What is Research?

According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusion

1. Systematic research process

2. Logical induction/deduction

3. Empirical evidence based

4. Reductive generalisation

5. Replicable methodology.

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research

Qualitative research is characterised by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social
life, and its methods which (in general) generate words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis.

Qualitative methods generally aim to

understand the experiences and attitudes of patients, the community or health care worker. These methods
aim to answer questions about the what, how or why of a phenomenon rather than how many or
how much, which areanswered by quantitative methods.

Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers (Punch, 1998,
p. 4)

Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in

context-specific settings, such as "real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon of interest" (Patton, 2001, p. 39). Qualitative research, broadly
defined, means "any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at by means of statistical
procedures or other means of quantification" (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17) and instead, the
kind of research that produces findings arrived from real-world settings where the "phenomenon
of interest unfold naturally" (Patton, 2001, p. 39).

What is Quantitative Research?

Researchers who use logical positivism or quantitative research employ experimental
methods and quantitative measures to test hypothetical generalizations (Hoepfl, 1997), and they
also emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables (Denzin
and Lincoln, 1998). To illustrate the meaning of quantitative research for its use of explaining
social problems, Bogdan and Biklen (1998) note:
Charts and graphs illustrate the results of the research, and commentators employ words
such as variables, populations and result as part of their daily vocabularyeven if
we do not always know just what all of the terms mean[but] we know that this is part
of the process of doing research. Research,

Reliability
Joppe (2000) defines reliability as:
The extent to which results are consistent over time and an accurate representation of
the total population under study is referred to as reliability and if the results of a study
can be reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is
considered to be reliable. (p. 1)

Validity
Joppe (2000) provides the following explanation of what validity is in quantitative
research:
Validity determines whether the research truly measures that which it was intended to
measure or how truthful the research results are. In other words, does the research
instrument allow you to hit "the bulls eye" of your research object? Researchers
generally determine validity by asking

Types of Qualitative Research

Phenomenology -a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one
or more individuals experience a phenomenon
Ethnography-this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A
culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a
group of people
Case study is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account of
one or more case .
Grounded theory- it is an inductive type of research, based or grounded in the observations of
data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative data,
review of records, interviews, observation and surveys
Historical research-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present
condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and
problems. Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

HISTORICAL This aims at a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.

DESCRIPTIVE
This design relies on observation as a means of collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order
to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.
CORRELATION
This design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts. There are two broad classifications
of relational statements: an association between two concepts where there is some kind of
influence of one on the other; and a causal relationship where one causes changes to occur in the
other. Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a cause and effect relationship. The cause
is referred to as the independent variable, the variable that is affected is referred to as the dependent
variable.

COMPARATIVE
This design is used to compare past and present or different parallel situations,
particularly when the researcher has no control over events. It
can look at situations at different scales, macro (international, national) or micro
(community, individual). Analogy is used to identify similarities in order to predict results
assuming that if two events are similar
in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in others too. In this way
comparative design is used to explore and test what conditions were necessary to
cause certain events, so that it is possible, for example, to understand the likely effects
of making certain decisions.

EXPERIMENTAL
Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition which determines
the events investigated and then observes the effects when the conditions are manipulated. At
its simplest,changes are made to an independent variable and the effects are observed on a
dependent variable i.e. cause and effect.

SIMULATION
Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model) of a system, which
can be manipulated to gauge effects.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Useful during the early stages of a study when the researcher may be unsure of exactly what
will be studied or what to focus on.

Does not need a strict design plan before it begins, which gives the freedom to let the study
unfold more naturally.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

Researcher interprets the research according to his or her own biased view, which
skews the data gathered.

Very time-consuming and can last for months or even years

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its ability to measure data using
statistics
Allows the researcher to measure and analyze data.
Disadvantages of quantitative research

The context of the study or experiment is ignored.

Which of the following is not a general feature that characterizes most qualitative
research?
a.inflexible design
b. naturalistic inquiry
c. holistic perspective
d. personal contact and insight

The study of a single individual and his or her experiences as told to the researcher
or found in documents and archival material describes which approach to
qualitative research?
A) biography
B) case study
C) phenomenology
D) grounded

Which is not a criticism of quantitative research made by qualitative researchers?

A) is not creative.

B) oversimplifies.

C) treats people as objects.

D) can't see the forest for the trees.

Which of the following is a philosophical assumption of quantitative researchers?

. The initial ambiguity that occurs in a study is desirable.

b. The purpose of educational research is to explain and be able to predict

relationships. The ultimate goal is the development of laws that make prediction
possible.

c. Research investigations produce alternative visions of what the world is like.

d. It is impossible for the researcher to stand apart from the individuals he or she is
studying.