.
Consider two sections a-a and b-b at a distance dx apart. The strain
at a fiber distance y from the neutral axis is, given by :
extension
strain
original length
Fig. 8.3
- 282-
From similar triangles,
ydx
extension = -R
strain ...!..-
R
and from assumption (3) that the material is not stressed beyond its pro-
portional limit, the stress is given by :
f = Ey
R '" 8.2
i.e. the stress due to bending moment is proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis. Such stress distribution is shown in Fig. 8.4 b.
M
fc
ft
Cal ( b)
Fig. 8.4
From assumption (I) that the member is subject, to pure bending, it fol-
lows that the sum or all normal forces on the section must be zero. Thus
with reference to Fig. 8.4,
JfdA=O
but .! =1= 0
R
then, J y dA o 8.3
:.
- 283--
Since the first momcnt of area about an axis is equal to zero only if this
axis passes through the centroid, it follows that the neutral axis must pass
through the centroid of the cross-section .
For equilibrium, the sum of the moments of all the normal forces on
the cross-section about the x-axis must be equal to the applied moment
wf. Thus,
JfdAY~M
or from equation 8.2, ~ J y 2 dA ~ M
My ... 8.5
f=
I,
This formula gives the bending stress in the section at any fiber distance
y from the neutral axis. It also shows that the stress .varies linearly from
zero on the fiber at the centroid to maximum values at the fibers further-
most from the centroid. If the distances to these fibres are Y1 and
Yz (Fig. 8.4 a), then the maximum stresses are given by :
l
r
If the section is symmetrical about the x-aXIS,
and
y, d/2
Md
21,
.. . 8.7
r
-284-
M
... 8.8
Z
It should be noted that for sections which are not symmetrical about
the x.axis, there will be two section moduli,
For equilibrium, there is no moment for all the norrnal forces on the
section about the y.axis. Thus,
J rdA x 0
- 285-
E
but R1'~ 0
but j xydA is the product of inertia of the section about the x and y axes,
and it is known that it is equal to zero only if x and y axes are the prin-
cipal axes of inertia. Hence, the bending stresses given by equation
8.5 are correct only when the bending occurs about a principal axis
of inertia.
The main formulae arising from the analysis in this section are obta-
ined by combining equations 8.2 and 8.4 and may be stated as
E M f
8.12
R I y
Solution:
wL2 36 w
~1max 4.5 w m.l.
8 S
9300 X 1.2
M, Z f 7.84 m.t.
15 X 100
Equating the maximum applied moment to the moment of resistance of
the section,
~ 286~
4.5 w 7.84
7.84
or w ~ 1:74 t./m.
4.5
E-...ple 8,5 Find the diameter of the drum round which a strip of
steel 0..2 em. thick may be bent . without the stress exceeding 2.2 t./cm 2
E (for steel) ~ 2200 t./cm. 2
Solution:
yE
From equation 8.12, R
f
0.2
Y _. 0.1 em.
2
E 2200 t./cm. 2
f - 2.2 t.fcm. 2
Solution
1.5 X 4'
Mmalt (under uniformly distribilted load) 3 m.t.
8
My = 300 X 20
1.2 t./cm. 2
I 2 X 2500
I' .
-287-
p X 4
Mmax (under central cOfl(;entrated load ) = P m .t.
4
P X 100 X 20
f = 1.2 =
12000
P = 7.2 t.
Esam.ple 8.7 A steel tube 6 em. and 4 em. external and internal
diameters respectively is used as a simply supported beam spaning 4 m.
and loaded with a concentrated load at mid-span. It is found that the
maximum load it can thus carry is 0.238 t. Iffour of these tubes are plac
ed parallel to one another and fastened together to form a single beam,
the centres of the tubes forming a square 6 X 6 em., find the maximum
central load which this beam can carry if the maximum stress is not to
exceed that of the single tube.
Solution:
0.238 X 4
Mmox (for the single tube) = = 0.238 m.t.
4
I (for single tube) = ,,(0, 4 _ 0,4)/64 = 51 cm.'
PL
P m .t.
4
P X 100 X 6
f = 1.4 =
770
P = 1.8 t.
E,n...ple 8.8 A four wheel trolly weighs 17.6 t. when loaded. If the
bearings are 20 em. off the centre-lines of the rails what size of round steel
axle will be required to resist the resulting moment? - allowable stress
in bending = 0.8 t. /em 2 .
-288-
Solution:
Each axle carries two concentrated loads Pt.) each acts at 20 em.
from the support.
17.6
p = 4.4 t.
4
M 88 X 4
f = or 0.8
r ='V 88 ~
0.8 ..
= 3"1 -140
- = 5.2 em.
The minimum section requir("d for. the axle of the trolly is 10.4 em.
diameter.
lOcm
~I
- I. I
L----!.I_--' _~. _L
TL8~m~ I
Fig. 8.5
Solution:
y -
I6 X 1 +1 6 X 6
3.5 em.
16 + 16
2xS 3
I, + 16x2.S2 + + 16x2.S2 = 290.7 em.'
12
-289-
290.;
ZI (tension side) 83 cm. 3
3.5
290.7
z, (compression side) 44.6 em.'
6.5
290.7
Z, (tension side) = 44.6 cm. 3
6.5
290.7
z, (compression side) = 83 cm. 3
3.5
M, 0.8 X 83 = 0 .664 m. t.
The allowable moment of the section in this case = 0.1784 m.t. It is obvi-
ous, therefore, that the section in the first position is more efficient in
resisting the moment.
In the analysis given in the previous section, it has been assumed that
bending occurs about a principal axis. In some practical cases, bending
occurs about any axis of the cross-section. Such sections are said to be
under double, oblique or unsymmetrical bending. The resulting stresses
are best found by resolving the moment, or more conveniently the loads
causing this moment, into two components along the principal axes and
then superim posing the stresses found separately from the stress formula
8.5.
stresses are found by superposition. Thus, the stress at any point (x, y)
on the section is given by :
M.
r
d ~
dL---+_Jc' -
(b) (el
The stress given by equation 8.13 is zero for points on the line
Mx Y
-- o ... 8.14
Ix
This is the equation of the neutral axis of the section. It is seen that
it passes through the centroid and has an inclination given by :
To avoid any confusion that may result from the sign conventions, the
signs in equation 8.15 are discarded and the neutral axis is plotted so as to
lie in the two quadrants not occupied by the moment vector.
The neutral axis together with the stress distribution are shown in
Fig. 8.6 c. The maximum stress occurs at the fibres farthermost from the
neutral axis. Corner a has a maximum compressive stress of magnitude
Mx d
f.
2Jx
-291-
e
Fig. 8.7
Solution:
sin e = 5/13 and cos e = 12/13
15 X 103
ly 1250 em. 4
12
0.1 2810
tan a ==: X = 0.938
1250 0.24
a = 43 10'
Fig. 8.B. shows the location of the neutral axis and the normal stress
distribution. The maximum compressive stress occurs at corner a,
- 292-
Fig. 8.8
o x
.... /J
Fig. 8.9
-293 -
Solution :
, I
Y
a b
10m -...J- 10m x
T
32 c.m
8m
d ~
~, ,13L
( 2)
I 05 I IY
4
Ix = 12510 em
(1) (b)
4
1y = 555 em
mJ. lmt.
(c)
Fig. 8.10
Solution:
Figs. 8.10 band c show the H.M.Ds. about the x and y" axes respect-
ively, drawn on the tension side. Maximum normal stress may occur at
either one of the two most stressed sections; section (1) and section (2).
-294-
a = 75
300 X 16 50x6,5
f
= 12510 555
= - 0.384-0.588 = - 0.972 t.fcm. 2
fc = + 0.972 t.fcm. 2
I X 12510
"tan a. 11.25
2 X 555
a = 84 54
maximum normal stress occurs at points band d on the section.
200x 16 100x6.5
fb - ----.:... = 0.255 + 1.171 1.426 t.fcm. 2
12510 + 555
fd = - 1.426 t.fcm. 2
The locations of the neutral axes and the stress distributions on sections
(I) and (2) are shown in Fig. 8.11 a and b respectivelr.
2
0.972 t lern
~ I
i
:: ,
I I
I
-:t- - -- I
75 ' ,/
I
c:::::'::='
/
A,
A
(a) ( b)
Fig. 8.11
- 295-
Mx
X N X V
1 I' I A
(a) (bJ ( c)
tig. 8.12
and the stress distribution over the section is as shown in Fig. 8.l2 b. If
th e moment acts alone, the normal stress is given by equation 8.5,
f =
and the stress distribution over the section is as shown in Fig. 8.12 c.
From the principle of superposition, the stress due to the combined effect
of thrust and moment is given by :
f ... 8.16
N M d
f= - --
A 2 I,
The stress at the extreme lower fiber is given by
N M d
f = A + 21,
Whether this stress is tensile or compressive depends on the relative values
Md
of the two stress components; NjA and - - The three possible stress
21,
distributions are shown in Figs. 8.13 a-c.
N
\/ ,[1
I,
I
~
I
A
+
(a ) (b I (e)
Fig. 8.13
Solution
A = ,,(rc 2 - r,2) = 11 ( 1 - 0.7 2 ) = 1.6 m. 2
I = ,,(rc 4 - r.') /4 = ,, ( I - 0.7 4 )/4 = 0.6 m. 4
Let the height of the chimney = h m.
N 1.6 X h X 2 X 1000 = 3200 h kg.
M = 100 X 2 h X h /2 = 100 h 2 m.kg.
N My
fi/2 = -
A I
for no tension,
3200 h 100h 2 X I
0=-
1.6
+ 0.6
h 12 m.
-- 297 -
3200 h 100 h 2 X
f2 = - 4
1.6
--
0.6
h = 10.6 m .
The maximum height of the chimney required = 10.6 m.
Example 8.14 Find the maximum stress~s on sec tion a-a of the clamp
shown in Fig. 8.14 when the force provided by the screw is 125 kg. Plot
the stress distribution across the section.
~
,...,125~
T rrlr \ \ 0
2.5 10em
L_ 1 ,'- a==::7L_
--l1:21- a
-
Fig. 8.14
Solution:
A - 1.2 X 2.5 = 3 em 2
1.2 X 2.5'
I, = = 1.56 em.
12
N -- + 125 kg.
M, 125 X 10 = 1250 em. kg,
125 1250 X 2.5
f, -3 + = 1041.7 kg. /ern. 2
2 X 1.56
1 10" 17
r--+--I
+
...It +N
2 2
9583 kg/em
Fig. n.I.')
- 298 -
ExaDlple 8.15 Fig. 8.16 shows a cast iron beam having a cross-section
of the given dimensions. If the allowable stresses for cast iron are
0.4 t. /cm. 2 and 0.8 t. /cm. 2 for tension and cOl;npression respectively, find
the maximum allowable value of the central concentrated load P.
-l~J
, 6~_
4m
Fig. 8.16
Sol-ution :
A 6 X 4 + 2 X 12 + 4 X 10 = 88 em. 2
y
40 X 2 + 24 X 10 + 24 X 18 = 8.55 em.
88
~~23 +
43
Ix (672 + 24 X 9.45 2 ) + (_2 24 X 1.452)
P 100 P X 8.55
~ = ,, 0.4
2 X 88 4328
P 2.1 t.
P lOOP X 11.45
- 0.8
2 X 88 4328
P - . 3 t.
8 .6 Eccentric thrust
The analysis given in section 8.5 can be used to find the stresses due
to eccentric thrust.
(bl
Xl f.-
\Y I
X N I N My
~
d
-& ~
L
y Lb~
(e I
\al
c:]
Fig. 8.17
From equation 8.16) the normal stress at any fiber at a distance x from
the y-axis is given by:
N Nt" X
f
The maximum normal stresses occur at the extreme 'Outer fibers and
from :Fig. 8.17 c, which shows a possible stress distribution, tensile stresses
arc most likely to occur in the fiber at the left edge. Its value is given by :
... 8.17
~300 ~
Ae
_ _x
_I <;;
... 8.18
I,
b
On substituting for the proper ties of the rectangle, A = bd, xI
2
db'
equation 8.18 becomes
12
6e
... 8.19
b
or e <;; b/6
In the previous two examples the stress considered \vas that within
the material, i.e. in the post itself. Sometimes, however, it is the stress
between the faces of two materials resting on each other tha.t need to be
considered.
Consider a footing resting on the :soil at plane a-a and let the thrust N
cut the base at a distance e from its centre as shown in Fig. 8-18 a. If
N lies within the middle third of the base width b the stress distribution
I-
,
- 301-
r N
d -+----1-~--+_ (a)
L -e ~_....J
'--_--+-
L- b -J
(b)
Fig. B.I8
will be as shown in Fig. 8.18 b and the stress values \",ill be given by equa-
tion 8.17. In the limiting case when the thrust lies on the middle third
point, the stress distribution is triangular as shown in Fig. 8.18 c. The
maximum stress may again be obtained from equatiLm 8.17, or more
easily, from equilibrium consideration. Thus,
f h d
2
or f = 2 N jA
~If N cuts the base outside" (he middle third Lut still within the section ,
then according to formula 8.17, tensile stresses are expeclced to be pro-
duced between the two materials at the contact plane. But sincf' the soil
cannot develop such a stress, i.e. it cannot prevent any tenden c y of the
base to lift above the contac t plane, forrr.ula 8.17 ("annot be used to
determine the stress distribution in this case. I nstead, it is Found from
~302 -
equilibrium as follows :
since for equilibrium the resultant of the stresses on the base must be co-
linear with the applied thrust, the stress distribution"is a triangle with a
base length of 3 c and maximum ordinate obtained from the condition:
3 c f d
N -
2
or f 2N ... 8.22
3 c d
10 t
Fig. 8.19
Solution:
For b = 2.2 m., A = 2.22 = 4.84 m. 2 and 1= 2.2 4/12= 1.94 m. 4
-303-
6
e = - - = 0.304 m., b/6 =
2.2 - O. 366 m.
19.68 6
X l.l
f, _ -19.68
- - 6 1.94
4.84
= - 4.06 - 3.39 - - 7.45 t./m. 1
weight of foundation = 4 X I X 2 = 8 t.
N = - 10 - 8 = - 18 t.
-- 2 X 18
-- 2 N/A = _ - 9 t./m. 2
4
f2 0
N = - 10 - 6.48 = -16.48t.
N lies outside the middle third and the stress is found from equation 8.22.
- 2 X 16.48
f _ 11.4 t./m. 2
3 X 0.536 X 1.8
r18~
~, Ir ! 6
O.65~
~2
2
7.45t/m 9t/m
11.4t/m
Ca) Cb) CC)
Fig. 8.20
, M.
y' e a
My
N
.d b
L b
1
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.21
N M,y
f = .. 8.23
A I,
As mentioned before, the positive sign is used when the stress is tensile
while the ne.glllive sign is used when the stress is compressive. The sign
of the fin. 1 Mrcs._ ilt any point is found by inspectipn. Referring to Fig.
B.21 h, for example, it is seen that corner a hu the maximum compres-
sive' Sf rcss.
f
=
:.
-305-
N M, d M,b
f. =
A
+ 21, 21,
N _ M, d M,b
f
=
A 21,
+ 21,
It should be emphasized here that the moment vectors act along the
principal axes of inertia. For any unsymmetrical section, equation 8.23
becomes:
N
[= -- ... 8.24
A
where Ig and Iv are the principal moments of inertia and II and v are the .
co-ordinates with respect to the principal axes u and v
The equation of the neutral axis is obtained by setting the stress given by
t.~quation 8.23 to zero. Thus,
N M x
-+
A
-,- o ... 8.25
I,
But My =~ Nell;
and I , = Ai ,2
On substituting these values in equation B.25 it becomes,
c
,,
- 2'- x + ... 8.26
Equations 8.25 or 8.26 represent the neutral axiS. The respective inter-
cepts of the neutral axis with the x and y axes are given by
2 2
XI =- y- anl y, = - ...L 8.27
e, 0y
(I) The neutral axis lies in the quadrant opposite to that in which
N acts.
(2) The position of the neutral axis does not depend on the magni-
tude of N but on its position.
(a) The axis cuts . the section as shown in Fig. 8.22 a. In this
case the stresses across the section will be of two different types.
(b) The axis does not cut the section as shown in Fig. 8.22 b. In
this case all the stresses across the section will be of one type only.
( al (b)
Fig. 8.22
(4) The points of maximum stresses are those farthermost from the
neutral axis. The stress on a fiber through the centroid and parallel to
the neutral axis is equaI to NjA.
This last remark offers a quick and simple method for the determina-
tion of the stress distribution. Once the neutral axis is located by means
of equations 8.27, it will be an easy matter to plot the stress distribution
across the section knowing that it varies linearly and that it has a zero
ordinate at the neutral axis and an ordinate equal to N/A at the centroid.
Equation 8.26 expresses the conditions that the normal stress along
a certain line, known as the neutral axis, is zero. Let the normal force
move along vector on which makes an angle 9 with the x-axis.
ex=ecos6 and e, e sin 9
nee.e)
{/
N
o
A
Fig. 8,23
e cos 8 e sin 8
x + y + I 0
1 , I ,
slope = - e cos 9
2
" ~
cot 8 = constant
X
i/ e sm 8
. 2
"
i.e. all the neutral axes corresponding to a normal force moving along a
vector of inclination 8 are parallel.
Note that as the normal force approaches the centroid the neutral axis
moves away from the section. In the extreme case when the normal force
is central, ell: = e)' = 0 and the neutral axis lies at infinity. In the other
extreme case when the normal force is at infinity, the section is subject to
bending only and the neutral axis passes through the centroid.
Solution:
Weight of pier = 2 X 5 (4 X 3 - 3 X 2) 60 t.
N = 60 + 40 + 10 + 40 = 150 t. ~
-308-
40 x 1.25 50 m.t. t
10 x 5 + 40 X 1.75 - 10 X 1.75 102.5 m.t .... ~
15
-L r y ~. 1
10t_ 3m
15 ~:ail
T'1 s' !~
Fig. 8.24
A 4 x 3 - 3 x 2 ~ 6 m2
4 X 33 3 23
'.
T
12
X
12
~ 7 m4.
I ~ 3 X 43 2 x 33 ~ 1l.5 m4.
y
12 12
The position of the neutral axis is found from equations 8.27.
~ 102.5 M. 50
ex
My
N ISO
ey ~
N
- --
150
11.5 7
2 l i2 =
I.
-
" A 6 A 6
11.5 150
X, ~
6
x --
102.5
- 2.85 '11.
7 ISO
Y, ~
- X -- 3.5 m.
6 50
, --
- 309-
2
251/m
N
dL-._+-_~
F;g. 8.25
fa = -
150
+ 50 X 1.5 + 102.5 X 2
= 3.5 t.fm".
6 7 11.5
Solution:
N 40 + 10 +8=58t.~
M, - 10 X 2.5 25 em.t. ~
V
My 8 X 12.5 100 em.t. -+>
100 25
e, - and cy
58 58
I, - 2140
-- and
Iy
5950
82.7 82.7
5950 58
x, = - _ X -- = - 41.75 em.
82.7 100
2140 58
Y, = - -- X -- = .- 60 em.
82.7 25
The neutral axis is located as shown in Fig. 8.27.
60cn
a b
F;g. B.27
58 : 5 X 10 100 X 10
fa
82.7
+ 2149
+
5950
- 0.415 t./em 2 .
- 311-
In the region near the centroid of every plane area there exists an
area where if the point of application of the normal force lies within its
boundary, the stresses allover the section will be of the same sign~ This
area is called the core of the section. In the limiting case, when the point
of application of the force is on the boundary of the core, the neutral axis
is tangential to the section. It follows that the core is the locus of the
point of application of the normal force N for which the neutral axis is
tangential to the section. Therefore, in order to determine a point on the
core of a section, it is necessary to draw a neutral axis touching the peri-
meter of the section under consideration and locate the corresponding
point of application of the normal force. This point obviously lies on the
core of the section. This procedure is repeated until a number of poihts
sufficient for plotting the core is obtained. This may seem rather tedious
but normally onLy few points are needed to plot the core. The following
remarks are helpful in this respect.
(2) For every corner on the perimeter of the section, there is a cor-
responding straight line on the core.
(3) For every straight line on the perimeter of the section, there is
a corresponding corner in the core.
-312-
c
A
. 2
and e. r =- i
Consider now the co-ordinates that define the point of application of the
normal force N, ex and ey as variables. It is obvious that the locus of N
corresponding to all neutral axes through point b is a straight line. Note
that as N moves from point r to point p the neutral axis rotates anticlock-
wise from position cb to ba.
- 313-
The core of some common types of sections -is shown in Fig. 8.29.
r !1 It\.
+ - -+"I'Y-----=--+-d
V~
\
I~
6
n(e ,8 )
N
a( ,0)
YI + -.-.-
c, )
, , x, .
... 8.28
''2, constant c, Yb
and i2 y constant - c, x.
Let z, = OCI and z, - oc,
Then for the particular position of the Donnal force at point c l'
". 2 10
1.. = 21 sm D' Yb
. 2
z,cos8x. ... 8.30
"
Substituting from equations 8.29 and 8.30 into equation 8.28,
~ (I + e sin 8 YI
ZI sin 9 Yb
fl=:ll+ - C (YI
- +XI)
ZJ
-
Yb xa
1 ... 8.31
Y
+ =1
Since point 1 (xl' Y.) lies on this line, its co~ordinates satisfy this equation.
Thus, ~+
YI = 1, and hence equation 8.31 reduces to :
N
A (l++.-)
- 315-
or f, = ... 8.32
Similarly, it may be shown that the maximum normal stress at point 2.is
given by
N (z2 - c)
f2 - ... 8.33
AZ2
A study of equations 8.32 and 8.33 will show that for maximum fiber
stl'ess to Occur in the section, zl and Zz must be a minimum. In
oth~r words, the load should be placed such that the load vector is normal
to the boundary of the core.
The procedures for determining the core and its use in finding the
extreme normal stresses are illustrated in the following examples.
Example 8.19 Fig. 8.31 a shows the straining actions on the base section
of a masonary pier. Determine the maximum normal stress on the section
using the core method.
0.29 m 2 and ,,
.2
5.3 m 2
Solution:
Before finding the maximum normal stresse.c;, the core of the section
and the location of the normal force N have to be determined.
The core is detemrined by applying equations 8.27,
'2 '2
XI = - _I ,
, YI = --
_'x
ex cy
y, = I m.
- 316-
Y
2 3
262 I 99 m.l.
4 X
3m 3m
54 m.1.
--Ll.eJ
1.1 11 r-
0.11 .L
011
(b)
! N
F;g. 8.31
0.29
e)' = Yc = _ - 0.29 m.
I
The location of N is found in the usual way from the values of the
straining actions,
e = My 99
0.37 m.
x N 262
54
= - 0.21 m.
262
Thus N lies as indicated in Fig. 8.31 b, and it is seen that it lies within the
- 317-
core. The stresses allover the section are therefore expected to be of the
same sign.
From the figure,
z, z2 ~ 0.47 m. and e = 0.42 m.
Solution:
The cross-section and the straining actions are repro:iuced in Fig. 8.32 a.
y
,I
3 4 3
"_oj
'50 t 102.5 m.l. A ~ O.17m
X
VN O.17m
-.
2 , 2 I , i
Fig. 8.32
The properties of the section have been found and are as follows :
A = 6 m2 , I, = 7 m 4 and Iy = 11.5 m 4
y, = - 1.5 m.
7 2
y, = + _ X - = 0.77 m
6 3
11.5. I
xc = x = 0.96 m. yc = 0
6 2
The rest of the core is found from symmetry.
Location of N :
102.5'
ex -- J5ij""" =
50
e1 = - = - 0.33 m.
150
The core of the section and the position of N are shown in Fig. 8.32 b.
The values of z, ,z. and e are scaled from Fig. 8.32 b.
f,
150 (0.65 + 0.75)
- 53.5 t./m 2
6 X 0.65
N =JfdA .. 8.35
Ney = J f dA y - M, .. 8.35
\ (0,,0:)
Q....---"'
\
F,S. 8.53
Substituting the value of f from equation 8.34 into equations 8.35, 8.36
and 8.37 gives i
N a Jx dA + b J y dA + c J dA .. . 8.38
M, a Jx y dA + b J y2 dA + c J
y dA .... 8.39
Since the two reference axes are taken throUgh the centroid, the statical
moments of area; Jx dA and J y dA are both equal to zero, and the rema-
inder of the integrals are the well known expressions for the geometric
properties of the section.
-320-
N cA 8.41
In any problem the sec don is given so that its properties A, lit' Iy and
I.), are known. Also the strainging actions N, Ml( and ~ are known .
Solving equations 8.41, 8.42 and 8.43 simultaneously gives the following
values for the constants a, band c.
N
f=
A
x + ... 8.44
N
f = ... 8.45
A
On applying equation 8.45 the proper signs for the var.ious terms are
easily found by inspection. This is not the case however with regard to the
general equation of stress, 8.44. Specified sign conventions must be
adopted. If the positive directions of the co-ordinate axes are taken as
usual to the right and upwards, the corresponding sign conventions for the
moments are as indicated in Fig. 8.34, and as previously considered, N
is positive when tensile and negative wh n co npressive.
- 321 -
Fig. 8.34
As mentioned before, the neutral axis N.A. is that straight line along
which the normal stresses are zero. The equation of the neutral axis is
therefore readily obtained by setting the right hand side of cquation 8.44
to zero.
o ... 8.46
The x-intercept of the neutral axis is found by setting y to zero, and the
y-intercept is found by setting x to zero in equation 846.
The procedures for applying the general equation of stress and for
locating the neutral axis and the points of maximum stress are illustrated
in the following examples.
Exam.ple 8.!u Find the equation of the normal stress on the cross-section
of Fig. 8.35 due to the shown straining actions, then calculate the stresses
at each of the three corners.
-322-
1 m ..
e Y
12 em.
Fig. 8.35
Solution:
The reference axes are chosen as the horizontal and vertical axes through
the centroid. Since the y axis is an axis of symmetry, x and yare the
principal axes of inertia and IXY = O.
12 X 12
A = = 72 em 2
2
12 X 12 3
576 em'
36
12 X 12'
= 432 em'
48
According to the sign conventions used,
N = + 10 t., Mx = - 100 em.t. and M,= + 50 em.t.
The normal stress equation is thus given by:
10 50 X 576 - 100 X 432
f = + 12
+ 576 X 432
x + 576 X 432
y
E>aunple 8.,.,.
Plot the normal stress distribution on the section shown
in Fig. 8.36 if it is subjected to a bending moment M,. = 0.5 m.t.
as indicated.
y
O.Sm.1
r S
I
I
8 em. Oli,v) x
,
L ;
hem
I
I , II
L 110 em.
Fig. 8.36
Solution:
The centroid is determined first. Choosing two temporary axes as the
left and lower edges of the section, the coordinates of 0 are determined
as fOllows.
I A 5 X I + 6 X 1 + 10 X I = 21 cm 2 .
~ 5 X 7.5 + 6 X 4 + 10 X 0.5 =
y 3.17 em.
I 5 X 2.5 +6
21
X 0.5 + 10 X 5
x - - 3.12 em.
21
Referring to the ceRtroidai axes x and y,
1 X 6'
I =
5 X I'
+ 5 X 4.33 2 + +6 X 0.83 2
1;1 12
10 X I' =
+ + 10 X 2.67 2 188.5 em.
12
Iy -
I X 58
5 X 0.62 2 + 6 X
\' + 6 X 2.622
12 + 12
X 10 3
+ ~...:.:.....:.:.._ + 10 X 1.88 2 = 172.7 em. 4
12
-324-
Since the principal axes of inertia are not being used, the general equa-
tion of stress must be applied.
N = 0, M, = - 50 em.t. and o
The normal stress at any point is given by :
- (- 50) ( - 76.8) 1x +
f =
r ( 1-8-:-8.---'5)--'("--I-
---,- 72.::.c.7'-'-)--'--:-(-'--'-'-76:-.8:-:-)72
(-
50) (172.7) ] Y
r (188.5) (172.7) - ( - 76.8)2
f = - 0.114 x - 0.324 Y
The equation of the neutral axis is given by
0.114 x + 0.324 Y = 0
y
a
3.17cm
Lb~--+_ _ _----",.........
[3.12
A
Fig. 8.37
-325-
c
r 18
x
o 18cm.
~~-
101 J'
'4~m~a
Fig. 8.38
Solution:
The centroid is determined first. Choosing two temporary axes as the
upper and right edges of the section, the co-ordinates of 0 are calculated
a. fellows:
A ~ 18 X 18 + -18 -
X 18
- 4S6 em.-
2
x
18 X 18 X 9 + 18 X 9 (IS + 6)
14 em.
4S6
y
18 X IS x9 + 18 X 9 X 6
- 8 em.
486
Referring to the centroidal axes x and y,
IS X IS' + IS X IS' . 2
I, ~ ----,,--- + IS X IS X I~ + IS X 9 X 2
12 36
~ 12636 em. 4
-326-
f = _ ~ +- 140 X 12636 +
100 X 6318 x +
486 12636 X 35964 - 6318 2
A
c
~--------1---~~d
I'--+---~,..ta
Fig. 8.39
I
I -327-
I The neutral axis is plotted in the known manner by finding the x and
y intercepts and is as shown in Fig. 8.39.
The maximum normal stresses occur at the points which are farther .
most from the neutral axis, or in this particular case at points a (14, -10)
and c (-22, 8) .
EJaunple 8.24 Find the location of a single normal force on the cross-
section shown in Fig. 8.38 such that the neutral axis may coinside with
side ad.
Solution :
Let a normal force N act on the given section with' eccentricities ex
and ey with respect to the centroidal axes x and y then, M. = Ney and
My = Nex
In order the neutral axis mdY coinside with side ad , its equation must
be represe-nted by :
x - 14 = 0 (iii )
Equations (ii) and (iii) are identical. Therefore, the ratios between
the coefficients of similar terms in both equations must be equal.
- 328-
I
(iv)
A
Esarnple 8_25 For the cross-section showIj in Fig. 8.38, plot the line along
which a force must act so that zero stress may deVelop at point a.
Solution:
Let the section be subjected to an axial force at location (e er).
The stress at any point on the section is thus given by : "
f = N _+
I e, I,- e, II> x + e, Ir - e, I", y ]
[ A I, I, - II> 2 I, I, - II)' 2
'_ _ _ _ _.Ia
Fig. 8.40
- 330 -
(3) The front axle of a lorry carries the load; shown in Fig. 8.41.
Check the normal stresses in the axle if it has an I-section of the given
dimensions.
21 11
I-- 60 em --l30cm r-
'--__ 120 em -----...j
Hg. 8.41
(5) A steel plate 0.6 cm. thick and 10 cm. wide is to be bent to form
an arc of a circle. What is the maximum bending stress in
the plate when
bent to a 2.5 rn. radius ?
This equation represents a straight line along which the normal force
must act in order to produce zero stress at point a. It is plotted in the
usual way by finding the intercepts ex and Cy on the x and y axes.
-2.05 2.05
- 7.45 em. and 3.15 em.
0.275 0.65
(3) The front axle of a lorry carries the loads shown in Fig. 8.41.
Check the normal stresses in the axle if it has an I -section of the given
dimensions.
2r zr
Fig. 8.41
(5) A steel plate 0.6 cm. thick and 10 cm. wide is to be bent to form
an arc of a circle. What is the maximum bending stress in
the plate when
bent to a 2.5 m. radius?
lem
(7) A steel channel as shown
.--;r-- 50 c'''--i''--
lcm
d II
in Fig. 8.42 carries water across --I
a span of 6 m. and is simply sup-
ported at the ends. If the water 40cm
weighs I t./m. 3, calculate the
maximum normal stress for the
___1 10cm
middle cross-section of the chan-
nel. Neglect own weight of channel.
f
Fig. 8.42
(9) Find the maximum normal stresses on section a-a of the machine
bracket shown in Fig. 8.44 if it has the given cross-section.
2 ~ I
40CO'
a
1-=
Secrlon a_a
f
Fig. 8.44
80 em
l a
Fig. 8.45
(a) (b ) (c) ( d)
Fig. 8.46
(12) For the overhanging beam shown in Fig. 8A7 , check the normal
stress at the section of maximum monten t if the cross-section of the beam
is an I-beam 24 em. deep and has a moment of inertia about the axis of
bending of 166jO em'.
3.2 t
-.-L1.5 ---"3.S
I
18 c.m
t c.m
18
--l 9
J
[.:::f5 -.J ~,
\a) \'1> }
Fig. 8.48
(1)
Fig. 8.49
normal stress on the b~se section and 'plot the normal stress distribution.
~4cm
>
>
Fig. 8.50
30 0.35 II m
0.35 tIm
r
15 cnH--+-+-
L .L.+-J
-.J 10 L
Fig. 8.51
5t 5t
x
30cm
Lc ""
y .JQJ116J
I 36c m
fill-
Fig. 8.52
(18) Fig. 8.53 shows a channel purlin on a rafter sloping 5: 12. The
purlin has a span of 4 m. and carries a ver tical uniformly distributed load
from the roof of Q.52 t ./m. Plot the stress distribution at the section
of maximum m oment indicating the values of maximum tensile and com~
pressive stresses. For channel, Ix = 4820 cm4 ., I)' = 317 cm 41
Fig. B.53
(19) Find the maximum value of P the cantilever shown in Fig. 8.54
may carry without the stress exceeding 1.2 t./cm 2
Fig. 8.54
10m
Fig. 8.55
(21) A link in a machine has to be bent as shown in Fig. 8.56 for the
sake of clearance. Calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses
in the tink if it is subjc_c ted to a tensile force of 1.5 t., and has a 6 X 4 em.
rectangular cross-section. Plot the normal $tress distribution across the
section.
!L: 15 m~
Fig. 8.56
B1.5J
(22) Fig. 8.57 shows a cast iron stand of a drilling machine. Find
the greatest value of the drilling force P without the tensile stress exceed-
ing 0.4 t.fcm. 2 if the stand has a hollow rectangular cross-section. The
outside dimensions are 16 em. and 12 em. and the material is 2 em. thick
all round.
,.
-:=1'24.5'16
cm+cm
,
~
Fig. 8.57
r!
-337 -
r
1m
L- 2m
Fig. 8.58
Fig. 8.59
x
~~em ~el
(26) A cast iron bracket carries a load of 0.8 t. as shown in Fig. 8.61.
Calculate the values of the extreme normal stresses on section a-a if it is
aT-section of the given dimensions.
a a
il.8t 10
em
Fig. 8.61
21
101
1.5 m I--
1m
Fig. 8.62
(29) For the frame shown in Fig. 8.63 draw the N.F., S.F. and
B.M.Ds. Also, plot the normal stress distribution On the soil under
the footings if they are square of side length = 2m. Weight of footing
= 2.2 t./m'.
1.5 t
111m I I
I
6m
31
11-
1
m
l,m
l
1m
a
6m -J-3m
Fig. 8.63
(30) Find the maximum normal stresses over the rectangular section
shown in Fig. 8.64 if it is subjected to a compressive force of 6.5 t. located
as shown. Plot the stress distribution.
-340-
,
3ocm
i ,
15cm
L--- ------' ~
7.5cm
6.5~J--!...-------'-!
Fig. 8.64
Fig. 8.65
x
y
....- 4cm
c L-..:C t
- x
emi
FiS 8.66
f
-341-
(33) - (35) Masonary piers have cross-sections as shown in Figs_
8.67-8.69, and carry the given set of vertical and horizontal loads beside
their own weights If the rnasonary weighs 2 t. /m 3 " find the normal stress
distributions on the sections at the base of the pj~rs and locate the points
of maximum stresses.
101
GOI I lOc
-".-.f-:'-1---1--
3
1
4m
lOt 601
31 3t
Fig. 8.67
501
101
t
3m
10 I
1601
101
f
5m
lOt
1
L .-.....~1-.0,..t:r +101
l:~ , I 50.10 tl ~6~O...t ...l.:.::0:.:t+l_
r-
Fig. 8.68
- 342 -
531 601
t l
51 91
I
5m
2 01 :+-.
1.5 m
)
~
:ib> "~
51 91
20. <-+!::::53=------7
60
J 1.8 I. 72 m __ ~ l.al-- f
Fig. 8.69
(36) A rolled steel section carries a central load and three other loads
as shown in Fig. 8.70. The section has the following properties.
Fig. 8.70
em
tensile force P at the given
--t
location. Using the core method,
determine the value of P so that
the maximum normal stress may
not exceed 100 kg/em 2.
Fig. 8.72
(39) - (45) Using the core method, check the maximum normal
stress in problems number (20), (21), (22), (26), (31), (35) and (36).
Fig. 8.73
(47) Given the ar~a in Fig. 8.73, plot the line along which a normal
force must be placed to produce zero stress at comer' a,
-344-
12
O.S m.1
r 12
r
20 c;m.
r
20c;m
,4.2 c;m
r
p
L C-.12--l
L I!- 12--l
Fig. 8.74 Fig. 8.75
(50), (51) The cross-sections shown in Figs. 8.76 and 8.77 are sub-
jected to a compressive normal force N at the indicated location. Find
the value of N in each case so that the maximum compressive stress may
not exceed I t./em l . and the maximum tensile stress 1.4 t./cm!. Plot the
normal stress distribution in each case.
f Ic;m
20 N f
L t t 40 c:m
--l r- 20 I
!-===Jl
LI2 -l
10c;m
l2Clj
-.Ll.
CHAPTER 9
SHEAR STRESSES
9.1 Introduction
a .Q
I 11
F'g 9.1
a horizontal section a-a, the upper part of the block will tend to slide over
the lower part and stresses in the plane of the section, I.e. parallel to the
applied load, will be developed resisting the tendency of the two parts
to slide on each other. These stresses are called shear stresses. They arise
in many practical problems, civil and mechanical alike.
Consider, for example, two plates held together by one rivet and
carrying a force Q as shown in Fig. 9.2 a. Provided there is no friction
between the two surfaces of contact, the area that resists the applied load
is the cross-sectional area of the rivet. If the rivet is imagined to be
divided to two parts by plane a-a, then the upper part will tend to slide
over the lower one and shear stresses are set up on the section of the rivet.
-346-
This joint is called a lap jcint and the connecting rivet is said to be
in single shear. Another type of joints frequently used in practice is shown
Q!2
~~m:~~~
Q
:~:::;~~~{
E ~ Q
Q ~
oE
Q/2
(a) ( b)
Fig. 9.2
in Fig. 9.2 b. In this joint, two cross-sectional areas of the same rivet
resist the applied load, and thus the rivet is said to be in double shear.
Searing
ar
Fig. 9.3
Secondly, there is a tendency for the collar to push through the bearing
so that shear stresses are set up on a cylinderical surface of perimeter 7Tb
and height d.
The shear stress on any surface is defined as the force divided by the
area resisting the tendency of sliding that results from the applied force.
Thus, referring again to Fig. 9. 1, and assuming that the shear stresses are
uniformly distributed over the plane a-a, then for equilibrium qA = Q,
from which,
-347~
~ ... 9.1
A
where Q is the applied shearing force, A the sheared area and qav the
average shear stress.
In the first example of the riveted joints, the average shear stress
developed in the single shear rivet (Fig. 9.2 a) is given by :
2Q
"d2
where d is the diameter of the rivet.
In the second example (Fig. 9.3), the average shear stress developed
between the shaft and the collar is :
~
"bd
Thus, if Q > 1t~ or bd > ac, shear failure is mOTC likely to occur
"ac
between the shaft and the collar, and vice versa, if ac > bel, failure
is more likely to occur between the collar and the bearing.
Example 9.1 Fig. 9.4 shows a lever keyed to a shaft 4 em. diameter. The
key is 1 em. wide and 5 em. long. Find the maximum load P that can be
-348-
applied to the lever without the shear stress In the key exceeding 1000
kg./cm 2
lcm.
-4 , 1
Fig. 9.4
Solution:
The torque produced = 100 P kg.em. If the key shears, it will do so
on plane abo Let the shearing force on this plane oe Q. Then tOr
equilibrium,
2Q=100P
P(II 2x5.oo0
a owable) = - - - - 100 kg.
100
Example 9.2 Two steel rods are connected together by the joint shown
in Fig. 9.5. Show which part of the joint is likely to shear first if the pin has
a Tectangular cross-section 8 X 1.5 em. If the allowable shear stress is
I t./em 2., what will be the maximum allowable value of the pull P ?
.1 )
3cm1 l L
- :
p p
\1
T5cm -+-- .-
-.l 1 ~
3cm J I ;
I J
Fig. 9.5
-349 -
Since the various components of the joint have the same shear resistance,
failure is likely to occur in the component which offers the least area, i.c.
the pin.
P (allowable) = qA = I X 24 = 24 t.
ExaDlple 9.3 Determine the safe load P that can be applied to tht!
riveted connection shown in Fig. 9.6 if the allowable shear stress in the
rivets is 0.96 t./cm 2 ., and the allowable stresses for the plates are
0.8 t./em 2 and 1.2 t.Jem 2 for shear and tension respectively. Diameter
of rivet 2 cm.
15 e m~' I ~ !
p
~t ]02 2~ ~
~~ 4- ~::+
t
t)-
Il I
Bem
II
if-- -+ -4-114 +
Fig. 9.6
y
I q ax I
!/
-1
qy
11
1 qy b
iJ}- ----b J
!I"
0 qx
Fig. 9.7
Referring again to Fig. 9.7, and taking moments of the forces on the
faces about 0 then,
This shows that the complementary shear stress is equal to the applied
shear stress. The directions of the two shear stresses must be either both
towards, or both away from, the line of intersection of the two planes in
which they act.
My
f
(M +dM)y
A
a b
f,~ ~f.df
Y \ ... --I I
t 'J q <;1
1\ A
I\ I I
LL.-J...-J
I-dX--l
Fig. 9.8
Consider now the part of the element contained between the upper
extreme fiber and that at some distance from the centroidal axis. Refer-
ring to Figs. 9.8 band c, and assuming that the.shear stress q is uniformly
distributed on the horizontal plane of area b dx then for equilibrium,
but Jy dA is the statical moment of area efgh, S, about the centroidal axis,
area
elgh
q ... 9.3
Since the shear stress is complementary (section 9.3), it follows that the
vertical shear stress on the cross-section is also given by equation 9,3. It
gives the shear stress at any fiber at a distance y from the centroidal axis.
Q is the shearing force on the section, I is the moment of inertia of the
whole crasss-sectional area about the axis of bending, S is the statical
moment of area of the part contained between the extreme fiber and that
at a distance y from the ccntroidal axis, and b is the width of the beam at
the' fiber at which the shear stress is being calculated. At a given section,
both Q and I are constants, but the shear stresses at various fibers have
different values as the values of Sand b for such fibers differ.
Equation 9.3 may be used in finding the shear stress distribution across
beam sections. As an application, the shear stress distributions for three
common types of sections will be considered.
(I) Rectangular section
r-
d ~. j_ ._~+_~J'
q
q 4tHt
H+"
tHH
++tHI
LL-.+-...J HHH
Lb..J
(al (b) (c)
Fig. 9.9
-353-
Referring to Fig. 9.9 a and by applying equation 9.3, the shear stress
at a fiber distance y from the x-axIs is found.
The statical mome"ot .of the area contained between the upper fxtreme
fiber and that at a distance y from the x-ax!s about the x-axis is given by
s bd 2( I _ 4y2)
8 d'
bd'
12
Substituting these values ion equation 9.3 and simplifying noting that the
cross-sectional area A = bd then,
q 3Q (I_4y2)
2
... 9.4
2A d
3Q
... 9.5
2A
At y = d/2, i.e. at the extreme upper and lower edges of the section,
the shear stress is zero. The values of the shear stress at various levels of
the beam cross-section may be represented diagramatically by the
parabola shown in Fig. 9.9 b.
- 354-
jqdA=Q
Using the expression in equation 9.4 and noting that dA bdy.
+d/2
f qdA =J d/2
- 3Q ( l - - y
2A
4 -
d2
2 ) bdy Q
This does not only verify equation 9.4, but also shows that the direction
of the shear stresses on a section is the same as that of the shearing force.
The direction of the shear stresses corresponding to that of the shearing
force Q in Fig. 9.9 a is shown on the cross-section in Fig. 9.9 c.
(a) ( b)
Fig. 9.10
S = j by dy
y
b 2R cos 9,
Y R sin 9,
dy = R cos 9 d9
i"
I
-355-
",I,
s 2R' J cos 2e sin e de
e
I, = "R414
Substituting these values in equation 9.3, and remembering that the cross-
sectional area in this case IS A = 1TR 2 then,
q 4Q cos 2e 4Q ( 1 _ sin2e).
3A 3A
4Q ... 9.7
qmax = 3A
(3) I-section
1- 2
,
I 2
o d
._~3"'f1~3,---
II ~
LB~
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9.11
= QD2 (
... 9.S
SI
q2 = Q (D2 _ d2)
SI
q Q
It
( : +L ) ]2
q,
QB
q, = -
Sit
[ (D2 - d 2) + td 2 1
Equations 9.8 and 9.9 show that the variation of the shear stress along the
depth of the cross-section is parabolic. A diagram showing this stress dis-
tribution is shown in Fig. 9 .11 h. It should be noticed that at level 2-2,
two widths Band t are used to determine the shear stress, one in the flange
and the other in the web. This explains the abrupt increase in the shear
stress at this level. Again it is noticed that the maximum shear stress
occurs on the fiber at the centroidal axis.
The total shearing force taken by the web can be found by integrating
the shear stress as given by equation 9.9. on the whole area of the web.
-357-
... 9.10
For an I-section,
2B (D ~) D d)2 +t -d'
I =
2 -2 ( -+-
j4 4 12
! (D2 _ d 2) (D + ~) + t d'
8 2 2 12
t d'
I + -.12-
Equation 9.11 show~ that for deep I-section girders, the web carries nearly
all the shearing force. This is an assumption which is usually made in
the design of deep plate girders.
In the last three examples, the maximum shear stress was found to be
at the centroidal axis. This is generally the case if the sides of the cross-
sectional area are parallel. Then, S becomes the only variable in the
shear stress formula and it is a maximum at the centroidal axis. If the
sides of the cross-sectional area are not parallel, q becomes a function
of both Sand t and the maximum shear stress may not occur at the
centroidal axis. For example, the maxImum shear stress occurs at the
middle of the heigh t of. a symmetrical triangular, cross~section and not
at one third from the baSe as one might be led to think.
Exalnple 9.4 The beam shown in Fig. 9.12 has a channel cross-section
of the given dimensions. Calculate the maximum shear stress and plot
-358 -
Fig. 9.12
_ (2 X
I, - 2 12
10' + 20 X 2.4 2 ) + _30_x_2_3 + 60
12
X 1.6 2
= 737.34 em'
The shear stresses at the various levels indicated in Fig. 9.13 a are calcu-
lated below.
ql 0
5.25 (34 X 2 X 1.6)
q, 0.023 t.Jcm'.
737.34 X 34
q, 0
-359-
(a) (b )
Fig. 9.13
Esantple 9.5 Calculate the maximum shearing force which the I -section
shown in Fig. 9.14 can carry if the permissible shear stress is 0.9 t./cm 2 ,
Compute the percentage shearing force carried by the web.
2L Q
I I
Fig. 9.14
Solution: The maximum shear strtss occurs at the centroidal axis. The
moment of inertia of the whole sectioll about this axis, and the statical
moment of the area between the upper edge and the x-axis about the
x-axis must be found first in order to apply equation 9.3.
)
15.5 X 40 3 _ 3
I, - 2 ( 7 X 36 = 28394 em'
12 12
Q max X 832
q 0.9
28394 X 1.5
been done, in the usual way, by the application of equation 9.3 and the
result is shown in Fig. 9.] 5. If the height of the web is h and its thickness
2
0.051/cm 2
I 064 t/cm
r
I
36cm. ,,--x-II---"x f---+--jO.g t Icm~
L 1.5cm ,--_---"
I
Fig. 9.15
is t and the shear stress at a fiber distance y from the x-axis is q, then the
shearing force carried by the web is given by :
+ h/ 2 +h/ 2
Qw = J q t dy t J
-hi'
q dy
-hi,
but the integral In the above equation represents the area of the shear
stress distribution diagram. Thus,
43.9
X 100
46.1
QS
or T = ... 9.13
-361-
where Q, S and I have the same meanings as those in the shear stress
formula.
Equation 9.13 is very useful in determining the necessary connections
between the various component parts of a compound beam. This will be
illustrated by the following examples.
rt
25cm~~X~~~--~'--l
L---ri-,-......J y: 8 75 em
20cm
J ~
F'ig. 9. 16
Solution : The shear flow in the plane of contact of the two planks
may be determined from the application of equation 9: 13. For this reason ,
the centroidal x-axis, the moment of inertia about this axis and the
statical moment of the area of the upper plank about the x-axis must be
found first.
Assuming that the x-axis to be at a distance y from the upper edge of
the section, then,
20 X 5 X 2.5 + 20 X 5 X 15 1750
y 8.75 em.
20 X 5 X 2 200
3 5x20 3
20 x5 +20x5x6.25 2 + +5x20X6.25 2 =1l058 em'
12 12 i~:.
the other in every centimeter of the beam's length. Thus, if 5 is the spacing
of the nails then,
60 = 20 s
6u
or s 3 em.
20
A = 58.8 em 2 . I = 8030 em 4 .
4f/m
Jl};11111111111!!llllljL
I 6m --~
Fig. 9.17
36 X 1.4 3
+36 X 1.4 X 11 2 +2 (8030+58.8 x 4.7 2)= 24760 em 4.
12
S 1.4 X 36 X 11 555 cm 3 .
- 363 -
The largest shear flow occurs ncar the supports where the maximum
shearing force Qmall:" acts.
4X 6
-- - 12 t.
2
QS 12 X 555
0.27 t./cm.
I 24760
This shearing force per unit length of the beam is resisted by two rows of
rivets, and for the data given , each rivet can resist a force of
orr X 1.7 2
x 0.96 - 2.17 t . Hence, if 5 is the spacing of rivets, or the
4
0.27 s
2.17
2
2.17 X 2
s - 16 cm.
0.27
.Refer-ring
, to Fig. 9.18, which shows the shearing force diagram, this
:;hearing force occurs at a pistance x =- 0.625 m. from either supports.
. \
- 364-
-21
t L<-'-"-j
3 ---I
6m I
-
12.
Fig. 9.18
9 7 Shear centre
Consider for example the channel section shown 'in Fig. 9.19 a. Let
the external shearing force Q be applied at point c on the x-axis such that
- 365-
(a) (b )
-F,
Cd
Fig. 9.19
Qxth
T =
2I
Thus, the shear flow varies linearly along the flange from zero at the free
edge to a value a~e junction between the web and the flange given by :
Qbth
T =
2I
Also, at a distance y along the web from the junction between the web
and the flange,
T = ~ [\th + yt ( : - : ) 1
= ; t [bh ->- Y (h _ y) ]
Thus, the shear flow along the web varies parabolically from a value of
Qbth/2I at the junction between the web and the Hange to a value of
- 366 -
Qbth ( h
- - 1+
21 4b
) at the m id -height of the web. The variation of
the shear flow drawn on the axis of the channel section is shown in Fig.
9.19 b.
F, = J
b
Qth
2I
x dx = Qthb
4I
2
F2 = f
hQ
21t [bh + y (h - y) 1 dy = Q
o
These shearing forces, which are shown in Fig. 9.19 c, indicate that the
resultant of the shear stresses on the section is equivalent to a vertical
force, F 2 = Q and a couple, F ,h = Qth 2b 2/4I
An expression for the distance e locating the plane in which the external
shearing force Q must be applied to produce no torsion may now
be obtained.
or e = . .. 9.14
41
Equation 9.14 shows that the location of the shear centre is independent
of the applied shearing force, and that it is a function of the dimensions
of the section only. Therefore, e is a property of the cross-sectional area
and may be cafculated for any shape of a thin-walled section from
a knowledge of its dimension.
Fig. 9.20
E::s:ample 9.8 Locate the shear centre for a beam having the cross-
sectional dimensions shown in Fig. 9.21.
---' 1 0 c ra...;
I' I
0 .15cm
Scm
,
.
I
I
015.L
1
Fig. 9.21
Solution: The flanges, being thin, the moment of inertia about their
centoridal axis may be neglected. Thus,
0.15 X 8 3
I =
12
+ 2 X 4 X 0.15 X 4 2 = 25.6 em'.
The values of the shear flow at the location shown in Fig. 9.22 a are cal-
culated below :
Q (3 X 0.15 X 4) 1.8
7', Q
25.6 25.6
Q ( I X 0.15 X 4) 0.6
Q
25.6 25.6
- 368 -
= 2.4 Q
25.6
The shear flow distribution is shown in Fig. 9.22 a and the corresponding
shearing forces are shown in Fig. 9.22 b where,
1.8Q 3 2.7
F,= X - = -- Q
25.6 2 25.6
0.6Q 0.3
F, X Q
25.6 2 25.6
~I-------I
(a i (el
Fig. 9.22
ExalDple 9.9 Determine the location of the shear centre for the cross-
section shown in Fig. 9.23. Assume that the cross-sectional area of the
plate is ncglegible compared with the areas A of the flanges .
,
!
!~
- 369
Thin plate
Fig. 9.23
Solution: The shear flow at any point along the plate will he in the
direction of the tangent at this point, and its magnitude is given by
equation 9.13.
Neglecting the area of the plate as assumed,
I 2A (r sine) 2
S A r sine
Thus, the shear flow along the plate has a constant value of :
Q X A r sine Q
T _
2A (r sine) 2
-
2r sine
The moment of the resulting shearing forces about the centre IS equal
to
Q Qer
X 2re X r
2r sine sinB
Ql9r
Qe
sine
I9r
e
sinB
g.8 Torsion
(bl
Fig. 9.24
LM, 0 = T, - T, - T
T T, - T2
/""......_21
m
A
Fig. 9.25
Solution:
Section a in member Be.
extreme outer fiber. Thus, referring to Fig. 9.26 a which shows the
variation of the shear stresses across the section,
... 9.15
r R
9max.
e)'
R r qr
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.26
From assumption (1), SInce the section is subjected to torque only, the
resulting shear stresses may now be determined by equating the applied
torque to the internal twisting moment of resistance. Referring to Fig,
9.26 b,
R
T = J2'" r dr
o
X q, X r
T q~" Jo
2". r3 dr
J
o
2". r3 dr
2
... 9.16
T = qmu J
R
TR
or -J- ... 9.17
Consider next the strains caused by these shear stresses. A solid circular
shaft of radius R, length Land s'ubjected (0 end torques T is shown in
Fig. 9.27.
- 373 -
Fig. 9.27
Substituting, from equations 9.17 and 9. 18 inlo c:quation 9.19, the ,-ate of
change of twist, or the angle of t\v iSl per unit lc:ngth of the shaft is given
by :
e T
9.20
L GJ
Thus, in order to find the relative rotation between two cross-sections
along a shaft subjected to uniform torque and at a distance L apart, it is
only necessary to multiply either quantity in equation 9.20 by L. A
study of equation 9.20 shows that this is only true in a uniJorm
, length of the shaft i.e. of constant J. subjected to a constant torque. In
general, the applied torque as well as the diamcter of the shan may vary
along its length. In such a case, the relative rotations along the various
lengths of the shaft must be summed. Thus, rcferring to Fig. 9.28. tht"
- 374-
relative rotation between the two ends of the given shaft is:
T,L, (T, + T 2 ) L, (T, + T,) L J
B= - + +
GJ, GJ, GJ,
T2
Fig. 9.28
J 2
... 9.22
Solution
Let r = the internal radius of the hollow shaft.
Then, 2r = the external radius of the hollow shaft.
J (for the hollow shaft) = " (16r 4 - r 4 )f2 = 7.5 "r 4 em 4.
J (for the solid shaft) = " X 10 4/2 = 5000" em 4 .
If T is the applied torque then,
T X 2r
qmax (for the hollow shaft) = .:......:..:..--=-;-
7.5 7Tr4
T )( 10
qmax (for the solid shaft)
5000"
ExaDlple 9.12 Find the maximum shear stress in a hollow shaft 40 em.
and 20 em. external and internal diameters when subjected to a torque
of 45 m.t. If G = 700 t./em 2., what is the angle of twist in a length of
10 m.? What diameter would be required for ~ solid shaft to have a
similar angle of twist under the same torque and in the same length?
Solution:
J = " (20 ' - 10')/2 = 75000" em'.
TR 4500 X 20
0.38 t./em 2.
qmu
J 75000"
TL 4500 X 1000
e = -- - 0.028 radians
GJ 700 X 75000"
0.Q28 X 180/" = 1.56 0 1 0 30' 36"
-376-
J "D4/32 em 4.
TL 32TL
B =
G X 75000" G X"D4
D 39.4 em.
15 X 100
G= = 795 t. /em 2 .
0.008 X 75"
EsaIDple .9 .14 Determine the maximum shear stress m the compound
shaft shown in Fig. 9.29 if part ab has a solid circular section 10 em.
diameter and part be a hollow circular section 20 and 10 em. external
and internal diameters. If G = 800 t. /cm 2 ., calculate the rotation of the
free end of the shaft.
Fig., 9.29
Solution:
4
" X 10 = 312.5" em 4.
J' b 32
J
. b, " (20' - 10 4)/32 = 4700" em 4.
-377-
By taking sections 1-1, 2-2, 3-3 and 4-4, and considering each time the
part of the shaft to the left of the section, the torques at various parts are
found to be :
12.5" X 5
qm" (in part db) 0.2 t. /em 2.
312.5"
375.5" X to _ 2
qmax (in part ec) = - 0.8 t.fem .
4700"
The maximum shear stress occurs in the part of the shaft between e and Co
To find the rotation at the free end, lengths of the shaft having.constant
T and J are considered separately and the final result is obtained by sum-.
ming the various relative rotations. Thus,
450000 HP = 2,mT
450000 HP
or T 9.24a
2=
where T is the torque in em.kg and n the number of rotations of
the shaft per minute.
EXlUIlpie 9.15 Find the diameter of a solid circular shaft for a 200 HP
motor operating at 150 T.p.m. if the shear stress is limited to 1000
kg.fern 2. What will be the diameter of the shaft if the motor operates
at 1500 r.p.m. ?
Solution:
Let T 1 and T 2 be the torques transmitted by the low-speed and
high-speed shafts respectively, and D 1 and D2 their corresponding
diameters. From equation 9.24 a,
450000 X 200
95500 em. kg.
2". X 150
450000 X 200
= 9550 em. kg.
2". X 1500
1000 ~
9550 X 16
Similarly, qmax 1000
7TD 3
2
3 __ 9.55 X 16
D2 - or D2 = 3.61 em.
(1) The shear stresses at points on the perimeter of a section act III
( b) (a)
Fig. 9.30
Thi"S may be proved with reference to Fig. 9.30. Suppose the shear
stress q at point a on the perimeter of the given section act at an angle to
the tangent then thi~ stress could be resolved into two components in the
plane of the section; a tangential component qt and another normal to
it qn" If, however, qn were to exist, another complementary shear stress
of equal value and in a direction perpendicular to it must act on the
outer $urface of the member as shown in Fig. 9.30 b. Since the outer sur-
face is free of load, the shear stress is zero and hence 10 cannot exist. Thus
ti!~ shear stress at a point on the perimeter of a section acts in a direction
tangential to the perimeter of the section.
-380-
(2) The shear stress at corners of non -circular sections must be zero.
Fig. 9.31
T
... 9.25
adb 2
TL
... 9.26
where d and b are the long and short sides of the section respectively, and
a and fJ are factors depending on the d / b ratio .
-381-
Values of a and f3 for the full range of d /b ratios are reproduced from
Timoshenko's Strength of lVlaterials, and are given in the following table:
a 0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.3070.313 0.33
f3 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.33
T
... 9.27
0.208d 3
TL
... 9.28
0.141d 4G
T
... 9.29
0.33db 2
TL
. .9.30
0.33db 3 G
2 T
q ... 9.31
TL
9.32
where a and b art:: the lengths of the semi -major and semi-minor axes
respectivel y.
-382-
20 T
... 9.33
46.2 TL
e - ... 9.34
a4 G
T
... 9.35
Zp
TL
... 9.36
GJ
where Zp is the torsion section modulus, and] another torison constant.
Attention should be drawn to the fact that J is just a constant for
the section. For circular cross-sections, J is equal to the polar moment
of inertia but this is not generally true. For instance the torsion constant
J for a flat strip is equal to d b 3/3 while its polar moment of inertia
is nearlv equal to b d'fl2
-383-
... 9.37
TL
B = ... 9.38
0.33Gt 3 s
(a J
il ( b)
Fig. 9.32
T t",,,,,
.: . 9.39
0.33 1:t 3 s
TL
... 9.40
0.33 G 1:t 3
-384 -
where the summation }2t 3 s 15 carried out for lengths of the perimeter
having constant thickness.
If the section is compound as shown in Fig. 9.32 b, and cannot
be extended into a single flat strip, equations 9.39 and 9.40 still hold. In
this case however,s is equal to the sum of separate lengths. For example
for the I~section shown in Fig. 9!32 h, t1 > t2 the maximum shear stress
occurs in the flange and its value is given by :
Tt,
0.33 (2t,3" +t,',,)
TL
ande= 33
0.33 G(2t, ,, + t, ',)
9.13 Torsion of closed thin-walled sections
Unlike members having solid non-circular cross-sections, the analysis
of closed thin-walled sections of any shape is simple, at least as far as the
determination of the shear stress is concerned.
T
('
1
(a)
/
; l J
(b)
Fig. 9.33
shear stress equal shear stresses must exist on the longitudinal planes
as shown in Fig. 9.33 b.
Consider now the forces in the longitudinal direction of the element
then for equilibrium,
q,t,L = q,t,L
'TJ = 7"2 = T .. . ~.41
Equation 9.41' shows that the shear flow 'T is constant along the
perimeter of a closed thin-walled section. It also shows that, in contrast
with thin-walled open sections, the maximum shear stress occurs at the
location of least thickness.
Fig. 9.34
T = Jqtdsr
T = qt J ds r ... 9.42
The produc t ds r is equal to twice the area of the triangle shown hatched
in Fig. 9.34 and the integral of this product for the whole arc length of
the perimeter is equal to double the area enclosed within the centre line
of the section. Denoting this area by A to distinguish it from the cross-
sectional area A, equation 9.42 reduces to :
T 2 q t A
T
q ... 9.43
2 t A
-386-
e = 4
TL
GA"
f~ ds ... 9.45
If the thickness t is constant along the arc length of the perimeter as is the
case in most practical problems, equation 9.45 becomes :
TLs
e = ... 9.46
4GA"t
Emunple 9.16 Two tubes have the cross-sections shown in Fig. 9.35.
Calculate the shear stress in each if they are subjected to a torque T =
0.1 m.t. What will be the angle of twist in a length of 1.6 m. of each of
the two tubes. G = 800 t.Jem".
"'t.~\1_1 .". d
OJ 20cm.
""'"""----I
I1-_ 20 -..,
I I1- . . 20_._~I
(a) (b)
Fig. 9-.35
Solution:
For the open section in Fig. 9.35 a,
T 10000
q =c ---;:-- _ -,--''':'-c_ __ 1500 kg.Jem 2
0.33 t"s 0.33 X 0.25 X 80
;..
-387-
l e 0.33
TL
Gt 3 s
10 x 160
0.33 X 800 X 0.125 X 80
0.6 rad.
T 10000
q 26.3 kg. /em 2 .
2At 2 X 380 X 0.5
TLs 10 X 160 X 80
e 4GA 2t - 4 X 800 X 380 2 X 0.5 = 0.00055 rad.
This example shows the high torsional strength and stiffness of closed
sections in comparison with open sections.
Example 9.17 If the lap joint in the tube shown in Fig. 9.35 b is riveted,
what will be the .pacing of these rivets along the length of the tube to
ensure it act as a closed section ? Shear resistance of rivet = 125 kg.
Solution:
T 10000
T = = 13.2 kg.fern.
2 A 2 X 380
TS = 125
125
s = 9.5 cm.
13.2
1.25 1.25
r r
L
22cm.
09
22cm
L ~::::::::l-' 0.9
L8~ 116c~
(a 1 (b )
Fig. 9.36
Solution
11.8 X 1.25
I t. /em 2.
0.33 (22 X 0.!f3 +2 X 7.1 X 1.25')
T
2 X 0.9 (20.75 X 15.1)
T 564 em.t.
A comparison between the torques that can be carried by the two
sections demonstrates the high torsional strength o( closed thin-walled
sections in comparison with open ones.
b
d
1.6cm.
Fig 9.37
-389-
'" X 10 2
Solution A 78.8 em 2
4
T 100
T 0.64 "/em.
2 A 2 X 78.8
-0.64
-- = 2
O.B- t./em .
0.8
0.64
0.4 t./cm 2
1.6
0.64
0.64 t./em 2.
J dtS
= 10,"(
-4
I
-I
2
+ J:6 + I)
0.8 27.5
e =
TL
4X2G
J ds
-t- -
100 X 200 X 27.5
4 X 78.8 2 X 800
0.028 rad.
Example 9.20 Find the maximum shear stress at section a-a of the
structure shown in Fig. 9.38 if it has a circular cross-section 10 cm.
diameter.
Solution: The straining actions causing shear stresses at section a-a are:
Q=3t. l
T = I X I - X I X 0.5 ~ 0.5 m.t. (clockwise).
-390-
1t
Fig. 9.38
Due to the torque T, the shear stresses vary linearly from zero at the
centre to a maximum value, qmallO = TR/ J, at the extreme outer fiber
and have directions tangential to the circumference. Their directions at
points 1-4 are shown in Fig. 9.39 a.
Due to the shearing force Q, the shear stresses vary parabolically from
zero at points 2 and 4 to a maximum value, 4Qf3A, at fiber 1-3. Their
directions are parallel to the applied shearing force as shown in Fig. 9.39 h.
3
,t--- -t-- -t 1
~2
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.39
Fig. 9.40
( 2 ) Rivet holes 2.4 cm. diameter are puched in a metal sheet 0.8 em.
thick. If the shearing strength of the sheet is 2.1 t. /cm 2., what wiH be the ,
compressive stress in the punch at the time of punching ?
Fig. 9.41
( 4 ) A copper disc 10 em. diameter and 0.2 em. thick is fitted in the
casing of an air compressor so as to function as a safty valve ahd blow in
case of serious increase of the pressure of the compressed air. Calculate
at what pressure the disc will blowout assuming that failure occurs by
shear round the edges of the disc and that the shearing strength of copper
is '1.25 t, /em 2,
-392-
m,.--lf--f->30cm.
Fig. 9.42
1
( 6 ) A gear transmitting torque of 18GOO em.kg. to a 6 em. diameter
shaft is keyed to it as shown in Fig. 9.43 . The key is 1.5 X 1.5 em. in
section and 5 em. long. Determine the shear stress in the key.
Fig. 9.43
12cm
Fig. 9.44
-393 -
(8) The beam shown m Fig. 9.45 has a T-section of the given dimen-
sions. Calculate the maximum shear stress and plot the shear stress
distdbution at the section of maximum shearing force.
l
0.5 11m
J:'! I! " i I ' l !
"'jf"r
- __. .I.lrJ
.
Fig. 9.4~
(9) - (14) - For the cross-sectional areas shown in Figs. 9.46 a - f, plot
the shear stress distributions indfcatitlg the value and position of the max-
imum shear stress in every case
10 I 51
~ . ~~em
Ugem.
:-,
4m 3 ~
Q~~
tt
l4sW=~
~m.l
(a) (b) (e)
9I 27 I
5x4=20
,......JIL-,~
~
(d) (II) (f )
Fig. 9.4G
- 394-
fi
:-1 r
8 m
lem
-12~~
Fig. 947
(16) Prove that in a thin tube in bending, the maximum shear stress
is approximately double the averagCl shear stress.
(17) For the beam shown in Fig. 9.48 find the allowable value of
P as governed by :
(a) Shear in the section assuming the allowable shear stress 0.8 t. /cm 2.
(b) Shear in the rivets assuming that 1.4 em. rivets at 8 em. spacing
are used and that the allowable shear stress in the rivets is
0.96 t-lcm 2 .
2 cmLRF==+=
15eml-
15 em
15m L lem
.
l~crn.J
Fig. 9.48
- 395-
--.t
IJ
x_c=:TIh~ x (OIl
b
(a)
__ -IX15 =3em.
e : 4 em 72 em
A :40cm i
I x :723e m 4 12eml'
i lang angles
Fig. 9.49
'r
20cm
~-t
20em
-1
.F;g. 9.50
(20) A woodcn beam has the cross-section shown ill Fig. 9.51. It
is built up of planks 5 cm. thick each, nailed together with nails whicli
have shear resistance of 42 kg. per nail. If the beam is subjected to a con-
stant shear of 1000 kg., what should be the spacings ofna;!s (a) and (b) ?
1-
-396-
(a) (a)
~m1
II
I'
I- ~ -
~ 35cm
(0) !-
, I
- -
:I
(21 ) - (26 ) Determine the location e of the shear centre for the beams
having the cross-sectional dimensions shown in Figs. 9.52-9.57.
02
0.2 em 21
e
4em
c
-::i
3em
" 4cm
II
~cm
/1=7==,I~
1
1 cm
-I
_~I-.v.12 3
em
c
e 3cm
1p==---1
1
-397-
.p::r~ 20
.-- 1
1 40 --'20
I
c
-+ 12.5
e
~
c
60cm
1
1/
<O"~'
f
12 S
O.Scm.
5'_ _ _ I
~.
-r -.Jlok 40 -I1O~
-.1 !
F;g. 9.56 Fig. 9.57
(27) Determine the maximum shear stress in the stepped shaft with
diameters 2, 6, 4 and 3 em. starting from the left end, and subjected to
the torques shown in Fig. 9.58. If G = 800 t./em 2., what is the relative
~ngle of twist between its two ends?
L75cm \
50 L 50-\--IOOcm>---.-I
Fig. 9.58
(28) A circular tube 0.318 em. thick and 8 em. mean diameter tran~
mits a torque T. If the allowable shear stress is 1 t. /em 2., what torque
can it transmit? For this tube what will be the relative angle of twist in
a length of 80 em. if G = 800 t./cm 2. ?
(29) What must be the length of 0.5 em. di-'lmeter aluminum WIre
so that it could be twisted through one complete revolution without
exceeding a shear stress of 0.25 t./cm 2. ? G = 250 t./cm 2.
(30) Determine the maximum shear stress in the shaft shown In Fig.
9.59. IfG = 800 t.fcm 2 ., what will be the angle of twist at the free end?
- 398-
(31) Design a hollow steel shaft, the ratio of the external to the
internal rliameters being 2 : 1, for a stifness of 0.001 of a degree per one
em.kg. torque, G for steel = 800 t.lem 2.
(32) The stepped shaft shown in Fig. 9.60 carries the given torques.
\Vhat is the total angle of twist at the free end if the maximum shear stress
is limited to I !.fem 2, ? G = 800 t.fern 2.
F;g. 9.60
(34) The shaft shown in Fig. 9.61 carries a torque of 8. m.t. at the
given location. Calculate the values of the resisting torques at the fixed
ends.
L
Fig. 9.61
-399-
(h) A hollow circular section IDem. and 8 eln. outside and inside
diameters.
(e) An eleptical section 5 em. and 20 em. minor and major diameters.
G (for steel) = 800 t./cm 2 .
(36) Compare the shear stress and angle of twist for a thin tube of
equilateral triangle cross-section, side length 12 em. and wall thickness
0.4 em. to a similar tube having a longitudinal slot if both tubes are
subjected to the same torque.
0.5 t
d IOem
c ~a~____~~9~O~
a 0r l ~
;:J
b f-- 0 .5 m ~
Fig. 9.62
-400-
(40) Fig. 9.63 shows a riveted bracket. If the area of the rivet
is 5 em 2., calculate the shear stress in rivets 1 and 2.
0.24 I
045 I
J
-'---
~-
t t:
31
\ l,
6
6
~
~
t~
~'I
I I
1.35
lL I
m
+
t ~ 16 em ~
30Cm---~ ~i% T
+
Fig. 9.65
- 401-
CHAPTER 10
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
10.1 int"oduction
Fig. 101
~N'
Fig. 102
The nonnal stress f and the shear str.,.. q mentioned. in the previous
two examples are not the greatest values that l11ay occur at the locations
of the elements considered. Since the design of a member is usually
governed by the maximum stress that ma.y occur in the member, it is
essential to . establish means by which these maximum stresses may be
determined.
-403-
21
rl~
Bjom
5
12em I 3
I, 16.em
I 5 -l-,.5-+ 5 6J
em
1,.5m _
l Fig. 10.3
r Solution:
15 X 40 3
Ix = _ 80000 em'.
12
For location 1, M = 2 m.t. and Q = + 2 t
f = My_ 200000 X 12
x = ~ 30 kg./em 2
I 80000
For location 5, since it lies at the extreme upper fiber, the shear stress is
zero and the normal stress "is a maximum and given by :
,-
-404-
r
200000 x 20 50 kg./em 2 .
f, = -
80000
The stress components at losations 1-5 are shown m Figs. 10.4 a-e
respectively.
2
_1.8kg/cm 2
~[JV.kg/cm.
l.a-
(d) (II)
Fig. 10.4
x
o
Fig _ 10:;
,r
-405-
y
y
r q
/'" '0'4
dLixf~e)
~~J-. .. Q
COfe
,-
q
i IY'"
ql
qg
dA si"'"
l,y 0
0
(bl
(al
F;g. 10.6
Equations 10.3 and 10.4 are the general expressions for the equivalent
normal and shear stresses on a plane making an angle e with the y-direc-
tion and caused by a known system of stresses; [x' (v and q. It is
important to note the signs of all the quantities in these equations.
Tensile normal stresses are considered positive. Positive shear stresses COf-
respond to shear acting upward on the left face and downward on the
right face of the element. The angle e refers to the y-axis and is conside-
red positive when measured in anti clockwise direction. The positive
signs correspond to the directions indicated in Fig. 10.5.
Example 10.2 For the two elements shown in Figs. 10.7 a and b, calcul-
ate the equivalent normal and shear stresses on the inclined planes
indicated.
0.1,
-
0.75
!0.25
Cal Cbl
Fig. 10.7
fe -
1 - 0.2 1 + 0.2
cos 90 - 0.4 sin 90
2 + 2
0.4 + 0 ~ 0.4 0
qe + 0.2
sin 90 + 0.4 cos 90
2
= 0.6 + 0 = 0.6 t./em 2.
Q
0.75 0.53 Item
1:5 f~0.323 tlcJ
Fig. 10.8
df
-=0= (f, - fy) sin 29 - 2q cos2e
de
)2 +
fx + f, +
2 V( fX -
---
2
fy
". 10.7
f2 = [min =
fx +2 fy _ V(fX -2 fy )2+ q2 '" 10.8
/:<7 4
dAcos~ rfr~)
~ q
~--.;
dASI~~
X
0
Fig, 10.9
-409-
+ V( f.-;fY)"+q2
and f2 _V( f, -; fy ) 2+ q2
dq
= 0 = (f. - fy ) cos 2e - 2q sin 2e
de
2q
Hence, cot 2e = ... 10.11
fx - fy
A comparison between equation 10.11 and equation 10.6, shows that
the maximum and minimum shear stresses occur on planes inclined at an
angle of 45 0 to the principal planes. Substituting the values of e from
equation 10.11 into equation 10.4, the value of the maximum shear stress
is obtained. Thus,
2
qm" =
V( r,,-fy
2
)
+ q2 ... 10.12
which shows that the numerical value of the maximum shear stress at a
point is equal to one half the difference between the principal normal
stresses at that point.
_
qn = :.!f,~-..:fL sin 29 + q cos 28
2
Eliminating the parameter a between these two equations by squarmg
and adding,
... 10.15
(fO - a) 2 + q; 10.16
where, a
f, + fy
10.17
'2
'. 3 \
~------~~r-~ .(f.,Q)
t
(e)
(d)
'I = f rna .
(a)
J
Fig. 10'10
- 41:1.-
(2) Locate the centre of the circle which is on the horizontal axis
. at a distance t (f, + fy) from the origin O.
(4) Connect the centre of the circle found in (2) with the point
located in (3) and determine this distance which is the radius of the circle.
(5) Draw a circle with the radius found in (4). The two points of
intersection with the f-axis, points 1 and 2 in Fig. 10.10 a, give the values
of the principal stresses. Only normal, and no shear stresses, correspond
to these points on the circle.
~
Exam.ple 10.3 Using ~..fohr's circle of stress, re~work example.lO.2
Solution:
i From the data given in Fig. 10.7 a, Mohr's circle of stress can
be drawn in the manner described in section 10.6 and is as shown in Fig.
I
10.11; centre at (0.4, 0) and radiu = .) 0.6 2 + 0.4 2 = .)0:52= 0.72.
Point xI on the circle is located by taking an angle 2 X 45 = 901) counter
clockwise from x.
Xl (0,0.6)
.
33 42
/
x (1,0.4 )
Fig. ID.ll
From the data given in Fig. 10.7 b, Monr's circle can be drawn and is as
shown in Fig. 10.12; centre at (0.5, 0) and radius. R = . ) 0.75 2 + 0.5 2
= 0.558. Point XI on the circle is located at an angle of 2 X 22.5 = 45
clockwise from point x.
I (0.75,-;53)
XI (0.323.- 0.53)
Fig. 10.12
- 414-
Analytical solution:
From equations 10.6-10.8,
-2 X 0.7
tan 2e = 7
0.8 - I
2e = 81 0 54' or e 40 0 57'
From equation 10.14,
1.607 0.193
= 0.707 t./em 2 .
2
The normal stress associated with the maximum shear stress is given by :
f=
0.8 + = 0.9 t./em 2.
2
Semi-graphical solution
fx + fy
The centre of the circle lies on ~he f-axis at a distance - 2 - -
0.8 +
= 0.9 from tfle origin O. This, with the co-ordinates of
2
point x (0.8, 0.7), is enough to draw Mohr's circle of stress whi"ch is shown
in Fig. 10.13.
q
(0.8.0.7)
o 2
f=O.~
Fig. 10. f\3
2
1,=1.607 '/em 10.9 t1em2
" /0.193 0 .70;..:7-.:!:::::=
o~, i- 09
/ 2 "'1607 _ 0.707
Fig. 10.14
-416-
400
- ..... t~l4OOk9teJ
oe
2
a eOOkg tem
11200
Fig. 10.15
Solution:
Mohr's circle of stress is plotted from the three g1V~n stress
components; f, = - 400, fy = 1200 and q = 800 The centre of the
circle lies on the f-axis at a distance t (f, +
fy) = t (- 400+1200) = 400,
from the origin O. Point x on th(" circle has the co-ordinates (rx' q) or
q
'2(~OO>1132J
:135
f
Fig. 10. 16
- 417 -
R .J 800 2 + 800 2
and 26 135 0
The principal stresses are eo ual to the distance from the origin 0 to the
centre of the circle c plus or minus the radius. Thus,
Since point 1 on the circle is clockwise from point x, the plane on which
fl acts is clockwise from the plane on which the stress - 400 kg.jcm 2, acts
and at an angle 6 ~~ 135/2 =. 67 0 30'. The direction off2 is of course
normal to that of f l , Th~ principal stresses and their directions ~are shown
in Fig. 10.17 a.
The normal and shear stresses on plane ab are obtained from the co-
ordinates of point Xl on the circle. Since plan,e ah is 45 clockwise from
the plane on which the stress - 400 kg. fern 2. acts and which is repres-
ented by point x, point Xl will be 90 0 cloockwise from x. Thus, from the
geometry of the circle in Fig. 10.16, the normal and shear stresses on plane
ab are given by :
1200\ 8~ .)tOO
5 ~
\
1532 kg /em
2
'~\f'\ , 1200 kg./em
(a ) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.t7
.- - - - - - - - -- - - - -
-418-
Reference to Fig. 10.16 shows that point x on the circle r~presents the
2
plane on which the maximum positive shear stress occurs. Then, since
point x 2 on the circle is 45 0 clockwise from point x, the plane of the maxi
mum shear stress makes an angle of 22 0 30' clockwise from the plane on
which the stress of - 400 kg. fern 2. acts. The magnitude of the maxi-
mum shear stress is equal to the radius of the circle. Thus~
The abscessa of the centre of the circle gives the normal stress associated
with this shear stress; f = 400 kg.Jcm 2 These stresses are shown ort the
element ir. Fig. 10.17 e .. As a check, it will be noted that the an"le bet-
ween the principal planes and the planes of maximum shear stresses is
4So as it should be.
7cm~ l
T J
56cm'cm
=:X-lIt-:X
,,- 60cm
7c m
l c:=f=::l
T~crnl
Fig. 10.18
Solution:
30 X 60 3 29 X 56 3
I, 115000 em'.
12 12
-419-
4500 x 28
f - 1.1 t. /em'.
115000
42 (30 x 2 x 29)
q 0.63 t./em 2.
115000 X I
q
0.2& + 1.38
= 0.83 t. /em 2.
2
The maximum normal stress due to bending moment alone occurs at the
to'p fiber,
30
= - 1.18 t. /em 2 .
28
Thus the greatest principal normal stress f2 is 17 % greater than f max ' The
maximum shear stress due to shearing force alone occurs at the middle
fiber of the section,
42 (30 X 2 X 29 + 28 X 1 X 14)
0.78 t./em 2.
115000 X I
Esample 10. 7 Fig. 10.19 shows a shaft of hollow circular section, 16 em.
and 12 em. external and internal diameters. The shaft is subjected to
an a~al compressive force of 40 t. and a torque of 4 m.t. as shown. Find
the magnitudes and directions of the principal normal stresses at any point
on the surface of the shaft. What is the percentage increase in the shear
stress due to the axial force ?
~ml.t ~4mt
401 ) . f-----------J. LOt
Fig. 10.19
- 420 -
Solution:
- 400x8
q = 0.728 t./em 2.
4400
2
O.n81/c",
(al ~lOt~5
2 I
['y
5f~~ V. d"728
,p.989
5351/crJ
2
/ \'0.989 t/cm
0535
(c) (b)
Fig. 10.20
0.762-0.728
percentage increase in shear stress x 100 4.8%
0.728
-421-
1."0 -"
Fig. 10.21
J ~t::r--=~-c----'6~ Fig. Ip.22
o
t
o
o
in lernal pressure In
P a closed lube.
Fig 10.23 Fig. 10.24
(2) For the elements shown in Fig. 10.25, find from the first 'pnncip-
les the equivalent normal and shear stresses acting on the 'indicated
inclined planes.
.!-t -
o.i;
--
f061/C.J
Q5
0.8
tE- -0.6
(3) Using equations 10.3 and 10.4, re-work the problems in (2).
(5) lIor the stress systems shown in Fig. 10.26, calculate the principal
normal stresses and show their directions on properly oriented elements.
Calculate in each case the value of the maximum shear str~s.
t07t/CrJ
t J 1tlC 2 108 tlcrri
+
0
0.6~
0.4 0.6 t/em
Fig. 10.26
(7) For the stress system shown in Fig. 10.25, find hoth analytically
and semi-graphically using 1vlohr's circle of stress, the maximum shear
stresses and the associated normal stresses. Show the results on properly
oriented elements.
8t 81
Fig. 10.27
(9) A rectangular plate 0.5 em. thick is 16 cm. long and 12 cm. wide.
A tensile force of 6 t., uniformly distributed along the longer side of the
plate, is applied to the plate as 'nown in Fig. 10.28. Find the normal
and shear stresses on planes across the diagonals. What total force on
the other two sides of the plate will create a state of pure shear stress in
the plate?
-423-
Fig. 10.28
800 em I
3 -f'2;1
(12) A hollow circular shaft, 12 em. and 8 em. external and internal
diameters is subjected to a torque of 2 m.t. and a thrust of 20 t. What
is the shear stress due to the torque alone and the percentage increase
when the thrust is considered?
(13) A steel tube 8 cm_ internal diameter and 0-4 cm. thick has
closed ends and is su~iectcd to an intrcnal pressure of 100 kg./cm 2 Cal-
culate the magnitude of maximum shear stress and indicate its direction
on the surface of the tube.
J
I i
Z5cm
7~
.
80cm lcm
L {2.5Cm
W
Fig. 10.30
11
,a
a-'--..J.;~
Fig. 10.31
(16) A cylindrical pressure vessel -50 cm. diameter with walls 1 cm.
thick is subjected to an internal pressure of 40 kg./cm 2 If the plates are
buttwelded as shown in Fig. 10.32, determine the normal and shearing
forces that have to be carried per 1 cm. length of the weld.
Spiral welding
/
/
J
Fig. 10.32
..--- ~--------- - -- -
-425-
(17) A cylindrical pressure vessel 160 cm. diameter and I cm. thick
i. subjected to a uniform internal fluid pressure of 40 kg.Jcm 2. and suppor-
ted as shown in Fig. 10.33. If the weight of the vessel and the contained
fluid is 1.5 t.Jm., find the magnitudes of the principal stresses at the
extreme upper and lower fibers of the middle section.
r,
,
~
r
./
I<
t1.6m :---
18m
F;g. 10.33
-l J
r
I (18) Fig. 10.34 shows an advertising post. If the wind pressure on
the board is 100 kg.Jm 2. and its own weight is 0.25 t., indicate the strain-
ing actions on section a-a of the supporting post. If the post has a hollo,,"
! square section lof mean side length 25 em. and uniform thickness of
l 0.5 em., calculate for four points diamctrically opposite, the normal
stresses, shear stresses and the principal normal stresses. Indicate your
l results on properly oriented elements.
+-- 1 -..-- 3 m _
,! !
r- 'd=-==iri:r====:;;:ri1
1.5
i-
I
I
3m
F;g. 10.34
Appendix I
GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF PCANE SECTIONS
R"ctangl .. Triangl ..
y
x
0 r
xd
~
A = bd
I, = ~r
Iy = db
J
IJ
1.!
~'
dol. - ~
1/3 h-
A:
1y
=
~d~d
h Iy = I.
[)~
Iy = lx, 4 ~
J_ITR_TTO
- -y- - -rr- Y ;"
i- J = 2TT.l1 = TT11
{W A =i-ab
Clt r-- a -j
1i8a
,t
Compl"m"ntary parabola S"g .. m"nl of a parabola
~
a
b 0 At ab
~r At
ab
L::~a-l
Appeadis 2
12 Y
T t- r - '
~
h x 0 x
BROAD FLANGE I-BEAMS
1 I-bY-ooj
~ 'r-11
"". 111M.
'2
~,. om.2 KII/m. ~III~
'x'
Cln~
'x
co. ~fII~ "elll? " Ok.
10 lac 100 6 10 26.1 ZO.5 447 89.3 4.14 167 334 Z.!i}
12 120 120 7 11 34.3 26.9 864 144.0 5.02 317 53.0 3.""
11, 140 140 8 12 44.1 34.6 1520 217.00 5.87 550 79.0 }.5}
16" 160 160 9 14 58.4 45.8 2630 ;29.0 6.72 958 120.0 4.05
18 180 180 9 14 <5.3 51.6 3340 426.0 7.63 1360 151.0 4.55
20 200 200 10 16 82.7 64.9 5950 595.0 8'-48 2140 214.0 5.08
22 2,0 220 10 16 91.1 ?l.5 8050 732.0 9.37 2840 2.58.0 5.59
24 240 240 11 18 111.0 87.4 11690 974.0 10.30 4150 346.0 6.11
26 260 260 11 18 121.0 94.8 15050 1160.0 11.20 5280 406.0 6.61
28 280 280 12 20 144.0 113.0 20720 1480.0 12.00 7320 523.0 7.1"
30 300 300 12 20 154.0 12-l~O 25760 1720.0 12.90 9010 600.0 7.65
3' 320 320 13 22 ~71.0 135.0 32250 2020;0 13.70 9910 661.0 7.60
34 340 300 13 22 174.0 137.0 36940 2170.0 14.50 9910 661.0 7.55
36 360 300 14 24 192.0 150.0 45120 2510.0 15.30 10810 721.0 7.51
33 380 300 1. 24 194.0 153.0 50950 2680.0 16.20 10810 721.0 7.46
40 400 300 14 26 209.0 164.0 60640 3030.0 17.00 11710 781.0 1.49
42.5 425 300 14 26 212.0 166.0 69480 3270.0 18.10 11710 781.0 7.43
45 450 300 ;5 28 232.0 182.0 84220 ;740.0 19.00 12620 841.0 7.38
.\7,5 l\75 300 15 28 2}5.0 185.0 95120 4010.0 20.10 12620 841.0 7.,2
50 500 300 16 30 255.. 0 ZOO.O 113200 4530.0 21.00 13530 902.0 7.28
55 550 300 16 30 263.0 207.0 140300 5100 ... 0 23.10 13530 902.0 1.17
eO 600 300 17 32 289.0 221.0 180800 6030.0 25.00 14440 962.0 1.07
65 300 650 17 32 297.0 234.0 216800 6670.0 27.00 11;1;40 962.0 6.97
70 300 700 18 34 324.0 254.0 210300 7720.0 28.90 15350 1020.0 6.88
75 7'" 300 18 34 333. 0 261.0 316300 8430.0 30.80 15350 1020.0 6.79
80 800 300 18 34 ~2.0 268.0 366400 9160.0 32.70 15350 1020.. 0 6.70
85 850 300 19 ;6372.0 292.0 443900 10440.0 34.60 16210 1080.0 6.61
90 900 300 '9 36 ,}81.0 Z99.0 5Q6OOO 11250.0 36.40 16270 1080.0 6.5}
95 950 300 19 36 391.0 307.0 573000 12060.0 38.}O 16210 1080.0 6.,,5
100 1000 300 19 ;6 400.0 314~O 644700 12900.0 40.10 16280 1080.0 6.37
- 429-
Y
'2 I
J 0 ~
Th
STANDARD IBEAMS
'1
1
;Ul~
l.I\J11ne~lons x- ... xisl y-axt.::
~1.ze Ares Weight
.8
'''' "
IBo 82 6. 9 10 . 4 27.9 21. 9 1450 161.0 7.20 81.3 19 . 80 1.71
,. ZOO 90 ?5 11.3 }}.5 2603 21~O 214.0 8.00 117.0 26. 00 I.e?
,.
'? 2,0 98 8 . 1 12 . 2 }9.6 }1.1 ,- 278.0 8.80 162. 0 }).IO 2 . 0Z
240 100 8.? 1}.1 46.1 }6.' 4250 }54.0 9. 95 221.0 ',1.70 , Z.20
26 260 113 9 llt.l 53.4 41.9 5740 442.0 10.40 zeB.O 51.00 2.32
28 2BO 119 10.1 15.2 61.1 48.0 7590 5112.0 11. 10 36L..O 61..20 2.45
lO lOO 125 10.8 16.2 69.1 54 . 2 9800 653.0 11.90 451.0 72.2:0 2.56
!' l20 131 U . 5 17.; 77.8 61 . 1 12510 782.0 12. 70 555.0 8~.70 2.07
34 3',0 137 12.2 HId 86.8 68.1 15700 923.0 1}.50 674.0 96:40 2.80
>6 }60 '-> l}.O 1?5 97.1 76.2 19610 1090.0 14 . 20 818.0 114.0 2.90
,8 380 149 1}.7 ZO.5 ]07.0 84.0 21.j010 1260.0 15.00 975.0 131.0 302
4C 400 15S Ilt . it 21.6 118.0 92.6 29210 1460.0 15.70 1160.0 149.0 3.1}
"'.5",5 10; 15.3 2).0 1}2.0 104.0 }6970 1740.0 16.70 141tO.0 l7/;.0 }30
's 450 170 16.2 2tt.3 147.0 115.0 45850 '201!.0. 0 17.70 1730.0 ,20) . 0 3.~J
'75 178 17.1 25 163.0 123.0 56480 2380.0 18.60 2050.0 ~J5.0 ).60
"
50 500 185 18.0 27.0 180.0 141.0 68740 2750.0 19.60 2480.0 268.0 }.72
55 550 200 19 . 0 }D.o 213.0 167.0 99180 3610. 0 21 .60 }490.0 }49.0 4 .. 02
60 '00 215 ('l.G 32.4 254.0 199.0 1,39000 4630 0 23.40 4670.0 434. '.3D
,
- .f30-
1
"i)i4enslons x .. axla ),-axw
Size
S
... ... .... ..."
80 45 6
b ; Area
Ct!l~
IIcl&ht
K5I.II ... Ix
""~
tx
em?
'x
Iy
C!A~
f
\. y
ea } "..
8 11.0 8.64 14.5 106 '6.5 '.10 19." 6.}6 1.3}
10 100 50 6 e. 13.5 10.60 15.5 206 41.2: 3.90 2'1-3 e.49 1.44
1, fro 55 7 9 11.0 13.40 16.0 }64 60.7 4.63 4}.Z ll.l t 59
14 140 60 7 10 20'4 16.00 17.5 605 86.4 5.44 62.7 14.6 1.75
16 160 6S 75 10. 21t.O 18.80 18.4 925 116.0 6.20 85.3 18.3 1.89
18 180 70 8 11 28.0 2'2.00 19.2 1350 150.0 6.~4 114.0 2:Z.4 2.02
20 200 75 85 ll. 32.2 25.1O CO.I 1910 19.1.0 7.70 14a.O 27.0 2.1lt
'2 220 80 9 1,. }?'. 29.40 21.4 2690 245.0 8.49 191.0 3}.6 '.29
24 240 85 9:; 13 42., 3J.2C ,2.3 3600 300.0 '.ll 24!.:O 39.6 z.ItZ
26 260 90 10 37.90 23.6 4320 371.0 10.00 ,17.0 47.7 2.56
28 280 95 10 15 " 48.3
5'., 41.80 25.3 6280 4,.8.0 10.81 399.0 57.2 2.74
30 300 100 10 16 58.S 46.20 2.1.0 S030 535.0 11.10 495.0 67.3 2.,.
3Z 320 lac 14 I?: 75.8 59.50 26.0 10870 679.0 l.e.OO 597.0 SO,6 2.81
35 350 100 16 77.3 60.60 2840 734.0 12.80 570.0 75.0 Z.71
102 "
24.0
33 }SO lJio 16 79.7 62.60 23.5 573ll 826.0 14.08 61).0 78.4 ~.74
40 400 llo 14 18 91.5 71.80 26.5 20350 ozo.o 14.90 8,.6.0 102.0 ,.010
,
,,
-
-<4,31 -
., y
u
EQUAL ANGLES
f----'-a
u y
Dirnns.
Size Area Weigb ~ I x =1y I" Iv
t
" 2 4
cm~ em~
mIn mID e~. Kg/Ill. "". em.
45x45x5 45 5 1'.30 3. :;8 12.3 7.33 12.4 ~;25
45x45x7 45 7 5.86 4.60 13.6 10 .. ., 16.4 4.39
50>:50x5 50 5 4;80 3.77 14. f~ 11.0 17.4 4.59
50x50x7 59 7 6.56 5.15 14.9 14.6 23.1 6.02
50x50x9 50 9 8.24 6.47 15.6 17.9 28.1 7.67
55x55x6 55 6 6031 4.95 1$.6 17;3 27.4 7.24
55x55x8 55 8 8.23 6.46 16;4 22.1 34.8 9.35
55x55x10 55 10 10.10 7.90 17.2 26.3 41.4 11.30
60x60xG 60 6 6.91 5.42 16.'9 22.8 36.1 9.43
60x60x8 60 8 9.03 7.09 17.7 29.1 46.1 12.10
GOx60xlO 60 10 n;10 8.69 18.5 34.9 ~ ).l 14.60
65x65x7 65 7 8;70 6;83 18.5 33.4 53.0 13.80
65x65x9 65 ? 11.00 8.62 19 . .} 41.3 65.4 17.20
65x65xll 65 II 13.20 10.3e 20.0 48.8 76.& 20.70
707!lOrl 70 7 9.4 7.:;8 19.7 42.4 67.1 17.60
7 0.,.70:<9 70 9 11.9 9.34 20.5 52.6 83.1 22.00
'7O'x70xl1 70 11 14.3 11.20 21.3 61.8 97.6 26.00
75x75xB 75 8 11.5 9.03 2103 58.9 95.3 24.40
7.5'x75xlO 75 10 14.1 !1.1O 22;1 71.4 113.0 29.80
75x75xl2 75 12 16.7 U. 1O 22.9 82.4 130.0 34.70
80x80xB 80 8 12.3 9.66 22.6 7203 115.0 29.60
80x80xlO 80 10 15.1 11.90 23.4 87.5 1}9.0 35.90
.80x80xI2 80 12 17'-9 14.10 24.1 102.0 161.0 43.00
D~ni;.
=1'
Size a
DIm.
t
mCl.
Are.!
em.
Weight
2 Kg/ro. ...
e Ix
em~
Iu
cm~
Iv
CJll~
lOOx100x10 100 10 19.2 15.1 28.2 177 230 73.3
100xl00x12 100 12 22.7 17.8 29.0 207 328 86.2
100xlOOx14 100 14 26.2 20 6 29.8 235 372 98.3.
1l0x110xlO 110 10 21.2 16.6 30.7 239 379 98.6
110x110x12 110 12 25.1 19.7 31.5 280 444 116.0
110x110x14 110 14 29.0 22.8 32.1 319 505 133.0
12Ox120x11 120 11 25.~ 19.9 33.6 ~1 5~1 140.0
120x120x1.3 120 13 29.7 23.3 ~.4 394 625 162.0
12Ox120x15 }20 15 .33.9 26.6 35.1 446 705 186.0
130xl30x12 130 12 30 0 23.6 36.4 472 750 194.0
130x130x14 1.30 14 34.7 27.2 37.2 540 857 243.0
130x130x16 130 16 39-3 30.9 38.0 605 959 251.0
140xl40x13 140 13 .35.0 27.5 39.2 638 1010 262.0
140xl40x15 140 15 40.0 .31.4 40.0 723 1150 298.0
140x140x17 1,,0 It: 45.0 35.3 40.8 805 1280 3~.0
UNEQUAL ANGLES
u
30x60>:5 }O 60 5 4.29 3d? 6.B 21. .256 15.6 2.6 16.5 1.69
30x60x? 30 60 7 5.85 4.59 7.6 22.4 .248 20.7 3.4 21.5 2.28
40x60:<6 40 80 6 6.89 5.31 5.2 28. .259 44.9 7. ~i 47.6 4.91
40x80x8 40 80 8 9.01 7.07 9.5 29. .253 57.6 9. C 60.9 1;.41
5Oxl.ooxa 50 loa 03 1.50 8.99 ll.3 35. .259 116.0 19.5< 123 12.60
5OxlCOxlv 50 100 10 14.1 1.10 12.0 36. .252 141.0 23. '( 149 15.50
65xl30xlO 65 130 10 18.6 4.60 14.5 1,6. .259 321.0 ,4. ~~ '~40 35.00
65xl30xl2 65 1}' 12 22.1 7.3 15.3
".' .':55 376.0 63.0 397 t.l.,zO
BOxl60x12 80 160 12 ~7.5 ~1.6 17.7 57. .259 720.0 122.0 763 78.90
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NOT: ApproxlJ .... at~ radll of gyratl.on are:
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