1
Transformer Insulation Dry Out as a Result of
Retrofilling with Natural Ester Fluid
Steve Moore, Senior Member, IEEE, Kevin Rapp, Member, IEEE and Ramona Baldyga
Abstract-- Transformer cellulose insulation generates moisture
as it degrades, primarily dependent on temperature. As moisture
levels increase in paper/liquid systems, dielectric performance
decreases. Moisture in cellulose insulation combined with higher
temperatures accelerates the cellulose aging process. Multiple
accelerated life tests in the lab demonstrated that the aging rate
of cellulose can be significantly slowed when impregnated with
natural ester fluid compared to mineral oil. The reduction and
suppression of moisture buildup in cellulose is the primary
reason for the reduced aging rate. This paper reviews chemical
mechanisms involved based on laboratory studies and field data
from fourteen power transformers retrofilled with natural ester
fluid. The data provides support that insulation dry out can
result from moisture migration and hydrolysis after retrofilling
transformers with natural ester fluid. The concepts of moisture
migration, hydrolysis and dry out are beneficial for new
transformers as well and should work to maintain like-new dry
insulation conditions.
Index Termsaccelerated aging, chemical processes,
dielectric liquids, hydrolysis, insulation, mineral oil, moisture,
natural ester, power transformers, retrofilling, vegetable oils
I. INTRODUCTION
T He fact that moisture is generated in transformers as the
cellulose insulation ages at elevated temperature is well
known. As the moisture content of the insulation system
increases, dielectric strength drops. Moisture in the insulation
system, combined with higher temperatures, will accelerate
the cellulose insulation aging process. Multiple accelerated
life tests in the laboratory have demonstrated that the aging
rate of cellulose insulation can be significantly slowed when
impregnated with natural ester (NE) fluid compared to mineral
oil (MO).
It is common knowledge in our industry that drier cellulose
insulation has a longer life. There are two primary reasons for
moisture reduction of the cellulose in NE fluid:
1. Moisture Migration - Moisture will establish
equilibrium between the cellulose insulation and the
fluid. Retrofilling an aged MO filled transformer with
NE fluid will typically result in moisture migrating
from the cellulose into the NE fluid until equilibrium is
established. NE fluid holds significantly more moisture
in solution than MO at the same percentage of
saturation while maintaining equivalent dielectric
strength.
2. Hydrolysis - Moisture dissolved in the NE fluid will
react with the fluid via the hydrolysis reaction to form
long chain fatty acids. This takes the moisture out of
the equilibrium process between the insulation and the
NE fluid resulting in lower percent saturation for both.
Related but separate studies done previously described
another chemical reaction between the long-chain fatty acids
generated by hydrolysis of the NE fluid and the hydroxyl
groups attached to the cellulose molecule called
transesterification [1]-[4]. This reaction can enhance the
stability of paper and reduce the formation of new moisture
due to the degradation of cellulose but is not discussed in
further detail in this paper. Continued research into
transesterification could provide more insight into possible
cellulose protection provided when NE fluid is used in lieu of
MO.
Cellulose insulation aged in MO at elevated operating
temperature produces and retains moisture due to the
hydrophobic character of MO. NE fluid is hydrophilic
compared to MO, so it attracts moisture. The higher the
moisture content of the cellulose, the more the cellulose ages
at an accelerated rate. Therefore, it is beneficial to reduce the
moisture in the cellulose and maintain dryness.
This paper reviews field data from power transformers
service aged in MO then retrofilled with Envirotemp FR3
Fluid, a natural ester fluid manufactured by Cooper Power
Systems. The operating history of fourteen units along with
FR3 fluid testing provides supporting data that hydrolysis and
cellulose insulation dry out can result from moisture migration
after NE retrofilling of transformers. The concepts of
hydrolysis and dry out are beneficial for new transformers as
well and should work to maintain like-new dry insulation
conditions.
II. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
The combination of the hydrolysis reaction and moisture
equilibrium are the primary reasons for the reduction of
moisture content in both the dielectric fluid and insulating
cellulose.
A. Moisture Migration
NE fluid holds significantly more moisture in solution than
MO at all temperatures as shown in Fig. 1. In an operating
transformer containing fluid, the majority of moisture is held
in the cellulose, not in the dielectric fluid. Because NE fluid
 2

can hold significantly more moisture as a percent of saturation additional moisture absorption from the cellulose and the
compared to MO, more moisture can migrate from the percent moisture content of the cellulose to decrease.
cellulose and dissolve in the NE fluid. Thus, when using a
80
new NE fluid retrofill of an older transformer as an example,

D1816 Dielectric Breakdown Strength (kV)

the new NE fluid increases in water content while the 70
FR3 Fluid
cellulose insulation decreases. This same concept would hold Mineral Oil
60
true for a new MO retrofill of an older transformer, but not to
the same extent. This moisture migration mechanism, by itself, 50
is not enough to remove sufficient moisture to dramatically
slow the aging rate of cellulose. 40

5000 30
B
A
273 +T
Saturation(T ) = 10
20
Water Saturation Point (mg/kg)

4000
Envirotemp FR3 fluid: A = 5.3318, B = 684
from Doble Engineering
mineral oil: A = 7.0895, B = 1567 10
from IEEE C57.106
3000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
2000 o
Water Content (% of 20 C saturation)
Fig. 3. Dielectric strength (2 mm gap) of new fluid versus % water [6].
1000

Long-chain fatty acids that result from hydrolysis and are

0
20
Fig. 1. Percent water saturation versus temperature, Fluid tested at Doble
Engineering [5].
NE fluid maintains acceptable dielectric strength even
though the fluid absorbs a greater amount of moisture
compared to MO. The dielectric strength of the NE fluid as a
percent of relative saturation is about the same or slightly
higher than MO. See Fig. 2 and 3.
40 60 80 100 120
dissolved in the NE fluid will increase the acid number. The
Temperature (oC)
long-chain fatty acids are less aggressive organic acids than
those formed from MO. Increased acid number in MO can
cause sludge formation which could interfere with the rate of
heat transfer, leading to higher winding insulation
temperatures, cellulose aging and thermal failures. Lab tests
conducted in a sealed container at 170C for 2000 hours show
virtually no signs of sludge formation from NE fluid, but
show heavy sludging in MO at these same conditions per Fig.
4 [10].

80
Natural Ester Fluid Mineral Oil
D1816 Dielectric Breakdown Strength (kV)

70 FR3 Fluid
Mineral Oil
60

50

40

30

20

10 Fig. 4. Interior of aging tubes after 2000 hours at 170C [10].

0 Acceptability of a higher acid number requires a paradigm

0 100
Fig. 2. Dielectric strength (2 mm gap) of new fluid vs water content [6].
B. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction with water that further
explains the significant moisture reduction observed in
laboratory studies of cellulose insulation in NE fluid [7]-[9].
The dissolved moisture in the NE fluid reacts with the fluid to
form new compounds called long chain fatty acids. This
reaction occurs faster as the fluid temperature increases. The
formation of these compounds consumes moisture from the
dielectric fluid, making it unavailable to react with or migrate
back into the cellulose. The fluid becomes drier, allowing
200 300 400 500 600 700
shift. In MO, high acid number is undesirable and an
Water Content (mg/kg) indication that sludge may be depositing; in NE fluid, higher
acid number is inconsequential and most often indicates that
the cellulose and fluid are getting drier due to hydrolysis.
Changes in moisture content and acid number of transformer
cellulose and oil systems rely on the operating conditions
placed on the transformer. For the concept of transformer dry
out discussed in this paper, it is assumed and important that
the transformer has operated in a sealed condition.
As moisture level in the NE fluid drops, it changes the
equilibrium balance which allows the fluid to draw more
moisture out of the cellulose. We expect that the hydrolysis
 3

process will continue until there is little moisture left to react, fluid, indicating that the acids formed are indeed milder than
resulting in a significantly drier transformer. the acids formed in MO [7]-[9]. Short-chain acids formed in
aged MO are generally more aggressive and at elevated levels
C. Moisture Equilibrium
will tend to accelerate reactions with transformer materials
A study was conducted to investigate the equilibrium shift [13].
of moisture between NE fluid and cellulose insulation that
may result, for example, in a retrofilled transformer [11]. To 7

simulate a pre-retrofill condition, all cellulose insulation Envirotemp FR3 fluid - water content

samples for the study were initially aged in MO at 170C for 600
6 Envirotemp FR3 fluid - acid number 6
water in paper
400 hours. These aging conditions reduced the cellulose

Acid Number (mg KOH/g)

W ater in Fluid (mg/kg)
5

W ater in Paper (wt%)

insulation life by about 50%. At this stage, the moisture
content of the cellulose samples was about 1% by weight. 400
4 4
Half of the cellulose samples were removed from the MO and
conditioned in a humidity chamber to a moisture content of 3
3% by weight (considered high moisture for insulating
cellulose). The two groups of moisturized cellulose were 200
2 2

divided between further aging in service-aged MO, in new

retrofilled MO and in new retrofilled FR3 fluid. These groups 1

were each then divided into three groups to be aged at room

0 0
temperature, 85C and 110C for 2200 hours in sealed 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
containers. Samples of paper and fluid were removed from the o
Time at 85 C (hr)
containers at selected aging times and tested for moisture Fig. 6. Changes in moisture in paper and fluid, and acid no. vs time at 85C
content. The fluids were also tested for acid number. At a
transformer operating temperature of 85C for example, the
moisture in the cellulose after retrofilling with NE fluid was III. FIELD DATA ANALYSIS
reduced to nearly 0.5% by weight as shown in Fig. 5. Alliant Energy retrofilled fourteen MO-filled power

transformers with NE Fluid. The average age of the

5 800 transformers was 40 years when retrofilled between October
2001 and June 2007. Field samples and operational data
Paper in FR3 Fluid
4 Water in FR3 Fluid
included transformer and fluid temperatures, fluid moisture
content and acid number. The field data included testing of
Dissolved Water in Fluid (ppm)

Water in Mineral Oil 600

Paper in Mineral Oil
MO samples collected prior to the retrofilling. The field data
% Water in Paper

3 supports the hypothesis that, during transformer operation,

400 moisture migrates from the cellulose insulation to the NE
2 fluid. The speed and amount of moisture migration will
depend on the operating conditions of the transformer before
200
and after retrofilling with NE fluid.
1

As previously mentioned, the mechanism of hydrolysis will

0
0 convert the moisture and some of the NE fluid into long chain
0 500 1000 1500 2000
fatty acids, resulting in an increase in the acid number of the
Aging Time at 85oC (hrs)
fluid. Fig. 7 shows the change in the acid number of nine of
Fig. 5. Paper at 3 % moisture aged at 85 C for 2200 hours in NE and MO.
the fourteen transformers retrofilled with NE fluid. There
As expected, due to moisture migration, the moisture were five units

content in the NE fluid initially increased as it absorbed
moisture from the cellulose until equilibrium was established. 0.6

As aging continued, the moisture content in the NE fluid 0.5

9
decreased due to hydrolysis, which increased the acid number 4 33
Acid Number (mg KOH/g)

of the fluid, per Fig. 6 [11]. In all cases, the moisture content 0.4 3 4 9
4 3
of the cellulose in the NE fluid dropped significantly whereas 4
3 9
the moisture content of the cellulose in MO dropped only 0.3
494 9 39
3
3 3
slightly, if at all, which agrees with other researchers [12]. 0.2
4
9
3 2 25 2 2
Fig. 6 shows decreasing moisture in the cellulose and in the 0.1 4
3
9 4 5 75 5 25 2
5
8 165 2 7 26 7
2 6 7 7 1 11
NE fluid, while the acid number of the NE fluid steadily 5
1 2 78168 81
7
6
2 8 7111 1 1
0.0
increased due to formation of long-chain fatty acids. This
supports the conclusion that hydrolysis occurred. Some full 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108

scale accelerated aging studies with transformer components Time after Retrofill (months)
Fig. 7. Change in acid number of NE fluid in 9 of 14 field transformers
found very low levels of copper and iron dissolved in the NE
 4

TABLE I
Transformer field data summary before and after NE fluid retrofilling

A B Oil C D E DOF
Unit Age as MO Retrofill Time since NE Volume Ave Top Oil MO Water Content Acid No. increase Dry-Out
No. Type (yr) Date Retrofill (mo) (gal) Temp (C) (% saturation) (%) Factor
9 Aux 39 May 2004 68 1,435 47 44 411 609
3 Aux 37 spring 2004 67 2,130 51 43 400 598
4 Excitation 37 spring 2004 62 5,680 29 35 307 470
2 GSU 37 spring 2004 66 10,200 55 31 254 443
1 GSU 44 Oct 2001 104 7,720 26 23 108 305
5 Aux (reserve) 37 spring 2004 62 2,160 23 23 108 253
10 Emergency 41 Apr 2006 42 2,160 38 35 40 196
7 GSU 10 2004 69 7,930 52 23 20 174
6 Aux 28 Jun 2007 32 3,765 51 21 21 153
12 GSU (peaking) 51 Dec 2006 14 13,767 20 21 8 114
11 Aux (peaking) 52 Nov 2006 14 1,600 20 26 0 112
14 Aux (peaking) 51 Dec 2006 14 1,600 22 26 -5 108
8 Aux 49 spring 2006 42 5,400 33 29 -49 104
13 GSU (peaking) 52 Dec 2006 11 13,767 14 21 -13 8

that exhibited little to no change in acid number and were not C = average top oil temperature during unit life both
included in Fig. 7. These units have operated for shorter time MO and NE.
periods and at reduced temperature. The transformer ID D = average percent moisture saturation in the MO
number was used to plot each of the individual acid values before retrofilling.
measured during the monitored time. E = percent increase in acid number of the NE fluid.

Changes in NE fluid moisture contents and acid number

Three of the field units displayed in Fig. 7 contain NE fluid
with significantly higher acid values. The acid levels in units
3, 4 and 9 indicate the extent of the hydrolysis reaction that
took place since the transformers were retrofilled with NE
fluid. Analysis and comparison of the field data provided a
clearer understanding of the dynamics that promote
transformer insulation dry out as a result of interaction with
NE fluid. We begin the analysis by focusing on the field data
summarized in Table 1.
from two field transformers were plotted in Fig. 8. Unit 9 had
the largest increase in acid number combined with the highest
DOF values. Unit 1 was retrofilled with NE fluid for the
longest time, but showed only a modest increase in acid
number and a 50 % lower DOF value when compared to unit
9. Comparison of the two units using the change in fluid
moisture with other data in Table 1 explains the dynamics of
the dry out process and how it progresses.

The field data contains five variables that were used to 125 0.6
assess the relative potential for change in moisture condition Unit 9 Acid No.
9 Unit 9 Moisture
NE Fluid Moisture Content (mg/kg)

of the fluid and cellulose insulation in field transformers Unit 1 Acid No. 0.5
100
retrofilled with NE fluid. With units of the variables ignored, Unit 1 Moisture

Acid Number (mg KOH/g)

the values of the five variables were placed in equation (1) to 0.4

derive a Dry-Out Factor (DOF) in which higher values 75

equate to more hydrolysis. There is close correlation between 0.3

the quantity of hydrolysis-generated fatty acids, shown as 50

variable E, and the DOF. The other variables A-D provide a 1
0.2

broader understanding of operating parameters that cause

25
changes in fluid and cellulose insulation moisture. The data 0.1

in Table 1 were sorted from largest to smallest DOF. Drier

cellulose insulation has improved dielectric characteristics 0 0.0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
and longer life, concepts that are generally accepted.
Time after Retrofill (months)
Fig. 8. NE moisture content and acid number after retrofilling units 1 & 9
DOF = A + B + C + D + E (1)
Fig. 8 shows the significant reduction in fluid moisture from
Where: unit 9 while the acid number steadily increases, which
A = age of the transformer as a MO unit. supports the mechanism of hydrolysis. Two factors are
B = time after retrofilling with NE fluid. important to explain why unit 9 has the highest DOF. The

most important is the level of moisture that was held in the
MO and associated solid insulation prior to retrofilling.
There is a direct correlation between high moisture
conditions before retrofilling and high DOF of the NE fluid
afterwards. The percent moisture saturation in the MO is used
as a relative gauge of the amount absorbed in the cellulose
insulation. The other important factor is the average
temperature of the transformer. Higher temperatures increase
the rate of the hydrolysis reaction, which depletes the
moisture and produces acids. Unit 1 is plotted in Fig. 8 in
contrast with unit 9.
The moisture content of the NE fluid in unit 1 increased
significantly with time after retrofill instead of decreasing
while, at the same time, the acid number increased only
slightly. Why? The average moisture dissolved in the mineral
oil, the temperature of transformer operation, and the time in
service before and after retrofill provides the answer. These
conditions for unit 1 were not favorable for the hydrolysis
mechanism. The increase in moisture content in this case can
be attributed to the length of time that the NE fluid had to
absorb moisture from the solid insulation, which shows that
moisture migration has occurred. The acid number did not
increase because the temperature was not high enough to
significantly drive hydrolysis
Of the top ten units that were retrofilled for 32 months
with NE fluid, six showed decreasing moisture in the NE,
three showed increasing and one was flat. This is
understandable because the fluid is the conduit that removes
moisture from the cellulose at a certain rate and reacts with
the moisture via hydrolysis to deplete it at a different rate,
both dictated by the residual moisture in the cellulose at the
time of retrofill and the operating temperature of the unit
thereafter. Even though temperature drives the hydrolysis
reaction rate, the moisture must be present initially.
The change in fluid moisture in unit 9 correlates with the
highest DOF. The data indicates the importance of the initial
moisture condition of the transformer insulation, shown as
[D] in Table 1, combined with top oil temperature. The
conditions of unit 9 favor dry out via hydrolysis and
formation of long-chain fatty acids.
Fluid moisture and acid number results from field units 2
and 3 are plotted in Fig. 9. Comparison of the units again
shows the primary importance of elevated moisture levels in
the MO prior to retrofilling combined with top oil
temperature to generate fatty acids and high dry out factors.
Higher moisture levels in unit 3 produce up to four-times the
acid number compared to unit 2. The relatively high top oil
temperature drove the hydrolysis reaction, which reduced the
moisture level in the cellulose insulation.
5
125 0.6
Unit 3 Acid No.
NE Fluid Moisture Content (mg/kg)
100
Unit 3 Moisture 0.5
Unit 2 Acid No.
Acid Number (mg KOH/g)
Unit 2 Moisture
0.4
75
3 0.3
50
2
0.2
25
0.1
0 0.0
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Time after Retrofill (months)
Fig. 9. NE moisture content and acid number after retrofilling units 2 & 3
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The moisture content in cellulose insulation is proportional
to its aging rate an increase in the moisture content results
in an increase in cellulose aging, resulting in an additional
increase in moisture content. Retrofilling a mineral oil-filled
transformer with natural ester fluid will reduce the cellulose
moisture content and therefore its aging rate. Since the
natural ester fluid can hold more moisture in solution than
mineral oil, moisture will migrate from the cellulose into the
natural ester, reducing the cellulose moisture content. The
dissolved moisture hydrolyzes with the natural ester fluid,
consuming moisture in the fluid, producing free fatty acids
and an increase in the acid number. As hydrolysis consumes
moisture, the equilibrium shift draws more moisture out of
the cellulose into the fluid. Thus, moisture is eliminated
during the hydrolysis reaction and will not return into
solution in the fluid or cellulose.
Field data supports the theory of moisture migration from
the cellulose into the NE fluid, as well as the chemical
process of hydrolysis converting water and the NE fluid into
a new compoundlong chain, fatty acids. The long chain,
fatty acids stay in solution and do not impact
performance. Certain variables play a key role in the extent of
insulation dry out. These include water saturation of the
cellulose at the time of NE retrofill along with operating
temperature of the transformer after retrofill. There has to be
sufficient water available to support hydrolysis. Higher
temperatures due to ambient and load conditions accelerate
the hydrolysis process. Sufficient time is required to allow
for moisture migration and the hydrolysis reaction to occur.
The overall concept, identified as the Dry-Out Factor
(DOF), can be correlated with the following transformer
conditions (most important listed first):
1. Moisture content of the cellulose insulation
2. Average top oil temperature of the transformer
3. Increase in acid number of the natural ester fluid
4. Age as a natural ester filled transformer

5. Age as a mineral oil transformer prior to retrofilling
with natural ester fluid
Higher DOF values suggest that more moisture has been
removed from the insulation system.
The data leads the authors to conclude that retrofilling a
service aged mineral oil transformer with natural ester fluid
will remove water from the insulation system. This
conclusion assumes there is sufficient water in the cellulose
to support hydrolysis and that the operating temperature is in
the medium to upper range of normal transformer operating
temperatures. Dry insulation is a benefit to the transformer
owner because it slows the aging rate of cellulose and
extends the life of the asset. Natural ester fluid in a new
transformer is expected to maintain cellulose insulation dry.
V. REFERENCES
[1] C. P. McShane, K. J. Rapp, J. L. Corkran, G. A. Gauger, and J.
Luksich, Aging of Paper Insulation in Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid,
IEEE/PES Transmission & Distribution Conf., 2001, Atlanta, USA.
[2] K. J. Rapp, C. P. McShane, and J. Luksich, Interaction Mechanisms of
Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid and Kraft Paper, Proceedings of 15th
International Conference on Dielectric Liquids (ICDL), Coimbra,
Portugal, June 2005.
[3] L. Yang, R. Liao, C. Sun, J. Yin, M. Zhu, Influence of Vegetable Oil
on the Thermal Aging Rate of Kraft Paper and its Mechanism,
International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and
Application, Oct. 11-14, 2010, New Orleans, USA
[4] Shim, Myeong-Seop, Comparative Evaluation of Aging of insulating
Material in Natural Ester and Mineral Oil, International Conference on
High Voltage Engineering and Application, Oct. 11-14, 2010, New
Orleans, USA
[5] Lewand, L.R., Laboratory Evaluation of Several Synthetic and
Agricultural-Based Dielectric Liquids, 2001 Doble Client Conference,
Paper 5E, Boston, MA
[6] Envirotemp FR3 Fluid Testing Guide, Reference Document R900-20-
12, April 2008.
[7] C. P. McShane, K. J. Rapp, J. L. Corkran, G. A. Gauger, and J.
Luksich, Aging of Kraft Paper in Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid,
Proceedings of 14th International Conference on Dielectric Liquids
(ICDL), Graz (Austria), July 7-12, 2002.
[8] C. P. McShane, K. J. Rapp, and J. Luksich, Aging of Cotton/Kraft
Blend Insulation Paper in Natural Ester Dielectric Fluid, Presented at
TechCon 2003 Asia-Pacific, Sidney, Australia, May 7-9, 2003.
[9] C. P. McShane, K. J. Rapp, J. L. Corkran, and J. Luksich, Aging of
paper insulation retrofilled with natural ester dielectric fluid,
IEEE/DEIS Conference on Electrical Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, Albuquerque, NM, Oct. 19-22, 2003
[10] Rapp, Kevin, Sealed Tube Accelerated Aging of Envirotemp NE Fluid
- Thomas A. Edison Technical Center Lab Report ML 152-2000, March
10, 2004.
[11] A. W. Lemm, K. J. Rapp and J. Luksich, Effect of Natural Ester
(Vegetable Oil) Dielectric Fluid on the Moisture Content of Aged Paper
Insulation, Presented at the EIA/IEEE 10th Insucon International
Electrical Insulation Conference, Birmingham, U. K., May 24-26, 2006.
2012 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from Steven P. Moore, Kevin J. Rapp, Ramona Baldyga and their respective companies. IEEE PES Transmission
and Distribution Conference, Orlando, FL (May 2012). All rights reserved.
6
[12] Martins, Maria A., Vegetable Oils, an Alternative to Mineral Oil for
Power Transformers - Experimental Study of Paper Aging in Vegetable
Oil Versus Mineral Oil, IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Society, Vol. 26, No. 6, Nov/Dec
2010.
[13] L. E. Lundgaard, W. Hansen, S. Ingebrigtsen, Ageing of Mineral Oil
Impregnated Cellulose by Acid Catalysis, IEEE Trans. Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation, Vol. 15, No. 2, April 2008, pp. 540-546
VI. BIOGRAPHIES
Steve Moore graduated from the Milwaukee
School of Engineering in 1974 with a B. S
Engineering Technology-Electrical degree. He has
also attended month long management seminars at
the Schools of Business of the University of
Wisconsin, Madison and the University of
Southern California. His employment experience
has all been with Waukesha Electric Systems and
all of its previous company names. He spent 26
years in new transformers in various marketing
capacities including Sr. Application Engineer, Product Manager and Market
Manager. He spent 2 years working as Business Development Manager for
WESs Power Systems Development subsidiary developing EPC substation
projects and 3 years as Market Development Manager for WESs Service
business unit. Steve then moved back to the transformer group as the
Product Manager for LTC and Natural Ester Fluids. In 2010 Steve was
promoted to Director-Transformer Product Management. Steve has been an
IEEE member for 40 years and was elected to the grade of Senior Member in
1990. Steve and other colleagues were the recipients of The Institute of
Management Sciences Franz Edelman Management Science Achievement
Award for 1989 for Waukesha Electric Systems use of innovative
management science. Steve is also listed in the Acknowledgements of NBS
Technical Note 1204 titled Calibration of Test Systems for Measuring Power
Losses of Transformers, for having made significant contributions to this
effort.
Kevin J. Rapp is a Senior Project Engineer for
Cooper Power Systems. He received a B.S. in
Chemistry from the University of Wisconsin-
Parkside in 2003. Prior to joining the Cooper Power
Systems Dielectric Fluids Marketing group in 2004,
Kevin spent 27 years as a technician and chemist
with the Thomas A. Edison Technical Center. He
has been involved with dielectric materials
development for electrical power equipment and is
one of the Inventors of the natural ester,
Envirotemp FR3 Fluid, and its use in electrical
equipment. Kevin holds numerous U.S. and international patents and has
written many technical papers. He was recently awarded the IEC 1906
Award for acheivement as an International expert in natural ester fluids and
is a member of the Technical Advisory Group to the United States National
Committee for IEC TC10. Kevin is chairman of ASTM D27.15
Subcommittee and leads an ASTM task group on oxidation stability test
methods for natural ester fluids. He is a member of IEEE, ACS, AOCS,
ASTM, and CIGRE.
Ramona Baldyga, P.E., graduated from the
University of Kentucky in 1975 with a B.S. in
Mechanical Engineering. She has worked for
Alliant Energy and its predecessor companies in
various capacities since 1984. In her current
position of Senior Engineer, she is responsible for
the substation predictive maintenance program,
including dissolved gas in oil analysis, infrared,
vibration and acoustic monitoring, and has been
actively involved in substation equipment
condition assessments for the past 15 years. She
received her Iowa Professional Engineering license in Mechanical
Engineering in 1990.