Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Fall 2014
Recommended Citation
Hamilton, Thomas Keith. "The liturgical organist: the creative use of solo organ music in the Lutheran liturgy." DMA (Doctor of
Musical Arts) thesis, University of Iowa, 2014.
http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/1463.
by
December 2014
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
D.M.A. ESSAY
Essay Committee:
Gregory Hand, Essay Supervisor
Michael Eckert
Rene Lecuona
Brett Wolgast
ii
To my parents who bought a piano instead of a couch
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Dr. Gregory Hand for his patient guidance and in
completing this project, Dr. Delbert D. Disselhorst for his wonderful teaching and sage
advice, Dr. Brett Wolgast for his ever-present support, and Marian Wilson Kimber who
Further thanks to my colleagues, past and present, who have been so supportive of
my work in music ministry: Rev. Bill Van Oss, Rector of St. Pauls Episcopal Church in
My deepest appreciation goes to my family: Carol, Meredith, Ian, and Serrie have
been so supportive of my goal to finish this degree and have sacrificed a lot along the
way; my father and my late mother who saw to it we had music all around us while we
were children; and to my siblings, Paul, Carol, and Mary, who have been a great cheering
section.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
CONCLUSION 64
BIBLIOGRAPHY 67
v
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Example 1. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 1-4. 30
Example 3. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 55-67. 32
Example 4. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 79-80. 33
Example 5. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 118-129. 34
Example 6. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 143-145. 34
Example 7. Petr Eben: Sunday Music: III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 153-155. 35
Example 11. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 1-8. 40
Example 12. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 24-28. 41
Example 13. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 36-40. 41
Example 14. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 58-60. 42
Example 16. Jean Langlais, Chant de Paix, mm. 2-8, pedal only. 44
vi
Example 23. Jehan Alain, Deuxime Fantaisie, mm. 69-77. 49
Example 33. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 1-5. 56
Example 34. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 43-46. 57
Example 35. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 88-92. 57
Example 36. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 105-107. 58
Example 37. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 116-118. 58
Example 38. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 124-128. 59
Example 41. J. S. Bach, Prelude in D, BWV 532, mm. 26-31, pedal only. 61
vii
1
Sunday after Sunday, liturgical organists are faced with the challenge of providing
music for liturgy. While hymns, psalms, musical settings of liturgical texts, choral
anthems and responses are often made clear in their choice due to the marriage of text
and music, choosing music outside of those parameters is a challenge. Music that
happens prior to worship as the community gathers, music to accompany ritual actions
such as the presentation of the offering or the distribution of the Eucharist, and music that
sends people on their way at the end of the service is not something to be taken lightly.
Such choices are important and can have a significant effect on the over-all tenor of the
liturgy. Many organists have concluded the most efficient and effective solution is to seek
pieces which are based on the hymns sung by the assembly and trust that a cohesive
liturgical whole has been created. This essay attempts to move beyond that notion into
the realm of solo organ literature that is not derived from a chorale or hymn melody.
Each piece of music carries its own aesthetic characteristics, and the task of the liturgical
organist is to determine how those characteristics can best be incorporated into a given
religious celebration.
music in this way. While the intent here is not to assign a program to music where one
does not exist, acknowledging the character of a piece or to musical gestures within the
piece is necessary for its effective use in liturgy. This is also not to imply that a composer
had a liturgical function in mind while crafting a piece of free organ music. Even so, the
mood of a piece of solo organ music can serve to enhance the liturgical celebration. All
2
of what is discussed here interprets how art, specifically music, fits into liturgy in order
The essay begins with an examination of Martin Luthers attitude toward liturgical
music in addition to how early Lutheran musicians dealt with the problem of creating
music consistent with the character of the liturgy. Since improvisation was commonplace
among organists of the time, it was easy for them to extemporize on a chorale or
liturgical melody in keeping with the spirit of the liturgy. Modern-day American
organists are not as readily trained in improvisation and must therefore rely on music
composed by others as their primary resource for liturgical music. This is an attempt to
respond to the conundrum of what to play for liturgy that may transcend merely
Chapter 2 examines historical writing and current resources for effective use of the
organ in liturgy. Such resources are scarce, and none of them examine the effective use of
free organ literature in liturgy. General statements are made as to the music needing to
reflect the character of the liturgy, but the notion that one specific piece may be more
appropriate than another for a given liturgical celebration is not part previous discussions.
The role and function of a liturgical organist will be discussed in chapter 3. It will be
made clear that the organist has a role in the proclamation of the liturgy rather than
merely filling time and space with background music. While ancillary music is not the
top priority of the church organist, care in selecting such pieces is paramount to the
assemblys full experience of the liturgy. Suggestions for selecting solo organ music are
also given. While the process is somewhat intuitive, there are certain criteria which assist
in making decisions regarding the use of free organ music in the liturgy. Each piece of
3
music has attributes which make it more or less appropriate for a given liturgical event.
This prevents the notion that any piece will work for any given liturgy based on a
Chapter 4 gives examples and analyses of pieces which would be appropriate for the
liturgies of Holy Week. Two pieces are given for Palm-Passion Sunday, Maundy
Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter Sunday. The contrast between the pieces for a given
celebration will be discussed along with clear reasons why each piece reflects the spirit of
the day.
The conclusion will provide a summary of the ideas presented along with a suggested
parallel process when incorporating chorale-based music into liturgy. There is also
incorporating music into liturgy and assigning a program to music where one does not
exist.
4
The background for musical inclusion in the liturgy is rooted deeply in the history
of the Lutheran Church. The formation of the Lutheran church and Martin Luthers
attitude toward church music in general opened the path for new musical expressions to
find their way into liturgy. Understanding Lutheran church history allows for such open
musical expression in liturgy. The focus of this chapter will be specific to the Lutheran
context because of Martin Luthers welcoming of music of all kinds, texted or not, into
the liturgy.
Though Luther was not the earliest religious reformer, he was the most significant
voice against the abuses of the Catholic Church that had become common-place in the
early sixteenth century. Luthers posting his ninety-five theses on the door of the Castle
Church at Wittenberg in 1517 incited the Protestant Reformation, one of the most
tumultuous times in the history of the western church. Pope Leo X excommunicated him,
and he was summoned to answer for charges of heresy in many places to many church
and political officials, the last of which was at the Diet of Worms in 1521.1 Luthers
refusal to recant his statements against the church led to the formation of the new church
Good News of Christ and his sacrifice for all believers to the community of faith. Prior to
the Protestant Reformation, liturgy was performed by the priest on behalf of the people in
order to please God and atone for the sins of the individual. Luther reversed this idea by
1
Williston Walker, Richard A. Norris, David W. Lotz, and Robert T. Handy, A History of the
Christian Church, 4th ed. (New York: Charles Scribners and Sons, 1985), 431.
5
making liturgy the proclamation of Gods grace to the assembly. Consequently, those
who lead liturgy speak Gods grace through word and sacrament, and the community
returns its praise and thanks to God in prayer and song. Intrinsic to Luthers theology
were these words from Pauls letter to the Romans: for we hold that a person is justified
by faith apart from works prescribed by the law.2 Under the popes of the late fifteenth
and early sixteenth centuries, liturgy had become a work of atonement and not an act of
faith. Luther saw this as intolerable and reformed the mass so as to eliminate those
portions which did not proclaim the grace of God given freely to all.3 Robin Leaver
writes:
[Luther] reversed the accepted action of the mass: instead of prayer and
intercession directed from the church to God, he saw it as proclamation of the
Gospel from God to the community, gathered at the altar.4
Music occupied much of Luthers attention as the new church and its rituals took shape.
He allowed, welcomed, and supported the use of music in liturgy. He saw music as
intrinsic to the nature of liturgy, and, to Luther, all of liturgy was proclamation. Leaver
continues:
What was at issue, according to Luther, was not music itself but how it was used.
If it was performed merely in fulfillment of demands of unreformed ecclesiastical
law then it was to be condemned, but if it was performed in response to the gospel
then it was to be commended: After faith, we can do no greater work than to
praise, preach, sing, and in every way laud and magnify Gods glory, honor, and
name.5
2
Romans 3:28
3
Robin Leaver, Luthers Liturgical Music: Principles and Implications (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans, 2007), 292.
4
Leaver, 292. A footnote in the American version of Luthers works indicates the use of the word
evangelical to mean in accord with the Gospel.
5
Martin Luther, , Luthers Works, 55 vols., ed, Jaroslav Pelikan and H. T. Lehman (St. Louis and
Philadelphia, 1955-1976), 44:59.
6
In contrast to other reformers such as Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin, Luther freely
embraced and encouraged the use of music in the liturgy and supported the use of the
organ and other instruments.6 Luther welcomed all types of music, including instrumental
How should the modern organist respond to this complex set of circumstances?
The liturgical organist must see everything he or she does as proclamation and carry that
task out with thoughtful and informed choices for solo organ music. The organist
proclaims with the organ what the preacher proclaims with words, and organists must see
The attention Luther paid to language indicates the need for respect of tradition
while encouraging people to engage fully with the Gospel. Luther welcomed word
proclaimed and music sung in many languages. The extension of musical language in
modern-day practice allows the use of music by composers from J. S. Bach, the most
composer and Roman Catholic mystic. If liturgy is about proclamation and proclamation
requires exegetical tools which break open the Biblical narrative, then music including
music without text can and must serve that same end. Therefore, a new approach to solo
organ music emerges and encourages discovery of the essential truth or character of a
piece of music in order to interpret or reflect a given Gospel or liturgical truth for the
gathered community. Liturgical music does not exist for its own sake but for greater
6
Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New York: W. W. Norton, 1941), 258-259.
7
While congregational song was on the rise in the early Lutheran church, so was
the use of the organ. It was the task of the organist to introduce the chorale to be sung by
the congregation, and the organist could shape the mood of the chorale because he
improvised on the chorale melody in the same spirit as the chorale. It is through these
chorale introductions as well as Alternatimpraxis7 that the organ found its voice in
liturgy, eventually giving way to the vast literature of organ music based on chorales,
Prior to the twentieth century, organists were trained to improvise the ancillary
portions of the liturgy such as prelude, communion and postlude music. This allowed
organists the freedom to match their music to the daily readings, the sermon, and the
overall tone of the liturgy. Contemporary organists face a dilemma due to a lack of
education in improvisation. Because todays organists are not well-trained in the art of
improvisation in the spirit of the liturgy, they must rely on music composed by others to
use as liturgical music. These pieces do not always reflect the spirit of the hymn text or
the over-all spirit of the liturgy effectively. However, with some fore-thought, freely
composed solo organ music can support and enhance the liturgical experience.
chorale melodies best reflect the spirit of the liturgy, current practice in liturgical organ
playing discourages organists from considering repertoire outside these limitations. Other
types of music can also reflect the spirit of the liturgy effectively if they suggest
appropriate moods and images to the listener. The objective of this essay is to encourage
the effective use of solo organ literature which is not based on hymns and chorales in
7
Alternatimpraxis describes the alternating of the organ with sung choral or congregational verses. The
organist would often improvise based on ideas found in the text of the hymn or chorale
8
liturgy. The intent is not to exclude such pieces completely but to broaden the organists
view and stimulate her or his imagination around the intentional inclusion of solo organ
literature. The goal is that those who gather to worship will hear music which is
consistent with the spirit of the liturgy resulting in a deeper appreciation and
While a congregation does not assemble for the purpose of hearing the organist,
his or her music plays an important role in the service. Because of Luthers receptivity to
music in all its forms, a Lutheran context is the most practical arena in which this
conversation can take place. At the same time, sources outside the Lutheran church
inform and enlighten us to the broader view, and most modern worship planning
resources maintain the posture of the early church where the chorale-based music is the
only acceptable expression of the organ in liturgy. This essay enters into this conversation
and prompts liturgical organists to think beyond chorale and hymn based music.
For Luther, music and theology were so closely linked that references to the
former abound throughout his writings. Robin Leaver has provided an excellent
systematic analysis of Luthers view on music in his book, Luthers Liturgical Music.8 In
this comprehensive volume, Leaver clarifies Luthers stand on the use of music in the
liturgy.
Leaver continues to cite references by Luther that have led to the present
8
Leaver, 294-295.
9
Ibid., 294.
10
If now (as Paul says) some unbeliever were to enter into the midst of these men and
heard them braying, mumbling, and bellowing, and saw that they were neither
preaching nor praying, but rather, as their custom is, were sounding forth like those
pipe organs (with which they have so brilliantly associated themselves, each one set
in a row just like his neighbor), would this unbeliever not be perfectly justified in
asking, Have you gone mad? What else are these monks but the tubes and pipes
Paul referred to as giving no distinct note but rather blasting out into the air?10
These people utter this prayer with their lips, but contradict it with their hearts. They
are like lead organ pipes which daily drawl or shout out their sounds in church, yet
lack both words and meaning. Perhaps these organs represent and symbolize these
singers and petitioners.11
Leaver, however, contextualizes the notion of Luthers apparent distaste for the organ;
Luther did not despise the organ but only how it was abused in the unreformed mass of
his time.
The context of most of these statements, however, reveals that the criticisms were not
of music per se but of its use, or rather abuse, in unreformed liturgies, which for
Luther was a theological issue. His critical references to the sound of the organ may
have had more to do with the imperfect development of the instruments he had heard
that they had not yet reached the refinement of later times rather than with any
objection to organs on principle.12
Leaver notes that some of Luthers friends who were organists would have exposed him
to good organs and organ playing, and writings by Luther reveal that instrumental music
was not to be banished from the church. It is this openness which makes the modern
Lutheran Church an excellent place to work out the notion of the use of free organ music
in liturgy.
Other reformers of Luthers time took music seriously enough to severely limit its
use or ban it altogether. John Calvin limited liturgical music to a unison line sung without
accompaniment. Ulrich Zwingli, the founder of the Dutch Reformed church, believed that
10
Luther, Vol. 44, quoted in Leaver, 7.
11
Luther, Vol. 42, quoted in Leaver, 7.
12
Leaver, 7-8.
11
music, vocal or instrumental, had no place in liturgy.13 This conservative attitude toward
the use of music in liturgy further underscores the unique nature of Luthers openness to
In addition to the reformed tradition, early Roman Catholic musicians also wrote
treatises on the role of the organ in liturgy. Girolamo Dirutas Il Transilvano14 and
Adriano Banchieris Conclusioni nel suono dellorgano15 are two early sources for
liturgical music. Dating from the turn of the seventeenth century, these early documents
appropriate use of modes, etc. These works are useful in underscoring the attitude that an
organist was expected to provide music consistent with the mood of a liturgical action.
Not every type of music was appropriate everywhere in the Mass. For example, certain
modes were appropriate when intoning the Credo while others were more fitting at the
Elevation, the most solemn moment in the mass where, in Roman Catholic thought, the
bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. Context was the predominant
In his letter of 1792 written to Christ Church and St. Peters on the conduct of a
church organ,16 Frances Hopkinson outlines six rules intended to guide the church
organist in the proper playing of the church service. Two of these rules are particularly
13
Ibid., 3.
14
Girolamo Diruta, Il transylvano, trans. and ed. by Murray C. Bradshaw and Edward J. Soehnlen
(Henryville, PA: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 1984).
15
Adriano Banchieri, Conclusioni nel suono dellorgano, trans. Lee R. Garrett (Colorado Springs:
Colorado College Music Press, 1982).
16
Francis Hopkinson, A Letter to the Dr. Rev. White, rector of Christ Church and St. Peters on the
Conduct of the Church Organ in The Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional Writings (Philadelphia: T.
Dobson, 1792), quoted in David W. Music, Instruments in Church: A Collection of Source Documents
(Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 1998), 132-135.
12
The organist should always keep in mind, that neither the time [n]or place is
suitable for exhibiting all his powers of execution; and that the congregation have
[sic] not assembled to be entertained with his performance.17
Hopkinsons subsequent rules deal with similar issues for different parts of the liturgy,
most of which are unique to the American Episcopal liturgical structure. The sixth rule,
The voluntary after the service was never intended to eradicate every serious idea
which the sermon may have inculcated. . . . It should bear, if possible, some
analogy with the discourse delivered from the pulpit; at least it should not be
totally dissonant from it.18
Here Hopkinson recognizes that music influences the listener. The postlude should at
least be consistent with the ideas presented in the sermon so as not to contradict its
message.
presents a very detailed view of liturgical music from the sixteenth century onward. For
early sources, he cites various collections of music to determine what sorts of pieces
might have been used. However, he states the difficulty involved with this method as
lines had not yet been drawn between music for organ or harpsichord or, more
specifically, between music for use in the home or in the church. Blume surmises that
pieces written on a cantus firmus were for use in the church while those lacking a cantus
firmus were not. For Blume, the assumption that pieces written on a pre-existing melody
are for use in the church prevails. He underscores the improvisational abilities of the
organists of the time noting that written chorale harmonizations for congregational
singing were rare. An organist would have known how to produce an accompaniment
17
Ibid., 133.
18
Ibid., 135.
13
extemporaneously for hymns which were well-known. Thorough bass would have been
In his essay, Organ Music for the Liturgical Service, Lutheran Church musician
and educator Walter Buszin provides a synopsis of significant points in the history of the
use of the organ in the Lutheran church. Here Buszin points out that the organ was first
sanctioned for use in worship by the faculty at Wittenburg in 1597.20 Buszin also
Organists were forbidden to play music which was not based on themes, chorales
or chant melodies in the service. During communion, however, they could freely
improvise on a given chorale or chant tune or on their own original material.21
While the limitations are clear, the latitude given to the organist in terms of what to play
during communion is notable. Buszin also explains that the singing of a chorale in
alternatim, while rooted in the plainchant melodies in the Roman Catholic Church, found
its way into Lutheran practice. Even so, it took shape with the distinctly Lutheran
emphasis on the primacy of proclamation in liturgy and Lutherans ardor for the German
chorale.
The Alternatimpraxis had originated in the Roman Catholic Church and found its
way into Lutheran usage. From here, chorale variations arose, and the chorale
prelude and organ chorale developed. Organ music had now become an
interpreter of the text.22
The idea that organ music can serve to deepen the understanding of a Biblical text is
deeply rooted in the history of the church. In the subsequent time, there was little written
Walter Swisher, writing in 1929, spoke to the question of the role of the organ in
worship at that time. His general observation is that the prelude should begin softly and
recommended organ pieces as preludes, but he gives no rationale for their use other than
the fact that he considers these pieces to be suitable for service preludes.24 While he is
comfortable recommending major works such as Csar Francks Trois Chorals, he does
not recommend a specific context in which the pieces may be used most effectively.
Ultimately, Swisher indicates that in the early part of the twentieth century, prelude
music most often served to encourage a posture of prayer prior to the beginning of
The merging of artistic expression, biblical truth, and liturgical context logically
leads one to consider larger aesthetic questions in worship. Frank Burch Brown defines
and discusses aesthetics in worship at great length in his book Inclusive Yet Discerning:
Navigating Worship Artfully.25 Brown includes an extensive analysis of the reasons for art
in the church. Brown broadens the scope of the conversation with an extensive discussion
of the reason for art including music in the church. He states that art is neither
23
Walter Samuel Swisher, Music in Worship (Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1929), 20.
24
Ibid., 30.
25
Frank Burch Brown, Inclusive Yet Discerning: Navigating Worship Artfully (Grand Rapids, MI:
William B.
Eerdmans, 2009).
15
words might not always need to take precedence in the arts of the church if one
happens to believe, with various theologians, that all beauty all aesthetic
goodness is from God, and honors God.26
Not all of what takes place in liturgy needs to include words. If one believes all things of
artistic beauty come from God, art can be used to illustrate and proclaim Gods grace to
the world. From a musical standpoint, a listener should be able to hear how a piece of
music interacts within the larger context of the liturgy with little, if any, explanation.
through the Arts: Poet, Painter, Music-Maker, he posited the following four theses:
1. The meaning and point of the language used in worship to proclaim and
celebrate Christ in our assemblies depends radically on non-verbal forms.
2. Christian public worship is an art, but not a work of art.
3. Christian public worship is faithful and relevant to the extent that its art
features a series of permanent tensions: the already and the not-yet, etc.
4. Christian liturgy is an eschatological art lured by the incarnate Gods faithful
promises. This art asks the church to grow into human maturity in Christ.
Here the arts give us a foretaste of glory divine, yet also draw us into life with
God here and now.27
Saliers is clear that art is all encompassing. His first thesis highlights the arts as key to
proclamation outside of the use of words. The second thesis points to worship as an
active and living artistic activity. It is not a relic to be admired from a distance, but an
interactive work of art created as it unfolds in time. The third and fourth points suggest a
concept of liturgy as kingdom play,28 where the gathered assembly participates and
creates a vision of the world as Gods kingdom yet to come but nonetheless breaking into
the present. Finally, he recognizes the nature of liturgy as an eschatological event where
26
Ibid., 29.
27
Don Saliers, Proclamation through the Arts: Poet, Painter, Music-Maker, in Lifting Up Jesus
Yesterday, Today and Forever (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2001), 28.
28
Gordon Lathrop, from a lecture on Worship as Evangelism, May 2000.
16
the arts give us a glimpse of God while helping the believer in the Christian journey.
What renders music, painting, dance, proclamatory? These proclaim when, like
preaching in relation to biblical texts, the perceiver discovers more than a literal
reiteration of something already established.29
Consistent with Luthers view of liturgy as proclamation, music also proclaims. It leads
the listener more deeply to the center of worship and broadens the listeners experience
Current resources for organists suggest various pieces for use in liturgy. All of
these writings deal with music that is based on a pre-composed hymn or chorale. One
such resource appears as a monthly article in The American Organist, the monthly journal
of the American Guild of Organists. Its title is Easy Service Music and suggests music
that is based on hymns recommended for the day. In this column, no reference is made to
free organ pieces which may serve to inform the listener of the spirit of the liturgy or the
book for worship planning called Sundays and Seasons.30 This formidable volume,
published new each year, lists repertoire for keyboard instruments for each liturgy of the
church year. As with Easy Service Music, the suggestions are based on recommended
hymns for the day. For example, the list of suggested instrumental music for Palm-
29
Saliers, 33.
30
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Sundays and Seasons: Year A 2014 (Minneapolis:
Augsburg, 2013).
17
Eithen, Sandra. Rhosymedre from Love Is the Sunlight: Eight Hymn Preludes
for
Wedding of General Use. Pno.
Oliver, Curt. Der am Kreuz from Built On a Rock: Keyboard Seasons. Kybd.31
This list implies that any music in liturgy should be based on the hymns of the day. Yet,
as will be illuminated in chapter 4, there are other pieces for Palm-Passion Sunday which
effectively communicate the character of the day but do not make use of hymn tunes as
While much is written about the organ, organ playing, and its function in the
liturgy, very little of the writing addresses how free organ music can play a role in
liturgical proclamation. This essay seeks to inspire the imagination of a liturgical organist
to think of new ways in which the organ can enhance the liturgical experience. Because
the music proclaimed by the organ communicates with the listener, the message must be
consistent with the symbols and moods of the rest of the liturgy. There is music which
serves this purpose well, providing cues to the spirit of the liturgical celebration or to the
31
Ibid., 150.
18
the ideas presented in the given scripture readings or the essence of the liturgical
celebration. It is the task of the liturgical organist to find music which supports,
enlightens, and is consistent with those texts. Beyond merely playing festive music for a
festive Sunday, there is music which can more accurately reflect the spirit of the liturgy.
In this way, the organ plays a significant role in the proclamation of the liturgy.
The use of the term liturgical organist is intentional in order to refer to the role
of the organist in liturgy. It illustrates that an organist serves the liturgical assembly by
integrating the themes of scripture as well as understanding the progression of the liturgy.
The liturgical organist understands the theological underpinnings of a given liturgy and
seeks out music which best reflects those ideas. It is the task of the liturgical organist to
develop a repertoire that reflects the truths reflected in the readings for the day.
Lutheran church musician and composer Carl Schalk explains the responsibilities
liturgy, and its effective leadership is crucial to engaging the entire assembly. This essay
does not attempt to refute Schalks priorities. However, with thoughtful planning
regarding solo organ music, the organ can engage the worshipping community with as
much intensity in solo music as when it is used to energize congregational song. In this
32
Carl Schalk, lecture on the role of the church musician, San Diego, CA, July 1987.
19
way the liturgical organist becomes an integral part of the leadership and proclamation of
the liturgy.
Organ music used in liturgy fits into one of three classifications. The first
of the early mandate to include only literature which references sacred melodies, this
body of literature is vast. In the tradition of the North German School, composers such as
Georg Bhm, Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel, Johann Gottfried Walther, and
others utilized the chorale as the basis in formulating liturgical music for the organ. Most
common was the chorale prelude, which served to introduce the chorale to the singing
assembly. In general, these pieces are shorter in length than later counterparts as the
chorale melody is often played with little or no interruption. The later and larger organ
chorales of J. S. Bach are much more elaborate settings, often too long for the
Alongside the chorale prelude, composers often employed theme and variation
technique in their treatment of a chorale. Early examples of this approach are found in the
Buxheimer Orgelbuch (ca. 1470) and in the works of Jan Pieterzsoon Sweelinck. The
form reached its peak in the hands of the north German composers mentioned above who
The second category includes music that is tied to sacred ideas in ways other than
theological truths, and specific mass texts along with music that was composed for a
specific liturgical function are included here. For example, Girolamo Frescobaldi
composed toccatas and other pieces for use at specific points in the mass to underscore
20
and enhance the liturgical action. Max Regers Benedictus33 and other liturgically
referenced pieces also fit here.34 Twentieth-century French musician and mystic Olivier
Messiaen composed suites for specific Holy Days such as La Nativit35 and
Lascension.36 Jehan Alains Litanies37 is based on his notion of the desperation of the
When the Christian soul, in its distress, cannot find words to implore Gods
mercy, it repeats ceaselessly and with a vehement faith the same invocation.
Reason has reached its limit. Faith alone can go further.38
Lutheran examples of this type of music are rare since the chorale has held sway
The third category, which is the focus of this essay, consists of music which has
no pre-existing melody or any explicit ties to sacred or liturgical themes. The difference
between this and the previous category lies in the fact that there is no extra-musical idea
which informed or inspired the composer to create this music. It is music which was
composed for its own sake with no outside reference. Hence, it is called free organ
music. The primary rule to observe in using free organ music is that it must fit with the
33
Max Reger, Benedictus, Op.59 #9, (Leipzig: C. F. Peters, 1913).
34
The text on which Benedictus is based is Matthew 21:9: Blessed is the one who comes in the name
of the Lord. Hosanna in the highest.
35
Olivier Messiaen, La Nativit (Paris: Leduc, 1936).
36
Olivier Messiaen, Lascension (Paris: Leduc, 1934).
37
Jehan Alain, Litanies from Trois Pices pour grand orgue (Paris: Leduc, 1939).
38
Ibid, 31.
39
Gerhard Krapf, Liturgical Organ Playing (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1964), 21.
21
This essay seeks to take Krapfs idea further in that solo organ literature can move
beyond merely reflecting a general tenor of a given liturgy into music which is more
specific in creating and supporting the primary message of the liturgy. That is to say,
there are pieces which, when coupled with a given liturgical context, clearly support the
entire liturgy as proclamation. Specific examples of this will be given in detail in chapter
4.
The use of free organ music in liturgy requires two things: understanding the essential
message of the liturgy and choosing music that will most effectively reflect that message.
The liturgical organist stands at that intersection with the liturgy on one side and a vast
array of solo organ literature on the other. The task is to fuse music into liturgy to form a
cohesive whole. Therefore, the music must be consistent with the liturgical message.
The liturgical organist chooses music which sounds as though it fits and is consistent
with the overall message of the liturgy. While this is true of music for any liturgical event
in a general way, there are specific pieces which can support and reflect liturgical or
scriptural themes. It is helpful to move away from generalizations that suggest prelude
music must be quiet and meditative and postludes must be loud or march-like. Free organ
music can have a connection to the bigger picture, or it can highlight smaller details.
Playing a piece of music that does not highlight the ideas of the liturgy can either confuse
In making decisions about solo organ music, the first responsibility of the liturgical
organist is to examine the scripture readings for the day, and, when reading the text,
determine significant images or movement in the story. For example, the Transfiguration
22
of Jesus is a vivid narrative of Jesus walk up a mountain where remarkable things take
place:
Six days later, Jesus took with him Peter and James and his brother John and led
them up a high mountain, by themselves. And he was transfigured before them, and
his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white. Suddenly there
appeared to them Moses and Elijah, talking with him. Then Peter said to Jesus, Lord,
it is good for us to be here; if you wish, I will make three dwellings here, one for you,
one for Moses, and one for Elijah. While he was still speaking, suddenly a bright
cloud overshadowed them, and from the cloud a voice said, This is my Son, the
Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him! When the disciples heard this,
they fell to the ground and were overcome by fear. But Jesus came and touched them,
saying, Get up and do not be afraid. And when they looked up, they saw no one
except Jesus himself alone.
As they were coming down the mountain, Jesus ordered them, Tell no one about
the vision until after the Son of Man has been raised from the dead.40
The story starts with an unremarkable journey and turns into a miraculous event
culminating with the voice of God emanating from the clouds. Images in the story
include significant references to light, Jesus appearance as dazzling white, and the voice
of God validating Jesus as Gods son. Keeping these points in mind, an organist who
wishes to use free organ music will search for a piece of music that may echo these same
images. One example of a piece of free organ music that illustrates this reading is Henri
Mulets Carillon-Sortie.41 Reminiscent of the dazzling light as noted in the narrative, the
opening figuration of the piece begins with a full sound on an enclosed division of the
organ with a buoyant melody in the left hand on a louder manual. In the beginning of the
piece, the pedal is incidental, echoing small pieces of the left hand melody. The piece
builds in volume and intensity to its height where the full pedal sounds forth with
boldness sounding the original melody. The consistent crescendo throughout the piece
40
Matthew 17:1-9.
41
Henri Mulet, Carillon-Sortie, French Masterworks for Organ: a Collection of Nineteenth Century
Classics (Glen Rock, NJ: J. Fischer), 1963.
23
and the melody sounding forth in the pedal can illustrate the increasing intensity of the
brilliant white that surrounded Jesus and the voice resounding from the clouds. In this
way, the piece is consistent with the dramatic shape of the story. A note in the worship
bulletin, such as the following, will help the listener make these connections:
The prelude this morning reflects the images from the Gospel readings of light
and Jesus appearing dazzling white. The piece begins with a full but quiet sound
and moves to full organ. It is as though the light is just beginning to shine and
grows until the pedal thunders out the melody reminiscent of the voice of God
from the heavens.
In this way, the listener can better understand how the piece echoes the Gospel story.
Another example of the application of this method is can take place in the
selection of music for Holy Trinity Sunday, a unique celebration in the church year in
that it deals with a doctrine of the church rather than a specific event in the life of Jesus.
The day marks the coming together of the three entities of the Trinity: God as creator,
Jesus as redeemer, and the Holy Spirit who calls the church into being. The Gospel lesson
Now the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain to which Jesus had
directed them. When they saw him, they worshipped him; but some doubted. And
Jesus came and said to them, All authority in heaven and on earth has been given
to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name
of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey
everything that I have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to
the end of the age.42
Jesus Trinitarian reference is significant here in that it is the only reference in any of the
Gospels to the three entities of the Trinity: . . . in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Spirit . . . In contrast to other Sundays of the church year, the essence of
42
Matthew 28:16-20.
24
this liturgical celebration is the relationship between the three entities of the Trinity, a
allows the individuality of the persons [of the Trinity] to be maintained while
insisting that each person shares in the life of the other two.43
The question to ask is how might this notion of perichoresis, the inter-relationship of the
Bachs six trio sonatas feature equally imitative writing between the three voices, and
those movements effectively capture the essence of the doctrine of the Trinity. The trio
sonatas are pieces which employ a three-voice texture, one for each hand and one for the
feet, all in tightly woven counterpoint. If one were to play this a trio sonata movement
for worship, a brief description in the worship bulletin could look like this:
J. S. Bachs trio sonatas, while not composed with Trinitarian references in mind,
reflect the nature of the Holy Trinity well. Each of three movements is composed
with three lines: one for each hand and one for the feet, as though two violins and
a cello were playing together. The interplay of these independent lines reflects the
very nature of perichoresis, the Greek term for the inter-relationship between the
three parts of the Triune God.
The listener would then be able to hear the connection between the three parts in the
A less effective example from the works of Bach is the trio setting of the chorale
Allein Gott in der Hh sei Ehr, BWV 664, the quintessential hymn text for Trinity
Sunday. In this setting, Bach composed in a trio texture. In this piece, the pedal functions
in a continuo role with no imitative role with the other two voices. At the end of the
piece, however, the pedal sounds a portion of the chorale melody, suddenly taking
43
Alister McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 2005),
325.
25
precedence over the upper voices. In contrast to the trio sonata previously mentioned, the
inequality of the voices does not reflect the equality of the three parts of the Trinity.
Organists must examine each piece of organ music in the repertoire with new eyes
and rid themselves of generalizations that are not helpful. For example, many church
organists eschew playing the free works of J. S. Bach in liturgy thinking there is no ready
link between these pieces and any liturgical theme. However, many of these pieces carry
with them a mood which can be employed in liturgy to great effect. Such pieces can be
put to good use in liturgy without the assumption that the piece is only appropriate to the
recital program.
Transcriptions of music to the organ from other media raise unique concerns. The
context of such music should be carefully considered before playing such music in
liturgy. Samuel Barbers Adagio for Strings44 is effectively reproduced on the organ,
however its associations with films such as The Elephant Man45 and Platoon46 may deem
it unwise for use in liturgy. In The Elephant Man it is played during the final scene as the
main character dies. In Platoon, it accompanies a graphic and violent depiction of the
Vietnam war. It is possible that such associations may make this piece an unwise choice
for inclusion in the liturgy. A liturgical organist must be aware of this potential pitfall.
Solo organ literature, however, is rarely heard in any context but liturgy or the concert
hall, so outside references are rare. Music composed specifically for the organ without
the use of a cantus firmus is mostly free from such extra-musical associations.
44
Samuel Barber, Adagio for Strings, trans. William Strickland (New York: G. Schirmer), 1949.
45
David Lynch, The Elephant Man, Paramount Pictures, 1980.
46
Oliver Stone, Platoon, Orion Pictures Corporation, 1986.
26
Those in the assembly must be able to hear the connection between the music and
reference is not enough. For example, playing a piece with the key signature of three flats
for Trinity Sunday, even if the key signature is highlighted in a note in the service
bulletin. Unless the piece sounds consistent with the rest of the liturgy, the listener will
Another caution to the organist is that one must not place ideas into the readings
Then little children were being brought to him in order that he might lay his hands
on them and pray. The disciples spoke sternly to those who brought them; but
Jesus said, Let the little children come to me, and do not stop them; for it is to
such as these that the kingdom of heaven belongs. And he laid his hands on them
and went on his way.47
A likely erroneous reading of this text would be to focus on the concept of children and
include music based on Sunday school melodies or music that is playful, like a scherzo.
Of course, the text says nothing about playfulness, and, more importantly, the liturgy as a
whole is not playful. Imposing a surface detail from the text onto the liturgy is
The question also remains whether or not a piece of music that is deemed
appropriate for one liturgical occasion can also fit into another. For example, the idea of
Ascension Day carries the same sense of upward motion that Easter resurrection does.
Are the pieces interchangeable with one situation to the other? As will be pointed out, the
Easter narrative speaks of the fear of those who were the first to witness the resurrection,
47
Matthew 19:13-15.
27
whereas the Ascension takes place outside the city without much fanfare. The story of
Jesus Ascension is much less active. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus leads disciples to
Bethany where he commands them to remain together until they have been clothed from
does not portray the kind of unbridled energy that is found at Easter. If the liturgical
musicians understanding of Easter is one of pure celebration, then the day calls for
intimate. The text does not indicate the disciples were afraid as at Easter. Furthermore,
the absence of angels who, at Easter, explained that Jesus had risen, suggests that the
piece fitting into more than one liturgical setting, the connections must be made clear to
the listener.
The crossroads at which the liturgical organist stands travel in all directions: from
text to music and back again. Looking at solo organ music through the lens of a Biblical
text enhances the liturgical experience in that it creates a consistent message. Hearing
how a Biblical text may be played out in a piece of solo organ music expands the
possibilities how the text can be understood. This interplay is where liturgical organists
48
Luke 24: 49.
28
The musical examples which follow will illustrate some of the thought behind
incorporating free organ music into the liturgy. To that end, the liturgies for Holy Week
provide fertile ground for insight into how free organ music can be incorporated into
liturgy. The clear imagery and significant drama in these Biblical stories provide ample
resources with which to identify pieces of solo organ literature that fit well with the
liturgical themes. The pieces chosen here will be placed alongside the intended message
of the liturgy in order to create connections that will make sense to the listener.
As Holy Week unfolds, the contrast and tension built into the liturgies for each
day are palpable. The Palm-Passion Sunday liturgy opens with the reading of the
processional gospel, the story of Jesus triumphal entry into Jerusalem as recorded in all
When they had come near Jerusalem and had reached Bethphage, at the Mount of
Olives, Jesus sent two disciples, saying to them, Go into the village ahead of you,
and immediately you will find a donkey tied, and a colt with her; untie them and
bring them to me. If anyone says anything to you, just say this, The Lord needs
them. And he will send them immediately. This took place to fulfill what had
been spoken through the prophet, saying,
Tell the daughter of Zion,
Look, your king is coming to you,
humble, and mounted on a donkey,
and on a colt, the foal of a donkey.
The disciples went and did as Jesus had directed them; they brought the donkey
and the colt, and put their cloaks on them, and he sat on them. A very large
crowd* spread their cloaks on the road, and others cut branches from the trees and
spread them on the road. The crowds that went ahead of him and that followed
were shouting,
Hosanna to the Son of David!
29
Shouts of Hosanna! ring out as Jesus rides into the city on a donkey. The crowd of
people spreads palm branches on the road to welcome him into Jerusalem. However, the
tension in this liturgy is in the reality that shouts of Hosanna will turn to shouts of
Crucify him by the end of the week. The liturgy begins with celebration. However,
with the reading of the Passion story in the same liturgy, the narrative turns quickly from
triumphal entry and celebration to calling for Jesus death. In this way, the texts for the
entire Palm-Passion Sunday liturgy set up a dialogue between celebration and mourning,
One possible approach to the Holy Week journey is to see it as the ultimate
encounter of good and evil, and Palm-Passion Sunday as the microcosm of this larger
story. The third movement of Petr Ebens Sunday Music: Moto Ostinato, can reflect these
ideas well with its unrelenting forward motion as in a procession or parade, along with
the dialogue of good and evil between musical ideas, dissonant melody lines, and the
drama associated with the death of Jesus. Though the title implies a liturgical connection,
Sunday Music was not composed for liturgical use. According to the introduction in the
score, Ebens intent was to describe something out of the ordinary and festive or
artistically elevating.50 In her thesis on Ebens organ music, Janette Fishell states the
piece was inspired by Mark 5:9, the story of the man possessed by devils who said to
Christ, My name is Legion, for we are many.51 Jesus coming face to face with evil in
that story parallels the ultimate battle of good and evil in the Holy Week narrative. Some
49
Matthew 21:1-9.
50
Eduard Herzog, Introductory notes to Petr Ebens Sunday Music (Prague: Editio Supraphon, 1963).
51
Janette Fishell, The Organ Music of Petr Eben (D.M. diss, Northwestern University, 1988), 59-60.
30
may postulate that Ebens basis of the story from the Gospel of Mark would preclude its
use in this forum. However, it is the character of the music which suggests a connection
to the liturgy, and that character reflects the contrast of Jesus Triumphal Entry with the
Several salient musical features in this piece support the thematic movement of
the liturgy. As the title of the movement implies, Moto Ostinato is constantly moving
forward with urgency and excitement created through a relentless rhythmic motif. The
Example 1. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 1-4.
The unrelenting rhythmic figure can underscore the sense of motion in both the physical
sense of Jesus entry, as well as the figurative moving toward his inevitable death.
The highly chromatic and angular melody first introduced in measure 5 adds to
Example 2. Petr Eben, Sunday Music,III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 5-10, right hand.
In the opening section, mm. 1-29, the melody alternates between the right hand and the
pedal. This can point to the dialog between good and evil reflected both in Ebens
program and the Palm-Passion Sunday liturgy where Jesus was lauded as King upon his
entry into Jerusalem, but within days was accused of criminal behavior and crucified. The
chromatic twists of the melody can highlight the complications of the story: the High
Priests feeling threatened and immediately plotting to kill Jesus, Pontius Pilates
denunciation of his own role in the story, Judas Iscariots betrayal, and Peters denial.
The melodic dialogue and ostinato rhythmic figure come together with urgency and
immediacy.
Eben further illustrates the notion of dialogue in the middle of the piece in two
ways. First, in the most highly developed contrapuntal writing of the piece, the right hand
plays a counter-melody based on the same angular contour as the original melody while
the left hand plays the rhythmic ostinato, and the pedal plays the original melody
(Example 3). A counter melody is introduced in the right hand at m. 55. With the initial
diminished fifth interval and downward motion, it stands in contrast to the original
melody which, by and large, stays within the range of five notes. The counter melody and
the original melody sound together between the right hand and the pedal in m. 59, and the
contrary motion of the two figures can illustrate the contradiction between Jesus
reception as the King of the Jews and ultimate death as a criminal. The middle voice is
32
derived from the ostinato pattern and will appear again in the pedal at the climax of the
piece.
Example 3. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 55-67.
Second, Eben reduces the texture to a single line in the right hand while the left
hand plays urgently sounding chords in the ostinato rhythm. Even in the more transparent
texture, Eben continues the sense of urgency. The right hand figuration is derived from
the melody while the left hand plays the rhythmic ostinato pattern (Example 4).
33
Example 4. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 79-80.
The final tour de force appears in the statement of the melody beginning at m.
118. The melody is played in block chords in the manuals with the pedal employing the
same pattern as the middle voice that first appeared in m. 55. The organ is almost at its
loudest, and the rhythmic drive is at its peak. In m. 124, the themes are reversed between
the manuals and pedal with the melody in the pedal in octaves and the hands playing the
A coda section in mm. 143-152 further advances the ceaseless motion and epic
tension through the use of the ostinato rhythm and swift manual changes. The increased
intensity can indicate the chaotic crescendo of the crowd in both the triumphant entry as
well as the ugly mob calling for Jesus death and is created through striking harmonic
motion based on the original melody (Example 6). The piece ends abruptly on an open
The drama of the piece can reflect the movement from celebration to death as well
convoluted by the compound meter. When the assembly is made aware of what is to
unfold in the readings for the day, these features make Ebens piece an effective prelude
Example 5. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 118-129.
Example 6. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 143-145.
35
Example 7. Petr Eben, Sunday Music, III. Moto Ostinato, mm. 153-155.
Passion Sunday in a different way. Opening on full organ with clashing harmonies of a
C# diminished chord over a D in the pedal and continuing with the manual syncopation
against the pedal, Reger immediately indicates that something is out of balance (Example
8).
As with Ebens piece, Regers Introduction, with its constant pushing forward, can reveal
persistent motion toward the inevitable death of Jesus. The Introduction continues with
36
the same gravity for another ten measures, unrelenting in its intensity. However, this
piece moves in a different direction with the passacaglia which provides some relief to
the energy established in the Introduction. The theme is first stated very quietly in the
In its subtle way, the passacaglia theme can evoke in the listener a quieter sense of Jesus
resigned movement toward the cross. As the passacaglia moves forward, the tension
increases as Reger uses shorter note values for the hands, moving from eighth notes to
eighth-note triplets to sixteenth notes. Along with the increasing rhythmic motion, Reger
calls for increased dynamic intensity until the final statement of the passacaglia theme is
on full organ, and there is a mode shift from the minor to the parallel major key. The final
three measures return to the intensity and chaos in of the introduction (Example 10, at
Adagio); however, the final chord is in D-major, a triumphant ending and a clear contrast
Example 10. Max Reger, Introduction and Passacaglia in d, mm. 111 121.
Maundy Thursday
different themes: Jesus institution of the Last Supper, Jesus role as servant in the
washing of feet, and Judas Iscariots betrayal of Jesus. These ideas create a tension that
arises out of the contrasts between the following two texts. The appointed reading from 1
For I received from the Lord what I also handed on to you, that the Lord Jesus on
the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread, and when he had given
thanks, he broke it and said, This is my body that is for you. Do this in
remembrance of me. In the same way he took the cup also, after supper, saying,
This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in
remembrance of me. For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you
proclaim the Lords death until he comes.52
The notion of suffering servant continues in the Gospel reading from John, which
Now before the festival of the Passover, Jesus knew that his hour had come to
depart from this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in
the world, he loved them to the end. The devil had already put it into the heart of
Judas son of Simon Iscariot to betray him. And during supper Jesus, knowing that
the Father had given all things into his hands, and that he had come from God and
was going to God, got up from the table, took off his outer robe, and tied a towel
around himself. Then he poured water into a basin and began to wash the
disciples feet and to wipe them with the towel that was tied around him. He came
to Simon Peter, who said to him, Lord, are you going to wash my feet? Jesus
answered, You do not know now what I am doing, but later you will understand.
Peter said to him, You will never wash my feet. Jesus answered, Unless I wash
you, you have no share with me. Simon Peter said to him, Lord, not my feet
only but also my hands and my head! Jesus said to him, One who has bathed
does not need to wash, except for the feet, but is entirely clean. And you are clean,
though not all of you. For he knew who was to betray him; for this reason he
said, Not all of you are clean.
After he had washed their feet, had put on his robe, and had returned to the
table, he said to them, Do you know what I have done to you? You call me
Teacher and Lordand you are right, for that is what I am. So if I, your Lord and
Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one anothers feet. For I
have set you an example, that you also should do as I have done to you. Very
truly, I tell you, servants are not greater than their master, nor are messengers
greater than the one who sent them. If you know these things, you are blessed if
you do them.53
Judas Iscariots betrayal is hinted at in the Corinthians reading which states, . . . in the
night in which he [Jesus] was betrayed [by Judas] . . . and concludes with Jesus
52
1 Corinthians 11:23-32.
53
John 11:23-32.
39
the Church in the Last Supper; he establishes his posture as servant in the washing of the
disciples feet; the forty-day fast of Lent is over; and the Sacred Triduum, the three most
holy days in the Christian calendar, begins. In a sense, Maundy Thursday provides a
break from the journey to the cross begun on Palm-Passion Sunday. Jesus actions with
the disciples are about the disciples carrying on after his death, but these actions also
illustrate profound love which contrasts with the approaching arrest and crucifixion.
With all of these factors knit together in one liturgy, the liturgical organist must look for a
piece that reflects the celebratory nature of the end of the Lenten fast, carries the weight
of the betrayal in the background, and exhibits the intimacy of the foot washing. Felix
Mendelssohns Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, contains elements that can illustrate all of
these themes.
The piece is in two movements. The first is in ABA form, with the A sections full
of sweeping gestures played with a full and large sound, while the B section is a double
fugue in the manuals over the chorale tune in the pedal. The A sections can reflect the
celebration marking the end of the Lenten fast and the institution of the Lords Supper,
while the B section, with its fugue subjects full of harmonic tension and subtle use of the
chorale, can evoke images of Jesus betrayal. The second movement provides respite with
its flowing figuration and points toward a mood appropriate to the story of the humble
The majestic opening of the piece may provide a declaration of the end of the
Lenten fast (Example 11). In the dignity of the opening theme, the forty days of Lent are
40
over, and the Church prepares for the celebration of the most holy days of the Christian
Example 11. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 1-8.
The middle section of the movement is a fugue in the manuals over a pedal
statement of the German chorale Aus tiefer Noth schrei ich zu dir, the original hymn text
based on Psalm 130, Out of the depths have I cried to thee, O Lord. While
Mendelssohns use of the chorale melody seems to be antithetical to the argument against
the use of chorale-based music in liturgy, Mendelssohn did not compose the piece to be
used as a chorale prelude on the pre-existing melody. In other words, a listener does not
hear the piece as a setting of the chorale. Rather the chorale is in the background,
41
surrounded by complex contrapuntal writing. Just as the idea of Jesus betrayal is in the
The story of Maundy Thursday turns quickly from the intimate gathering in the
upper room to Jesus arrest. In similar fashion, the appearance of Mendelssohns fugue is
sudden and dramatic. The dynamic is reduced, un poco meno forte, and the key signature
changes to the parallel minor. The fugue subject is full of tension employing an
Example 12. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 24-28.
The shift in mood is abrupt, not unlike the movement of Maundy Thursday night which
moves from Jesus washing the disciples feet to betrayal and arrest.
The chorale appears in the background as the soprano voice completes its first
Example 13. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 36-40.
42
Similarly, the idea of Judass desperation plays in the background of the texts, and the
chorale on the bottom of the texture can echo this impression. The choice of registration
is important. The chorale must be heard but not be so prevalent as to overshadow the
counterpoint in the manuals. A note in the worship bulletin pointing out the chorale
The second fugue subject begins a flurry of activity. Here the piece gathers energy
through the use of shortened note values along with an accelerating tempo and increasing
dynamic level to the end of the movement. The harmonic tension is increased in the
second subject that outlines a diminished seventh chord as marked by the asterisks
(Example 14).
Example 14. Felix Mendelssohn, Sonata in A, Op. 65, No. 3, mm. 58-60.
The pedal melody remains in the background under the ever-increasing activity in the
manuals. Through the increase in dynamic level and tempo, the movement can reflect the
Judas Iscariots betrayal, Peters denial, and Jesus arrest; all of which point toward
circumstances moving beyond the control of anyone involved. Frantic energy and
desperation can be felt in the acceleration. After the entire chorale is stated, a pedal solo
43
leads to the return of the grandiose A section, lending balance to the piece and reminding
In the midst of the Maundy Thursday liturgy, the second movement must be
included because, on its own, the first movement lacks the intimacy of the foot washing
Mendelssohns Lieder ohne Worte for piano. Its gentle sounds, continual descending
figuration, and tuneful melody can accompany Jesus act of foot washing with beauty and
grace. When the whole sonata is used as prelude to the Maundy Thursday liturgy, this
movement shifts the listener from the grandiose and tumultuous first movement in
observance of the end of Lent and the angst around the betrayal of Jesus toward a quiet
introspection in preparation for the liturgy of foot washing and Holy Communion.
of the Eucharist. Jean Langlais Chant de Paix can reflect this sense of mystery well with
its ethereal sounds on the manuals supported by its angular melody in the pedal. The
tempo marking is trs lent and gives the piece a sense of being suspended in time. It
The manuals sustain the notes in m. 2, while the pedal plays the melody on a flute stop
that sounds an octave higher than written (Example 16). A sense of tension is maintained
throughout the piece by the continuous use of triads with added sixths and seconds. That
tension is relieved at the final chord which is a major triad (Example 17).
Example 16. Jean Langlais, Chant de Paix, mm. 2-8, pedal only.
If used as the prelude to the Maundy Thursday liturgy, the quiet suspension in time of
Good Friday
The Christian liturgical calendar is centered on Easter, the day which marks the
resurrection of Jesus. The Friday before Easter is a day of great solemnity set aside to
mark the trial, crucifixion and death of Jesus. The story from the eighteenth and
45
nineteenth chapters of the Gospel of John provides rich and vivid imagery of the last days
of Jesus life. Although the liturgies for Palm-Passion Sunday and Maundy Thursday just
preceding are steeped in contrasting themes, the Good Friday liturgy moves singularly in
the direction of death. Jesus is arrested; Peter denies being connected to Jesus; Judas
betrays Jesus to the authorities; Jesus goes on trial before Pilate; and the crowd cries for
So Jesus came out, wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe. Pilate
said to them, Here is the man! When the chief priests and the police saw him,
they shouted, Crucify him! Crucify him! Pilate said to them, Take him
yourselves and crucify him; I find no case against him. The Jews answered him,
We have a law, and according to that law he ought to die because he has claimed
to be the Son of God.
. . . When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the
judges bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in
Hebrew Gabbatha. Now it was the day of Preparation for the Passover; and it was
about noon. He said to the Jews, Here is your King! They cried out, Away with
him! Away with him! Crucify him! Pilate asked them, Shall I crucify your
King? The chief priests answered, We have no king but the emperor. Then he
handed him over to them to be crucified. So they took Jesus; and carrying the
cross by himself, he went out to what is called The Place of the Skull, which in
Hebrew is called Golgotha. There they crucified him, and with him two others,
one on either side, with Jesus between them. . . .
After this, when Jesus knew that all was now finished, he said (in order to
fulfill the scripture), I am thirsty. A jar full of sour wine was standing there. So
they put a sponge full of the wine on a branch of hyssop and held it to his
mouth. When Jesus had received the wine, he said, It is finished. Then he bowed
his head and gave up his spirit.
Since it was the day of Preparation, the Jews did not want the bodies left on the
cross during the sabbath, especially because that sabbath was a day of great
solemnity. . . After these things, Joseph of Arimathea, who was a disciple of
Jesus, though a secret one because of his fear of the Jews, asked Pilate to let him
take away the body of Jesus. Pilate gave him permission; so he came and removed
his body. Nicodemus, who had at first come to Jesus by night, also came, bringing
a mixture of myrrh and aloes, weighing about a hundred pounds. They took the
body of Jesus and wrapped it with the spices in linen cloths, according to the
burial custom of the Jews. Now there was a garden in the place where he was
crucified, and in the garden there was a new tomb in which no one had ever been
46
laid. And so, because it was the Jewish day of Preparation, and the tomb was
nearby, they laid Jesus there.55
The images are clear: Jesus carries the cross to the place of crucifixion; Jesus announces
he is thirsty and is offered the sour wine; Jesus declares the end and dies; Joseph of
Jehan Alains Deuxime Fantaisie can well illustrate the themes of Good Friday
with its severe harmonic and melodic language, sudden contrasts, increasing frantic
energy, dramatic use of silence, and idiosyncratic use of the sounds of the organ. The
piece begins and ends quietly with a chaotic middle section that can reflect the sense of
desperation over the inevitability of Jesus suffering and death, and the violence of his
crucifixion. The piece opens with the first of three themes, accompanied with chordal but
55
John 18:1-19:42, sections omitted.
47
The second gesture is a severe recitative which Alain scores with a purposefully
intrusive sound (Example 19). He calls for a straight-toned incisive reed, a high pitched
mixture that lends a shrill sound to the tone, and the Cornet, a compound stop which
contains a unison pitch, along with the octave above, a fifth above that, the pitch two
octaves above, and finally the third above that. The registration intensifies the sound of
the recitative-like figure; the tone is incisive and severe. The addition of non-unison stops
can also add intensity to Alains use of the augmented fourth/diminished fifth interval
with the high notes creating dissonance beyond the unison and octave pitches. The severe
registration along with the striking dissonance can reflect several ideas: the call for Jesus
to be crucified, the taunting of Jesus on the cross, giving Jesus sour wine to drink, and the
jeers from one of the criminals who was crucified with Jesus.
block chords (mm 42-48). The day itself is dissonant, as Jesus is facing a torturous
death. By the end of the block chords, the registration is increased to full organ as the
The augmented fourth interval once again figures prominently in the restatement
of the recitative and provides the impetus for the next section, a toccata of high energy
utilizing the same interval. Alain sets the rhythm of the accompaniment utilizing eight
sixteenth notes, beamed in a three plus five configuration (Example 21). The beaming
indicates an offset accent of three plus five sixteenth notes instead of the usual two sets of
As the intensity increases, the rhythm is reduced to only seven sixteenth notes,
eliminating any sense of pause and creating a much more frantic movement to the music
(Example 22).
The change in rhythm and increased movement can suggest the desperation of Jesus
followers, of those who wish to see him killed, and even of Pilate himself.
The piece culminates in scalar passages in the left hand, which utilize the
instability of the augmented fourth sonority in their outline while the pedal plays the
As the relentless toccata slows to a stop, the recitative is played on the lower range of the
keyboard and is punctuated by full-organ chords on the Grand Orgue (Example 24).
Reflective of the moment of Christs death, the recitative, sounding alone, comes to an
In a mid to high register, the pitches of non-unison stops such as the Tierce and Nazard
are inaudible to the ear, so the combination of these stops is part of the color palette.
However, in the lower register, the ear can discern the distinct parallel tones created by
these non-unison stops. Beginning in m. 100 with the removal of the Cymbale, the stops
yield a sound of parallel octaves, fifths, and thirds (Example 26). Followed by silence, the
51
hollow parallel relationships can reflect the emptiness of death that dominates the Gospel
reading.
After the silence, the piece ends quietly. The opening melody is fused with the
recitative figure, and it closes with descending chord clusters marked by two pedal notes
Another view to the Good Friday story is to stand back from the specific details to
view the larger picture of Jesus journey to the cross. Jesus remains steady and calm
while chaos breaks out around him. While the crowd is shouting for his death, Jesus
moves steadily toward the cross much like a funeral procession. Without giving the same
attention to minute detail as with Alains piece, the notion of procession, suggesting
Jesus moving toward the cross, is prevalent in the first section of Csar Francks
Chorale in b minor.
The opening section is a chaconne, and the theme is somber and steady (Example
28).
In the opening statement of the theme, the accompaniment, in parallel octaves, is simple
and straightforward. The registration is on the French Fonds, or the foundation stops at
unison pitch, sounding with a rich tone. As with Alains piece, the increasing turmoil in
the story is musically reflected through the use of shorter rhythmic values over the
continuing chaconne theme in the bass. The intense chromaticism adds to the drama
(Example 29).
53
With the addition of the reeds on two of the three keyboards, the sound becomes louder
and more intense. The energy further increases due to shorter rhythmic values. What
were once quarter notes turn into eighth notes, then triplets with the addition of the reeds
of the Rcit and Positiv. With the ever-steady sense of walking in the bass, the faster and
more intense rhythm in the manuals can evoke images of the unfolding chaos of the
crowd amidst Jesus calm walk to the cross (Example 30). Following the flurry of
activity, the registration is reduced, and the music settles back into its original solemn
Example 31. Csar Franck, Chorale No. 2 in b minor, mm. 65-80, melody only.
Interspersed into this lyrical section are quiet and highly chromatic flourishes on the
Rcit, a division of the French organ enclosed in a box and placed deep within the organ.
Since the music is marked pianissimo, the shutters would be closed. The contrast of the
flourishes with the steadiness of the lyrical theme can point to the tension between Jesus
actual movement toward the cross and the confusion and anguish of his followers
(Example 32).
peacefully on a B major chord. For the Good Friday liturgy, this is where the piece
should end. From here the piece goes into a large fantasia which is dramatic but too
Resurrection
The Easter narrative is the turning point in the church year and is also the event
which marks Jesus move from Rabbi to Messiah. While this is indeed cause for
celebration, closer reading of the Biblical texts reveals a much different reaction to Jesus
resurrection than is often reflected in our Easter liturgies. The most celebratory account
After the sabbath, as the first day of the week was dawning, Mary Magdalene and
the other Mary went to see the tomb. And suddenly there was a great earthquake;
for an angel of the Lord, descending from heaven, came and rolled back the stone
and sat on it. His appearance was like lightning, and his clothing white as snow.
For fear of him the guards shook and became like dead men. But the angel said to
the women, Do not be afraid; I know that you are looking for Jesus who was
crucified. He is not here; for he has been raised, as he said. Come, see the place
where he lay. Then go quickly and tell his disciples, He has been raised from the
dead, and indeed he is going ahead of you to Galilee; there you will see him.
This is my message for you. So they left the tomb quickly with fear and great joy,
and ran to tell his disciples. Suddenly Jesus met them and said, Greetings! And
they came to him, took hold of his feet, and worshipped him. Then Jesus said to
them, Do not be afraid; go and tell my brothers to go to Galilee; there they will
see me.56
The story told in the Gospel of Mark is more subdued and succinct:
When the sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and
Salome bought spices, so that they might go and anoint him. And very early on
the first day of the week, when the sun had risen, they went to the tomb. They had
been saying to one another, Who will roll away the stone for us from the entrance
to the tomb?When they looked up, they saw that the stone, which was very large,
had already been rolled back. As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man,
dressed in a white robe, sitting on the right side; and they were alarmed. But he
said to them, Do not be alarmed; you are looking for Jesus of Nazareth, who was
crucified. He has been raised; he is not here. Look, there is the place they laid
him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter that he is going ahead of you to Galilee;
there you will see him, just as he told you. So they went out and fled from the
tomb, for terror and amazement had seized them; and they said nothing to anyone,
for they were afraid.57
56
Matthew 28:1-10.
57
Mark 16:1-8.
56
The tension in the Easter story is between fear and exaltation. Those who were firsthand
witnesses to the resurrection had the initial reaction of fear. The first words at the tomb
and the first words from Jesus are, Do not be afraid. While Matthew tells us the women
worshiped Jesus because they felt great joy, Mark states that they left because terror and
amazement had seized them; and they said nothing to anyone for they were afraid.
Remembering that the emotion is transformed from the grief of Good Friday to fear and
planning can acknowledge the reaction of fear and confusion, and it can also lean toward
unmitigated rejoicing at the announcement of life restored. A piece which captures this
movement from fear to rejoicing is Maurice Durufls Fugue sur le nom dAlain.
The fugue is a double fugue where the two subjects contrast with each other
between a solemn and dignified first subject (Example 33) which can be reminiscent of
the Good Friday funeral march and a rhythmically active second subject which moves the
Example 33. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 1-5.
The evening before the celebration of Jesus resurrection, the Easter Proclamation is
O night truly blessed which alone was worthy to know the time and the hour
wherein Christ arose again from hell! This is the night of which it is written: and
the night is as clear as the day; and, then shall my night be turned into day.
The holiness of this night puts to flight the deeds of wickedness; washes away sin;
57
restores innocence to the fallen, and joy to those who mourn; casts out hate;
brings peace; and humbles earthly pride.58
The sense of quickening in the deep of the blessed night is illuminated by the
introduction of the second fugue subject, played in sixteenth notes on the secondary
enclosed manual with a bright registration and the shutters closed. Here the piece can
illustrate the move from the death of Good Friday to the new life of Easter (Example 34).
Example 34. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 43-46.
The quiet but bright motion can indicate a quickening, a return of life, a Resurrection.
Thus begins a complicated harmonic labyrinth which ultimately returns to the key
first subject is stated in Eb major in the top voice. Durufl instructs the organist to move
to the Grand orgue, the main keyboard of the French organ. With this move, the sound
gets louder but also increases in weight and color. The piece continues in constant
crescendo from here to the end, an unrelenting build-up of sound and excitement can
Example 35. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 88-92.
58
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Lutheran Book of Worship, Ministers Desk Edition
(Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1978), 145.
58
Increasing the intensity, the first fugue subject appears at m. 105 in stretto at the interval
of a perfect fifth between the right hand and pedal. The reeds and Cornet of the Recit are
added, increasing the volume and color of the organ (Example 36).
Example 36. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 105-107.
The drama continues to build as the first subject appears between the left hand and pedal
in inversion in similar stretto. The accompaniment figure is derived from the first subject
in diminution, increasing the energy in unrelenting forward motion. The new section is
accentuated by the addition of the reeds and cornet on the Positiv division (Example 37).
Example 37. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 116-118.
59
The coup de grce is in the last statement of the fugue. The reeds and cornet of the Grand
Orgue and Pdale are added, stretto is employed yet again, and the mode shifts to the
parallel major by the appearance of F#. The piece concludes on full organ and thus
Example 38. Maurice Durufl, Fugue sur le nom dAlain, mm. 124-128.
Finally, a coda provides the opportunity to add any stops that might be remaining on the
organ; the piece closes with a flourish in the manuals and pedals. However, Durufl does
not release the harmonic tension until the very end. As illustrated above, the final
entrance of the fugue subject in the pedal gives the illusion of the key of D major.
However, Bb and Eb remain, possibly indicating deaths hold on Jesus until he is finally
released into new life. The final resolution does not appear until the piece is punctuated
progression from Good Friday to Easter suggested by Durufl and move directly to the
Prelude and Fugue in D, BWV 532, a piece which is not often thought of as church
music. Unlike Durufls piece which begins with the somber tone of Good Friday and
grows into the Resurrection, Bach immediately announces the resurrection with joy.
Prelude. It begins with an ascending D-major scale in the pedal, and the hands play
fanfare-like figures. These two ideas alternate through the first five measures of the piece.
While these five measures are a small percentage of the piece as a whole, the upward
motion of these flourishes sets up the whole work with a surge of energy that can
The gathering of energy is enhanced by the crescendo Bach builds into the manual
chords. When a voice has entered, it continues to be heard until all five notes are
sounding at once. As notes are added to the chord, the sound becomes louder. In the
seventh chords which lead to a cadence in the key of F#-major. Two such sections
appear in the prelude: here and in a closing Adagio which will be discussed later. A two
octave ascending D-major scale ending with a large D-major chord accomplishes an
With the consistently upward gestures, this opening can establish a clear sense of rising,
of resurrection, of celebration, and of joy. These gestures set up an alla breve section
which is based on a motif which Bach often used to symbolize the cross (Example 41).
Example 41. J. S. Bach, Prelude in D, BWV 532, mm. 26-31, pedal only.
62
The alla breve comes to a close on an A-major chord, the dominant of the key of
D, and proceeds to a closing adagio. This section is full of improvisatory flourishes and
colorful harmonic changes and balances the F# minor section previously mentioned. It
provides a dramatic close which contrasts the unbridled joy and can imply the presence of
The following fugue continues the energy established in the prelude. The subject
is active and exciting due to its use of sixteenth notes, repeating figuration, and silence
(Example 42).
The fugue closes as the prelude began: with alternation between the manual and pedal.
The pedal takes over the entire texture with an ambitious solo based on the fugue subject.
The solo finds its way to the bottom of the pedal board and makes its way to the top with
speed and clear direction (Example 43). In contrast to the solemn beginning of Durufls
piece, Bachs music lays all the energy implied by the resurrection before the listener. A
ascending figures and vibrant energy in the piece clearly shape the perception of
resurrection.
63
These discussions of music appropriate to the liturgies of Holy Week are meant to
stimulate the imagination of the liturgical organist to examine pieces in his or her library
that may evoke a response which will invite the listener into greater understanding of the
Biblical texts and the liturgical celebration that surrounds them. Brief supportive notes in
the worship folder are helpful and encouraged in order to help those without much
musical knowledge to make connections between the music and the liturgy. In this way,
CONCLUSION
With consistent use of appropriate and well-chosen organ music, the assembly
will learn there is a connection between the music and liturgy. In turn, the music provides
the assembly with another access point into the proclaimed texts and the liturgical
movement. In this way, the music becomes more than functional. A prelude is more than
music that prepares people for worship. It is the tool by which the scripture begins to
open to them, and it is an opportunity to introduce the essence of the liturgy to follow.
The postlude provides an opportunity to close the liturgy with music that strengthens the
ideas presented.
The idea that music and liturgy are inextricably linked can be found as far back as
Martin Luther, and his openness to the use of instrumental music in liturgy gives way to
the use of free organ music. While music in liturgy should draw the listener in, the
purpose of the music is not to provide entertainment. In this context, the music is an
exegetical tool used to provide greater understanding of the truth proclaimed in the
liturgy. Organists must not be afraid to trust their artistic and theological instincts to be
effective guides toward creating engaging and effective liturgical experiences. In the
same way as a preacher has a particular view through a theological lens, liturgical
organists have the specific view of a musician and must embrace the importance of their
role in proclamation. This is not to say that these views are in conflict with each other.
Quite the opposite is true. When preacher and musician each approach the liturgy using
the texts as a common starting point, the liturgy is cohesive and clear in its central
message.
65
As stated in chapter 2, modern planning resources point only to the use of hymn
or chorale-based music as appropriate for liturgy. The intent here is not to say that such
literature is never useful or that there is always a piece of free organ music which will fit
every occasion. However, just like free organ music, chorale-based music needs to be
consistent with the spirit of a given liturgy. For example, there are three settings of the
chorale In Dulci Jubilo which date from the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
centuries. One setting by J. S. Bach (BWV 729), the chorale is stated in block harmonies
with flourishes between each phrase. BWV 608, from the Orgelbchlein, is a joyful
setting containing the chorale melody in canon in the outer voices with triplet figuration
in the accompaniment. BWV 75159 is mostly composed in two-part counterpoint, and its
beauty is in its simplicity. The character of each of these settings can highlight the
distinctions in the various Christmas liturgies. The intimacy of the Christmas Eve liturgy
may be best served by the simple setting, BWV 751. The boldness of BWV 729 fits
better with the Christmas Day liturgy. Even music which is inherently related to the
celebration through the use of a pre-composed melody needs to be consistent with the
piece of music where one does not exist. However, there is a distinction between using
the general essence of a piece of music along with musical gestures that embody the
nature of the liturgy and establishing a literal association between those gestures and
theological ideas. The goal of the discussion of the examples provided in chapter 4 was to
59
This piece appears in many editions of the miscellaneous chorales of J. S. Bach. According to
Oxford Music Online (accessed November 30, 2014), BWV 751 was composed by J. Michael Bach (1648 -
1694).
66
point out salient features in the music which look toward the scripture readings or the
movement of the liturgy itself. For instance, the fugue subjects in Mendelssohns sonata
and the Durufls fugue reflect a distinct character relative to the liturgy in which they are
heard. The severity of the recitative motive in Alains Deuxime Fantaisie echoes the
harsh elements of suffering and death in the Good Friday narrative. Highlighting these
connections does not establish a program per se; instead it connects the music to the
When free organ music is fused with key themes of the liturgy, the organ takes its
Seeing free organ music with new eyes toward that end will bring forth a deeper
understanding on the part of the listener. Such is the goal of all that happens in liturgy: to
proclaim grace, to point to something beyond ourselves and to embrace the mystery of
faith. Thoughtful use of the abundance of free organ music serves this purpose well.
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Excerpts used by permission.
Alain, Marie-Claire. Critical Notes on the Organ Works of Jehan Alain. Translated by
Norma Stevlingson. Paris: Leduc, 2001 and 2003.
Barber, Samuel. Adagio for Strings. Transcribed by William Strickland. New York: G.
Schirmer, 1949.
Blume, Friedrich Blume. Protestant Church Music. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974.
Brown, Frank Burch. Good Taste, Bad Taste, and Christian Taste. New York: Oxford
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______
. Inclusive Yet Discerning: Navigating Worship Artfully. Grand Rapids, MI: William
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______
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Durufl, Maurice. Prelude et Fugue sur le nom dAlain, Op. 7. Paris: Editions Durand,
1943. Excerpts used by permission.
Eben, Petr. Nedlni Hudba (Sunday Music). Praha: Edition Supraphon, 1981. Excerpts
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______
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______
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Herzog, Eduard. Introductory notes to Petr Ebens Sunday Music. Prague: Editio
Supraphon, 1963.
Huygens, Constantyn. The Use and Non-Use of the Organ. Translated by Erika E. Smith-
Vanrotte. Brooklyn, NY: Institute of Medieval Music, 1964.
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Lang, Paul Henry. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W. W. Norton, 1941.
Langlais, Jean. Chant de Paix from Neuf Pices. Paris: Leduc, 1945. Excerpts reprinted
by permission.
Leaver, Robin. Luthers Liturgical Music: Principles and Implications. Grand Rapids,
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______
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Todd, R. Larry. Mendelssohn: A Life in Music. New York: Oxford University Press,
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