1.

Ship resistance

The power required to move a ship through the water dependson the propul-
sive efficiency and on the total resistanceof the ship. The resistanceis a com-
plex function of displacement,shape and speed.

The various componentsof resistance e.Air resistance

can be divided as follows: This depends on the vertical area
above the waterline, which varies
a. Frictionalresistance with the draught. Resistancecompo-
The friction between the water and nentsas mentionedin'd' and'e' are
the ship's shell is the cause of this variable, depen-ding on wave direc-
type of resistance.The water in the tion and wind direction as exoeri-
boundary layer is acceleratedby the encedbv the shio.
ship's speed,dragged by the molec-
ular friction. This boundary layer
is thicker, and the resistance higher
when the shell is fiouled.
The frictional resistanceis the small-
est directly after delivery of the ship.
During the ship's lifetime, the rough-
ness of the hull normally increases,
due to paint-layers covering older
paint-layers,damage,corrosion, etc.
This results in a gradual drop in speed
and efficiency.
boundary layer

LN{i-tanker ,\'itk a v,'{!l-designul bulb

Thev,ukeof the,ship

b. Pressure(form) resistance
The ship's momentum pushes the
water aside at the bow and as a result,
the pressure of the water increases.
This increase in pressure will also
take place aft. The presswe will drop
where the boundary layer is released. Supplier v'irkt'ut u bulh

c. Wave resistance
This is a resultof wave-systemsalong
the hull that originate from the differ-
encesin pressure.
On certain ships the use of a bulb at
the bow can significantly decrease
the wave-making resistance. The
bulb generatesits own wave-system, Container sl'tip tt,ith a hulb
which is designed to interfere nega-
tively with the ship's wave-system.
The two wave-systems then neutral-
ize each other.

d. Addedresistance in waves
This type of resistanceis causedby
the pitching, heaving and rolling of
the shio.
Trcilerittg hoppcr sttction dredger v;it-
hout s bulb

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

V'heproTtulsionsyslem
N.B. With regard to frictional resist-
ance, the newest hull paint, the so-
called non-stick paint, silicon-based,
which does not allow fouling to hold
onto the paint, keeps the frictional
resistance constant through the life-
time of the paint. This paint can also
be applied on the propeller, resulting
in a smooth hull and propeller, and in
this way keeping the hull efhciency
constant. Speed does not drop with
time passing and the fuel consump-
tion of the engine remains constant.It
is, however, a very expensive system,
only paying offon large, fast ships.
hT-i:ff
::l$ff1?
:#,"f,':;
;fil'J,i:
:i"'H:,:T"'":'l
ffil"s:
Iff"'fr'#"iix,'T:il:$T";:'J;:
;I'J1T,il", 1l:5:
.J1:'i:1#J
around
Present
lr:1f;;:*'-s'stem
$i,*ol
ll*bT,:
.;:##;I,:,T:J
il::.H'JIH
i"#'"ffiT'f,::, $
flow is lower. So in waves,water in a
trough has a higher speedthan water
4 For a given ship-speedand power, if
::"l,JTo';t*T,il'i. chaPter
the diameter of the propeller increas-
2. Propulsion
2.1 Propellers
In order for a ship to obtain a certain
constant speed, a force needs to be
exerted on the ship. The magnitude of
this force dependson the ship's resist-
ance applicable to that particular
Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear
speed. If the ship is moving through
the water at a constantspeedthe force
exerted on the ship equals the resist-
ance of the ship. The force that moves
the ship can come from an outside
source like a towing line or the wind,
but generally the force is generated
by a power source on the ship itself
(engine). The propulsion system usu-
ally consists of an engine or turbine,
reduction gearing, if applicable, pro-
peller shaft and propeller.
The efficiency ofa propeller takes an
important place in the design process
of the propulsion, because its effi-
ciency and the ship's fuel consump-
tion are directlyrelated.
The efficiency depends on the flow
field of the propeller, which depends
on:
- the shapeof the ship's underwater
body
- the power delivered to the
propeller
- the number of blades
- rotations per minute
- the maximum possible propeller
diameter
- the blade swface area and
smoothnessof the blade
- the ship'sspeed.
es, the rotations per minute decrease;
this generally increasesthe effrciency
and thus reduces the fuel consump-
tion.
Briefly said, the diameter of the pro-
peller should be as large as possible
so that a maximum amount of wake,
causedby the ship's hull, is used.
I Engine
2. Engine shaft and flexible coupling
J. Reduction gear-box; this reduces
the number of revolutions of the
engine(e.g.1000rpm) to an
acceptablerotation rate ofthe
propeller (e.g.200 rpm) The
reductionis 5:1.
4. Shaft generator;this supplies the
ship with electricity when the
engine is running
5. Sterntube with bearins
6. Propeller shaft
7. Propeller
The choice for high efficiency with
a large-diameter propeller and a low
number of revolutions per minute is
easily justifiable, but requires a sig-
nificant investment.
The propeller pitch is the distance in
the direction parallel to the propel-
ler shaft that a point on the propeller
covers in one revolution in a solid
substance. Similar to a point on a
corkscrew tuming in a cork. When
rotating in a fluid a propeller will
have a (small) slip. Rotations or
revolutions per minute are abbre-
viated astrpmt.
RPM and the number of blades have
influence on vibrations on board and
the resonancefrequency of the ship.
Most small single-screw ships use
a 4-bladed propeller, while 5-blad-
ed propellers are more common on
bigger ships, where a large power
(20,000kW) is necessary.
However, today, more and more ships
use the 5-bladed version. even when
less power is needed,to reduce vibra-
tion. 3-Bladed propellers are used
on twin-screw vessels and on ships
with a high number of revolutions per
minute and a low power (700 rpm,
600kw).
261

!'ixed riEhrltanded prcpel/et"on a tanker (decdv'eight j{},1)0t u:ns}. Prcpeller being
ytolished ta reduce rougkxess,.for le.sstzttutkttt/i'iclian and /e::sfuel cottsurttl.ttion.
Difibrent !,-pesaf blculescrlached ta
a hub. V'his taml:timlian ccil nev-er he
us e.rl.fbr c ctuul p *;pu l,r io n
2.1.1 The shapeofthe blades
Every propeller is designedindividu-
ally, based on the specific demands
set for this propeller. As a result of
this, there is a large variety in shapes
ofblades.
The remarks for each shape of blade
apply to both the fixed and the con-
trollable pitch propellers.
Blade 1: Is hardly used anymore.
Blade 2: Is used when there are strict
demands regarding noise and vibra-
tions on board.
Blade 3: Is used when the rpm is
high and, consequently,the diameter
is small.
A large blade surface area somewhat
262
6.
:1rirav'ingof the u1;1sr:r".fixedpx;peller
blade t;f a rigl'tf-hantletl;tnsStellerseen
Jiow above
L Cross-sectionofpropeller
blade
2. Propeller shaft
3. Suctionside
4. Pressureside
5. Leading edge
6. Trailing edge
reduces the efficiency, but it is very
favourable for the ability to stop the
ship and for the reverse propulsion Ve - approachvelocity -
force.
ship's speed- wake speed
Blade 4: Is used innozzles.
U : speedofrotation ofthe
Blade 5: Is also used in nozzlesif the
propeller
noise and vibration levels have to be
limited to a minimum. cl*r : angular velocity * radius
V : resulting speed
2.1,2 Pressureand sucfionsides A :l i ft
of the propeller W: drag
P : resulting force
The approach velocity of the water S : propulsion force (thrust)
is a result of the ship's movement T - shaft moment
through the water. If the ship has
zero speed,this Ve: 0. The approach
velocity can be calculated by sub-
tracting the wake velocity from the
ship's speed.The speedof rotation of
the propeller and the approachveloc-
ity result in the speed(V).
This V hits the propeller blade at a
certain angle:
a : 9o-10oat servicespeed
The speedof the incoming water cre-
ates an under-pressureon the forward
side of the blade (suction side) and
an over-pressureon the aft side ofthe
blade (pressure side). The propeller
blade acts similar to a wing profile.
Propellers are usually viewed from
aft, therefore the pressureside is also
Forces on the upper prapellet hhde
called'the face' and the suction side
v;hen the prvlteller is ralaling and the
'the back'.
sltiSti.smoving
Ship Knowleclge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

Cavitatbn datnage an a ltropeller blade
on a CPP due to missing ptug.
2.1.3 Cavitation
As described above, the propeller
pressure ofa rotating propeller is not
just the result of the water-pressure
on the pressure side, but also of the
under-pressure on the other side of
the propeller. Propellers that rotate
rapidly can create an under-pressure
that is so low that water-vapour bub-
bles are being formed on the suction
side of the propeller. These gas-bub-
bles implode again when the presswe
rises, and they do this continuously
on the samespot. When this is located
on the blade surface,it causesdamage
to the suction side of the blade. This
is called cavitation. Severe cavitation
results in:
- increaseofblade roughness
- a reduction in propulsion force
- wear of the blades
- vibrations that bend the blades
- noise in the ship
- high cost to recti$r.
A properly working propeller often
shows light cavitation at the blade
edgeswhich is not harmful.
2.1,4 The influenceof the propellerrs
turning direction on the ship's
manoeuvring.
Propellers can be divided into right-
handed and left-handed propellers.
Ships with a fixed-pitch propeller
usually have a right-handed version.
A right-handed propeller can be rec-
ognised in the following way. Stand
aft ofthe propeller, look at the face
Propeller Turning
direction
risht-handed risht
risht-handed 1eft
left-handed rieht
left-handed 1eft
Wheetffict qf pmpellers
Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear
flowing too fast from the pressure
areas to the suction areas of the pro-
peller, resulting in vortices. Tip plates
increase the effrciency by reducing
the energy loss. The improved hydro-
dynamics of the water-flow causedby
the tip-plate propellers also contribute
to the reduction of vibrations and
Cavilationdamageon a rudderblade noise of the propeller.
Another development is the contra-
and hold on to the top blade with rotating propeller. This system con-
both hands. If the right-hand side sists of two propellers placed one
of the blade is furthest away, it is a behind the other, which are driven by
right-handed propeller. If the ship is means of concentric shafts (inner and
going ahead,a right-handed propeller outer shafts) with opposite directions
is rotating clockwise. of rotation. Both the number of blades
When a propeller is rotating, the ship and the diametersdiffer.
has the tendency to turn to a particu-
lar side, even if the rudder is in the
mid-ships position and there are no
additional forces acting on the ship.
This effect is called the propeller
effect or wheel effect (seethe section
on manoeuvring).
Propellers with adjustable blades
(controllable-pitch propellers, abbre-
viated CPP) are often left-handed.
When the propeller is in the astern
mode, turning anti-clockwise, the
effect of the propeller is the same
as in a right-handed propeller going
astern, also tuming anti-clockwise.
Going ahead they have the same Propeller with tip plates
effect as a left-handed propeller. This
is done in order not to confuse pilots.
When going astern, the efficiency of
the propeller can drop below 50%
of the ahead effrciency, depending
on the type of blade and the type of
propeller.
2.1.5 Alternative propeller designs
Apart from the blade form and the
number of blades, many alternative
designshave been tried and tested.
Propellers with tip plates have been
invented around 1850, but have only
recently beenrediscovered.Tip plates
are attachedto the blade tips. Model test of a contra-rotating propeller
The plates prevent the water from
Sailing Directpropeller Indirect propeller
direction effect effect
Aft Fore Aft Fore
ahead starboard port
astem port starboard DOrt starboard
astern starboard port starboard Dort
ahead port starboard
263
 The principle this system is based
on, is that normally water is brought
into rotation by the propeller, which
results into a loss of energy.Adding
a second propeller rotating in the
oppositedirection reducesthe loss of
energy. The combined propellers can
reducethe fuel-consumptionby 15%.
It standsto reasonthat this confisura-
tion is very vulnerable.

2.2 Fixed pitch propellers

The propeller bladesof a fixed pitch

propeller have a fixed position. As a
consequencethe direction of rotation
of the propeller has to change if the
ship stops or must go astem. This is
realisedwith a reversing clutch or a
reversible engine.A reversing clutch,
and therefore also the fixed pitch
propeller, is economical in ships up
to 1250kW.
The diameter of fixed pitch propellers
variesbetween25 cm and 12 metres.
The choice of a fixed or a control-
lable-pitch propeller (CPP) depends
on, among other things, the need for a
shaft generator and the need for easy
manoeuvringqualities.
7 ::
,:::
ili"red right-h*ndetl pro;;ell*r oJ a ctiltai{t,:r vess::l{{iT 6{}{i42i tt,itlt * :,et;trsilt1,,: agi-
nc.I-hc px;pt:litr *'eigl't:;9-l t{}n.\,l1{r,r6 ltlar.lc.:,
Disadvantageof the fixed propeller
over a CPPare:
- in adverseweather,the propeller
may turn with too many rpm, this
can hamperpropulsion.
- fixed propellersalsohave a limited
range of rpm for manoeuvring, and
so with their power range.
2.3 Controllable-pitch
propellers (adjustable-
pitch propellers)
The blades of this type of propeller
can be turned around the blade-axis,
thereby changingthe propeller pitch.
These propellers are internally com-
plicated.The mechanismthat adjusts
the propeller pitch is located in the
boss of the propeller. It is activated
*ntl a diametcr rrl E.9"5rrt.
from the engine room, and remote-
ly controlled from the bridge by a
hydraulic cylinder. The most strik-
ing feature of the controllable-pitch
propeller is that it only rotates in
one direction, making the reversing
cl utchor the reversi bl engi
e neunnec-
essary.Unlike the fixed-pitch propel-
ler, the controllable- pitch propeller
is an integratedpart ofthe propulsion
system. This makes it possible that
power and necessarypropulsive for-
ces can all be controlled by simply
changingthe positionsof the blades.
The figure next page shows cross-
sectionsof a propeller blade and the
forces that act on that part of a rotat-
ing propellerblade.
On the left are the cross-sections and
forces when the ship is going ahead.

lnslali*lian o{ a litct} ri?,k{-handr:dpte-

p::Ikt"''r' i th sh:tli

Advantages of a fixed propeller over a

controllable-pitch propeller are:
- they are less vulnerable to damage
- the propeller does not revolve
when berlhing, so it imposes less
danger to mooring boats and there
is less risk ofropes getting
entangled in the propeller.

264 Ship Knowledge - Chapter I2: Propulsion and steering gear

All the veotors point backwards, the
ship is going forward.
Now the blades are rotated towards
the zero-position. This meansthat the
propulsive forces above and below
are equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction. The nett propulsive force
is zero, but the propeller still absorbs
a large amount of energy that is con-
verted to turbulence of the wake. To
go astern,the blades are rotated even
further, resulting in a forward propul-
sive force.
Safetyprecautions
1. The position of the bladescan be
changedmanuallywithout loss of
propulsiveforce.
2. lf the hydraulic system fails, the
bladescan be locked in the ahead
oosition.
i-
**--\
ilr*u;ittg.t r:J *.tiugie ;;rolteller
cartt;"allable y;itt'k prttpellet"; the tt1;per !.rl*de k lke l:latlc in llte drc:$ings.
Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear
Advantagesof a controllable-pitch pro-
peller:
- It can propel the ship at all speeds,
even at very low speed without
stopping the engine.
- It can changequickly from ahead
to asternand vice versa.
- Improved efficiency on ships with
changing power demand like
fishingcraft and tugs.
- It can easily be combinedwith a
shaft generator(see on the right).
It c a nstopa shi pw i th maxi mum
power.
- In caseof propellerdamage,
changinga blade is sometimes
possibleafloat,dependingon the
ship'stype and trim possibilities.
bbCt: rxttl il.g ct'o.gs^sectians. Tlet pit:tures slto*- lke
The shaftgeneratorcan supplythe
electricalpower on a ship as long
as the mai n engi nekeepsrunning.
With controllablepitch propellers
the generator frequency can be
kept constantbecausethe rpm of
the eneine remainsconstant.The
engine drives the shaft generator
via the reductiongearbox.
When a shaft generatoris fitted which
also can work as an electric motor,
with power supply from the auxiliary
diesel-generators,
the electric motor
can producepropul si onpow er .i. e. in
case of major main-engineproblems
for emergencypropulsion.
Class does not require this system
and/or the maximum speed it can
obtain.The systemis sometimesused
on small ships.
A shaft generator can produce elec-
tri c pow er al so duri ng manoeuvr ing.
which is an economicaladvantase.
Disadvantage:
CPP systemsare vulnerable due to the
hydraulic componentsand many seal-
ing rings.A damagedsealingring can
result in oil pollution.
1. Propellerblade(tip speed31,4m/s)
2. Bossor hub
3. Watertight/ oil tight seal
4. Stern frame
5. Propellershaft,240 rpm
6. Sterntube
7. Intermediate shaft (to engine shaft)
8. Reductiongearbox (1:2.5)
9.Mechanically driven lubricating
oilpump
10.Collar shaft (thrust)
1l.Actuating motor, coupledto a
12.mechanismof barsthat servesthe
blades
t')rav'ing q{ a coxrr*llab!e pitt'le 1;r<;-
peller tt'ith prolvller shr{t. '{'lwpitr:h
*d.justntenloy'tltc hl*dt:s i,cdo/tt: r'ia oi!
thouglt the hcllon, shul!. 7"/te
!.:)t^{.i:i.rLt,'e
./igurc.t apph, ttt c prrtpt.llt:t'tr'ith a diuw^
eler of ).5 rretr*:;.
265
2.4 Nozzles
The purpose of a tozzle is to increase
the propulsive force. This increase
results from the fact that the propel-
ler forces water to flow through the
nozzle. This water-flow has a higher
velocity in lhe nozzle than the water
outside and the resulting pressure
gradient then creates the additional
propulsive force. The efficiency of
Ihe nozzle is at a maximum when the
water can pass unobstructed. This
is why the top of the nozzle should
always be as free as possible in rela-
tion to the aft body.
Not only does a nozzle increase the
propulsive force, it also reducesnoise
and vibration levels.
Controllahle S;itt:hptopeller in c.fixed nazzle
Fixecl ystvpeller in s nozzle ntdcler
Tv'o rurlder prapellers in a nozzle, v'itll
36{}" xttation.
266
Furthermore,the incoming water-fl ow
is more homogeneous in a nozzle,
minimising local pressuredifferences
that are responsiblefor cavitation and
vibrations.
The combination of a propeller in a
nozzle is often called a ducted pro-
peller. In principle, lhe nozzle can be
used on every type of vessel except
on very fast ships like high-speed
ferries where they have no increas-
ing effect on the propulsive force.
If the frictional resistance (caused
by the nozzle) becomes larger than
the increase in propulsive force, the
nozzle is not effective. Nozzles are
often used on inland vessels, hopper
suction dredgers,tugs, fishing vessels
and suppliers. The advantages and
disadvantages of fixed- or control-
lable-pitch propellers are the same
for propellers in a nozzle and propel-
lers without one. For shallow-draught
ships the samethrust can be delivered
with a smaller system diameter.
Nozzlesare fitted as:
- fixed versions
- nozzle -rudder-propellers : the
whole system including propeller
can rotate around a vertical axis,
3600
- nozzle rudders: Propeller fixed,
nozzle can tum as a rudder
- (35od 40omax.).
One particular type of fixed nozzle
is the wing-or Schneekluth nozzle.
Only applied for ships with a tuIl
body, which lack wake velocity in the
upper half of the propeller circle. This
nozzle is fitted forward of the upper
part ofthe propeller againstthe stern-
frame, in two halves, with different
axis-anglesin relation to baseline and
centerline. The nozzle works anti-
rotating and brings water to the top-
The liftforce, created b3;the under-pres-
sure otl the outside of the nozzle
Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propalsion and steering gear
halve of the propeller circle, where
the velocity of the incoming water in
a full ship is low.. In spite of its mod-
est dimensions,this still increasesthe
propulsiveforce ifthe speedexceeds
12-18knots.
2.5 Rudder propellers
The main characteristic of rudder
propellers is their ability to rotate
like a rudder, if unobstructed, the
full 360". Rudder propellers are also
called 'azimuthing thrusters' or 'Z-
drives'. To achieve this freedom of
rotation, a right-angle underwater-
gearbox is driven by a vertical power
shaft. This vertical shaft is centeredin
the rudder stock.
A gear driven by a pinion is attached
to the top of the rudder stock. This
makes the unlimited rotation oos-
sible.
Nowadays, rudder propellers can
have a power up to 7500 kW. There
are several versions of rudder propel-
lers, namely:
l. Afixedunit assembledin an assem-
bly box. It can be equipped with a
depth-adjustment system. When
the ship is empty, the propeller
can be lowered in order to get suf-
ficient propulsive force efFrciently
without the need for ballast.
2. Deck units. The diesel-drive units
are placed on deck; the rudder pro-
peller is attachedto the back ofthe
drive unit. These types can also
have a depth-adjustmentsystem.
3. A retractable unit. It can be with-
drawn entirely into the ship and is
only lowered when the ship is at
sea.When in top position, the pro-
pellers can then be part ofa tunnel
thruster and are then called'retract-
able thrusters'. Not used for main
propulsion.
4. Bow thrusters or stem thrusters.
Also called tunnel thrusters. They
are basedon a transversepropeller
and a right-angle underwater gear-
box. These are used exclusively to
position the ship with a starboard
or port side thrust. When the ship's
speedis above 6 knots, their influ-
enceis negligible.
Types I and 2 function as main pro-
pulsion units, while type 3 is an aux-
iliary propulsion unit. Type 4 is for
 low-speedmanoeuvring.
The most imporlant advantage of a
rudder propeller is its ability to give
optimal thrust in each rudder posi-
tion.
With exception of the tunnel thruster,
all rudder propellers can steer the
ship 360", thereby giving the ship
excel-lent manoeuvrability. Today,
modern electronic equipment for sat-
ellite navigation can be employed to
couple the rudder propellers to the
dynamic positioning system(DP-sys-
tem). This can keep a ship in a pre-
determined position irrespective of
the influences of currents. waves and
'{ug
lxt*l eqttil4.zt:t/ x'ith l*'t: u:*zt*hinl1 lltrtslers t:nd it !xt*' fh.rusttt' wind. Retractable thrusters are often
used for this purpose.When the ship
has arrived at its position, the azimuth
thrusters are lowered and the ship
switchesto DP.

#* +%^-6ffi

* *
-S'ffi

*-- tgw*qffi
wq{qffi
-.
ffi.*

5cl:e*t*|it: 1;rtsen-
to!ion af lhi: t:{)t?t-
neitnd p*lls.fi'txu
lN'ldgt t:*nlt o/
tr.t llta *ddtr
prr: pelltr

1. Driveshaft from engine,with gears

2. Vertical driveshaft
3.
4.
5.
Propellorshaftwith gears
Kotl-Nozzle
Rotation point in ships construction
#
6. ControllablePitch Propeller
7. Hydraulic lines to CPP
8. Oil-Filledgearbox

Ship Knowledge - Chapter l2: Propulsion and steering geat 267

 Other advantagesof the rudder pro-
peller ar e t he v e ry c o m p a c te n g i n e
room (becausethere is no need for a
long propeller shaft); this results in
lower installation costs as compared
to a conventionalpropeller.

Rudder propeller installations are

]L
often used on passengerships, cable
ships, floating cranes, suppliers, Jr
lt
dredgers,bargesetc.
fl'
Thejoy stick on the control panel is a
so-called'one-manoperatedjoy stick
system', which controls the entire ..|t',l.i,.ll|l|.*;a.::l.l:1:hr;f'l.ls:lprlict''il.t.}1.i)')|hCl;plllttc!l'?.||||j':70ri|':.t:*1:l:hili/it:.t
propuisionsystemand the rudders. t.tr piztpt||tt it: t:**;it!t:uiittt t i.li; c i:tt*' 1ltrti.tIt:i

ff
{.i; t; r./ rt'.t n * c u',,r u l: i I i t}' t: i' c I er:tr i : t / t :.ti.ltlet'
pt t;lvlltt't'l'l:r: tu;'ni*g t:lrt le cl u sltiit .,r'illt
t:i':::.trical n.;iicr ;:x;ptl!trs ,Ls cr.'*ipar:i to
I i: c .:;i.tI c t' s l'tip t ltt tI u:tes,\,: li 11i..!| c r t tJ il t' r.l
r.*ul yroT:elltr,:;

tottrtl y;ert:l

1. Joystick
2. Control automaticpilot
3 . Read- outof da u g h te r-
compass !;r': /ltrtr:/t:t ',,.it,,1:
1,:: lul yito;tgt';t1tii cl t.ict';'.r.:,i:r>..,,

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

; )r ,t - , ;,r ;-;11f. 1 yr7' , ., i. I
llirccl-,*r.v"e ergitee lo ;trr:/;ell*r
!)ie't l*c ! t:t Iri t dr ivc
2.6 Electrical rudder propeller
(Brand names: Azipod, Dolphin,
Mermaid, SSP)
The difference between the rudder
propeller of paragraph 1.5 and the
electric rudder propeller or podded
propulsor is that the latter has its
propulsion enginelocatedoutsidethe
ship hu1l. The electrical engine with
adjustablerpm is placed in a pod that
is attachedto the bottom of the ship.
Every pod has a propellerattachedto
it, driven by the electric motor inside
the pod. There are two main types:
a fixed pod with a rudder or a 3600
rotating pod without a rudder. Both
typescan eitherpush or pull. The pro-
peller is then locatedat the back or at
the front of the pod, respectively.
The electricrudderpropellerdoesnot
require gearboxes,clutches,propeller
shaftsand rudders.
Ship Knowleclge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear
4 r';'tii.rt,ship v'ill;.2::ltt'lrit.t.:l nit.ltl*;,.*;ycllt'rs tl*! t:*i: tr;iut',: 3{i{}''
Automation
\
\
\
\*\
Main
switchboards
transformers - Propulsion
motors
Frequency
con\rerters
,1;'n; ngt tnt riI ttl u il Iesc I-ci t.t:tr i r: ;.tt'rt-
The diesel generatorscan be placed jzu!si * t:-.ti';;1a* t -ttsi r11t:!t:t.::
!t'i.r.'ri * ;:ip r.:tl s.
anyr,vhereon the ship, as long as there t,' 7:t:*' er - t u; ryIj' L t' I Ic scI!:cuc* t-
is space available, unlike the ships "
l r',,,','
with a mechanical drive where the
enginesare connectedto the propeller Advantages are:
by a long shaft and other parls. 1. It is possibie to separate the power
source and the propulsion system.
This makes this propulsion system 2. It can combine the power supply
a compact systemthat simplifies the of the auxiliaries and the propul-
designand constructionofthe ship as sion system.
comparedto conventionalpropulsion 3. Few vibrations and little noise.
systems.Although the system was 4. Excellent manoeuvring
originally developedfor icebreakers, capabilities.
it is now in use on suppiiers,cruise 5. Lower fuel-costs.
ships,tankers,ferries and ships with
a DP-system.
269
 Small pod

1. Propellor Shaft alignment can be complex. In pumped round the shaft, from fore to
2. Bearing and shaft labyrinth (seal) small ships it usually is a straight line, aft. This means that the water inside
3. Hydraulic steering unit with but in large ships with heary shafting the stern tube always has a slight
toothed rim systems, the alignment is calculated over-pressureas compared to the out-
4. Collector rings for the and bored in accordancewith the flex- side seawater.The Navy prefers water
ible line of the installed and couoled lubrication becauseseals, in use with
transmission of data and power
shafting. oil lubrication are vulnerable to pres-
5. Ship's bottom
sure shocks, from, for instance,depth
6. Electro-motor
The lubricating agentbetweenthe pro- charges. The seals are then blown
7. Bearing (radial and thrust) peller shaft and the shaftingcan be: inwards, and the sealing properties
are lost.
2.7 Propeller shafting a. water In some countries water lubrication
b. oil is compulsory for local shipping to
The stern tube contains the bearings protectthe environment.
in which the propeller shaft is rotat- a. Water as a lubricant
ing. Usually, there are two bearings, When water is the lubricant for the
the one most aft being the longer. propeller shaft, the bearings are made
Close to this aft bearing is the sealing
of rubber or synthetics. Water lubri-
system that keeps the seawaterout of cation can be achieved with both
the stem tube and the oil inside. open and closed systems.In the open l. Propellor
system, there must be floq usually 2. Tailshaft
The front side of the stern tube is generated by a pump, through the 3. Shaftbearing(Rubbea lignum-
welded to the aft peak bulkhead, stern bush from forward to aft, thus
vitae, tufnol)
the aft part to the stern or propeller preventing seawaterfrom entering the
4. Sterntube
post. After welding, the tube ends are ship. In the closed system,the water is
machined in situ, in accordancewith
the alignment of the shafting in rela-
ullrffir$)
tion to the main engine. ftfi
,rrf (4 rmm $ql|{.})
The sealing system must be able to
withstand extreme conditions like:
- circumferential speedsup to 5 m/s
- water-pressureup to 3 bar
- axial and radial propeller shaft
displacementsof approximately I
millimetre
- the ship's vibration
- 7000 hours of rotation-time per lyaler I u1';
r i catbtr ta i Ishaft s,-stem
year, during 5 years.

270 Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering geur

 c,
1. Stern
2. Rudder
3. Propellercap
4. Propeller
#
5. Skeg
6. Aft stern-tubeseals
7. Shafting
8. Forward stern-tubeseals
9. Intermediate shaft bearings
10. Propellershaft

b. Oil Lubricated Shafting

Approximately 70% of all ships use
oil as a lubricant for the propeller
sh a ft.I n t hatc as e.t he b e a ri n gi s u s u -
ally made of white-metal,and some-
times of synthetic material. White-
metal is superior.

The disadvantageof synthetic mate-

rials is that they poorly transmit the
Sltnt -.t'itlt * ctntlroll*blc pift'h 7;n:pt:llct
frictional heat between bearing and
shaft. The oil-filled tube, with the
shaftin centre,has sophisticatedseals
at both sides, to keep the oil in the
tube, and the water (aft) out.

The sealing system at the backside

consistsof a sealingcaseand mostly
three sealing rings. These sealing
rings are made of synthetic rubber.
The spacebetweenthe two bearings
is completely filled with lubricant.
The aft seal prevents oil from leaking
to the outside.
7-hc slct'tt tubc is butzrgltt i?1lo llte ,tlert?

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering geat 271

 The lubricant pressureis only slightly
higher than the water pressure. So if
seawater should somehow enter the
two water-seals,the higher lubricant
pressure prevents it from reaching
the propeller shaft. Seawater could
seriously damage the unprotected
propeller shaft. The higher lubricant
pressure is maintained by a small
, pressuretank (A), which is placed a
few metres above the load line.

TankA is part of the main lubricating

,9lr:rnl:earing cutt.f,seal,s system, tank B contains lubricating
oil for the seawater sealing rings.
The oil in the main lubricating sys-
tem is self-circulating due to the fact
outer seal inner seal that warmer oil rises upwards. Tank
C is both the drainage tank and the
storage tank. If oil leakage should
somehow occur, it is usually limited
to small amounts.If not, drydocking
is necessary.A chrome steel bush is
frtted around both the propellershaft
aft near the propeller and forward in
way of the aft peak bulkhead. The
spacebetween the bush and the tube
contains lubricant.

{}uter and inner seal,v

The aft chlome steel liner is attached
to the propeller boss with bolts, the
chrome-steelliner of the forward bush
is attachedto the propeller shaft via a
clamped ring. Around both bushes,
are non-rotating housings, bolted to
the stern tube, and inside the sealing
rings are fitted.

During dry-docking, the position of

the shaft, relative to the stern tube,
has to be measured, to ensure that
the shaft is more or less, within a
1=--t few tenths of a mm, in the vertical
same position as when built. This
is indicative of the wear of the aft
bearing. A special depth gauge, the
so-called'poker gauge',is presenton
board and is designedto measurethe
position of the shaft. Normally there
Cl*setl ,;,-stem witlt luhricaling oil is no sagging.
1. Propellerboss 8. Sterntube
2. Propellershaft 9. Clampedring
3. Chrome-steelliner 10. Sterntube bearing
4. Seawaterseal 11. Fasteningat sterntube
5. Oil seal 12. Fastening at stern fube, where
6. Stem frame meeting the aftpeak bulkhead
'7. Aft bearing

)1 ) Ship Knowledge - Chapter I2: Propulsion and steering gear

 Forwardpropulsion Zero speed Reversing

2.8Water-jetpropulsion

Water-jet propulsion is based on

the reaction force of a high-velocity
water-jet at the stern of a (light dis-
placement)ship, blown in aft direc-
t10n.

The main principles of the water-jet

are:
- the impeller (propeller) draws in
seawaterthrough an inlet, usually
in the (flat) bottom
the sameimpeller booststhe water
pressurefor the water flow
- the water is pushedthrough a noz-
zle
- the nozzleconvertsthe water pres-
sureinto a high-speedjet
- the accelerationof the water-flow
generatesa thrust force that gives
the ship its speed
- for sailing astern,the water-flow
exiting from the nozzle can be
reversed in the forward direction : &f,
with reversingplate(s).

The water-jethas an electronicsteer- th:p irit:tr: b-t' \^,,{}l.t'r.f

{tt l}./}frl.;l{}tl
ing system. This means that the
orders from the bridge are immedi-
ately processedby micro-processors.

The same principle as for a water

jet is applied in an aircraft jet
engine, but here air is the medium
instead of water. The principle is
basedon Newton's law F : m x a,
where F is the force in Newton, m
the mass of the water and a is the
accelerationof the water.

I u' l 1,. Lt - 4; :.1

This makesit possiblefor the water- The advantages of water-jetsare:

jet, engineand gearboxto be control-
led directly from the bridge.
Along with yachts, many passenger
and car ferries, rescue and patrol
boats are nowadays equipped wrth
water-jets. In 1998 the first cargo-
ships were built with water-jet pro-
pulsion. The maximum speed of
modern water-jetslies around 70-75
knots (approximately135 km/h). The
fastest ferries can reach a speed of
approximately50 knots.
lleltrjct t".'it/; tcve ;.tir:t: l:utl;ct dt.nu
no rotating parts under water. This
rnakes it sale to manoeurre in
shallow waters.
less resistance,especiallyat high-
er speeds,becausethereare no fit-
tings (e.g.the rudder)
- not protrudingbelow the ship.
- excellent manoeuvring capabili-
ties. For instance, a jet-powered
ship cannavigatesideways.
- less sensitive to cavitation than
propellerson fast ships.
- high propulsion effrcienciesof up
to l2yo.

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

273
 g
e10-
!l;s* -@dil

:.
nti,itinilntilir.a..::ri1iiir":.
:-:i1."I I

{ ra ss-secI ksn of v,c*er-l et {{Ytir t'ri ltt Prttp uh i on "}els)

3. Stabilisers
Rolling of a (fast) ship during sailing
can be reduced by using stabilising
fins, by as much as 80 - 90%. The
velocity of the water stream along the
ships-sidecan be used to reduce the
rolling, by installing such fins, with
a configuration of a flap-rudder, in
a sideway direction protruding from
the bilgestrake, and which can rotate
around a shaft. The maximal rotation-
angle is up and down approximately
25o. When having an angle with the
water-direction, they produce lifting
forces, similar to a rudder, upwards
or downwards. When a ship is rol-
ling, water flows along the sides in an
ondulating way.
The fin is operated such, that at any
moment, a reactionforce is produced,
upward or downward, contrary to the
accelerationof the ship side. The
angle of attack of the fin profile is
adiustedto the flow direction,
1. Inlet
upward or downward, depending on 2. Driving shaft
rolling speed and -time, and ship 3. Impeller
speed. The fin is oscilated by a 4. Hydraulic steering cylinder
hydraulic piston or vane-type motor. 5. Jetavator,steering parl
The angle ofattack, the rotation speed 6. Hydraulic cylinder that alters the
and -period are dictated by a compu- direction of the propulsion
ter, receiving signals from sensorsin 7. Reversingplate, can be moved
the rotating shaft, comparing the pro- by the cylinder
duced force with the required force, 8. Reversesection
and from a gyro. The working force 9. Sealingbox to preventwater
is maximised, but cavitation is pre- from entering the ship
vented. They are in use on passen- l0.Combined guide and thrust
gerships and yachts, for the comfort bearing
of the people on board, and on ro-ro 11.N ozzl e
ships and containerships to reduce
the acceleration forces on the cargo.
Some healy cargo ships use stabili-
sers for the same reason.A decrease
in fuel consumptionis claimed also.
N o rm a l i nstal l ati oncompri sesone
frn on each side, but 4 fins are also
installed. The fins can be retracted,
in order not to stick out from the ship
side when moored.

1. Bridge control unit

2. Main control unit
3. Pump motor starter
4. Local control unit
5. Fi n
6. Stabilisermachinery
unit
7. Oil headertank
8. H ydraul i cpow eruni t

274 Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

4. Rudders
The function of a rudder is to devel-
op a transversesteering force on the

T
aft side of a ship, using the reaction
force of the water flowing along the
ship (and the rudder). The rudder
is usually located in the water-flow
aft of the propeller. Depending on II
the type of ship, the area of the rud-
I
der ranges from l.5o/o to l0% of
the underwater lateral area (length x
I
i
draught).

The rudder should be shapedin such

a way that the water-flow can be
deviated as effectively as possible, in
combinationwith minimal resistance. Setting in the heel 0l'sf{q; nddt!'

Giving the horizontal cross-section i

of the rudder a wing-profile satis-

fies these two demands. In fact, the
rudder is a vertical wing, on which
a lifting force is generated by the
water-flow in the same way as an
aeroplanewing, propeller blades and
anozzle get a lift. This is also known
as the rudder force. The drag should
be as low as possible. The lifting
force gives a tuming moment around
the ship's centre of displacement:this
is what rotates the ship.
For slow-speedmanoeuvring the rud-
der should cover the propeller diam-
eter as much as possible in order to
make optimal use of the water-flow
ofthe propeller.
The force that the steeringengine
must supply depends on the torque
(force x distance)that must be applied
to rotate the rudder.
A t*n{r<tlk;ble y;itck prapellet'and a-/lap
ruddet"of ct ntztlti-purposevelsel. ?'he
unrlersicleof the nsdder slor:k can be
seett ix thr: rwdder.
C{tuir:ulcoilnadi{;tlbety.eenXherudtler
sloclr.ancltherudrlerblade
Depending on the rudder-profile, the
rudder stock is located aI 25 - 40Yo
abaft the leading edge of the rudder.
Most rudders are hollow and empty.
The inside is stiffened with hori-zon-
tal and vertical profiles.
The next sectionswill only describe
free-hanging rudders. In smaller ves-
sels (like fishing boats), however,
rudders are still supported in spe-
cially constructedheels,or in caseof
mariner rudders at half height (bigger
ships)

jtl or iz-ontu| cj Y)ss-set:ti an

This force is the resultant (N) in the
drawing. The total moment depends oJ-thc rur{der hlade rl'a
on: l.>alunrcrudtler
- the position of the rudder stock
compared to the point of applica-
tion of N
- the distance between the rudder
stock and the leading edge of the
rudder (balance).

When the rudder is free-hanging

(spade type), the rudder stock must V : velocity of water- resultantforce a : distance befween
also be able to absorb the total bend- flo. under-pressure the rudder-
ing forces of the rudder. L -- lft over-pressure stock and the
D : drag point of
application of N

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear 275

Tgp ,-iev. I

-----_*
_ . - , _ , *. *1 -
| .-1.
r . {- r - ,
\t/
I

Side t iev, a-{tlte sleips centre line

tlansfruclion al'part of'tle* {r:u,erstern
of a container.fbeder
l. Transom
2. Steering flat
3. Aft perpendicular: rudder axle
4. Rudder
5. Rudder trunk
6. Spacefor the rudder stock
7. Ice-protection
8. Rudder dome (deadwood)
9. Stern frame
10. Wash bulkhead on centre line
I l. Stern frame centre
12. Centre line propeller shaft
13. Side girder
14. Floor plate

,F'rawe at a./i
perpendiuku
{llazur: {})

France nunzl.te:"
2

l i ./r ',,;r .l nv

il't sl{:lt1

276 Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear

 Suspension of the rudder.
The drawings and photos will give an
idea of how rudders are suppofied.

The mostcommonrudder-typesare:
l. spaderudder
2. flap rudder
3. mariner rudder
4. fish-tail rudder

4.1 Spade rudder

In terms of construction, the spade

rudder is very simple becauseit has 4./k;!.truddcr trr:.derc k;rgc s*'gu.fit.ry,
no suppofts. For this reason it is a
very cheap rudder and it is widely q
applied, from yachts to fast ferries
6.
and tankers. The rudder usually beco-
7.
mes nanower from top to bottom, to
reduce the bending moment in the
rudder shaft.

l. Rudderblade
2. Rudder-stockin rudder
trunk
3. Flap
4. Hinge line
A .ry;adt rzttltler or r.:rce/bt; /t.tciv :;u.t- 5. Steeringengine
pt:wlctl /nNx !hr: ;'udder dowt 6. Steeringengine
foundation
7. Gland and bearing
4.2 The Flap rudder
8. Rudder dome
9. Steadimentbearing
The flap rudder has a hinged flap at
10. Flap actuator
the back ofthe rudderblade.This flap
is moved mechanically by the flap Advantagesofflap ruddersare: lilap nzdder
guide at the top of the rudder in such - extra manoeuvrability (that is, if
a way that the flap's tuming angle is the main rudder blade is as large
twice as large as the tuming angle of as the spaderudder)
the main rudder blade. The steering - course correctionscan be perfor- Rudder blade
methods of the flap differ per type med with smaller rudder angles. Ruddsr st$ck
of flap rudder. When the maximum This meansthat the ship
rudder angle is 45o, the flap has a - losesless speedand thereforecon-
maximum angle of 90o with respect sumeslessfuel.
i/
to the ship. In this rudder position it 'Ji$g -_,*_ {
,oJ

is possiblethat 40%oof the ship'spro- J

pulsive force is directedsideways.In
combination with a bow thruster such
a ship can navigate transversely.
Disadvantages are: t l"/
- the price a '$+
- vulnerability Welef {trrw whefl :h{} ilel$ ,s 1urfi6}rJ
- the larger rudder forces require the
rudder stock to be bigger. { u r ra n I .fl t tn]i. Ltl t?.tfix i t}.?t t $1 ru r/dr:r to t Ie
i1

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propalsion and steering gear

)11
 4.3 The Mariner rudder

The Mariner rudder is used on large

ships like containerships,bulk carri-
ers,tankersand passengerliners. The
rudder horn is integrated in the ship's
construction and the mariner rud-
der is attached to the stem post with
the ability to rotate. This results in a
robust rudder. Disadvantagesof this
construction are that there is a larger
ris k of c av it at io na t th e s u s p e n s i o n
p o int sand t hat t h e c a s tc o n s tru c ti o n 9tralL,.t' i t, :1r1'd*t'l,
is more exoensive.

rudder :runk---

cone block

lTentavalr.;fw*rplcle ruddet: *'ei.qh.t f:itling d'pint/(t l{} n.'\", hu.tlt*:1;s

Lrppft).r i Inat{.b t 2 {} | ott,s
sffiffi
{1tns'tntctktn
of c mnt'inet
rutldet'

4ligNwent of rttrltler and s't*tt ir :;htry

Flow accelerationdelaysstall Stabilisingforces

4.4 Fishtail rudder

FLO!\i
r/.t
. o*P$\oN
*LCAt-
---
J_-
The fishtail rudder has been devel- \
--\-..-*
oped for ships with a slow speed,
BLUNT ===-'
less than 14 knots. The after edge of TRAILING
LEADING STREA,MLINED
the rudder blade is provided with a EDGE MID BODY EDGE
friction increase, to give extra drag
to the water around the rudder. This
improvesthe manoeuvringabilities. Tt;p vi.t',z,a.f* /i:;h ruil rttdder

278 Ship Knowledge - Chapter l2: Propulsion and steering geat

 "S:,

+i da

l. R udder stock
2. Ti l l er
#: 3. Ram (piston + cylinder)
4. H ydraul i c l i nes
5. Electro-motor

'gF 6. Proteclionof coupling between

e-motorand hydraul i c power
pack
7. P ump i n tank fi l l ed w i th oi l
t=
r=

$ (pow er pack)
l=
l.), t t.ti t i.t:-r.::. ! ! : t :1 t. .)i / i) I I I f . i : : r.t :' t.;:: t 5.2 Ram steering gear Ram steeringgear can have 1 ram, 2
i' l,!';:,t t-', t' r t I t: . t ; t t I i i
"',t:..r..,'
rams or 4 rams. If. in the caseof one
In ram steeringgear,the rudder-stock or two rams the cylindersare double-
5. Steeringgear is rotated by a tiller that, in its turn, acting, the steering engine can still
by rauts.A ratnconsi sts operatethroLLghone of the cylinders
i s c o rrtrol l ed
5.1 General ol'a cylinderand a piston,the piston when the other one fails. A 4-ram
bcing moved by hydraulicpressure. system can be split in two and two
When on the bridge it is decidedto The trller and the rudder-stock are for the sarrre reason. Thi s i s a req t r ir e-
alterthe course,the automaticpilot or often linked by a conical connection. ment of SOLAS.
the hehr is usedto activatethe stcer-
ing engine.which, in turn, rotatesthe
rudder-stockand the rudder.The rud-
der carrier supportsthe rudder-stock
and the rudder. The rudder carier
also functionsas a bearingaroundthe
rudder-stock,and it seals the rudder
trunk to preventseawaterfrom enter-
ing the ship by a gland.

SO LA S det nandst h a t e \e r) s te e rtn g

engineshor"rld be equippedwith 2 sets
of pumps with separatedpower sup-
ply. and, consequently,also 2 servo
sets, serving the hydraulic pumps.
Both the ram and the rotary-vane
steeringenginesoperateby hydraLrlic
power.
Both types of steerirrggear are eqllal-
l y c om m on ir r s hi p p i n g T
. h e rn a g n i -
tude of the steeringor ruddermoment
is expressedin kNm (kilo-Newton-
metre). In generalthe greatestrudder
momentoccursat 30o-35o.

Ship Knowletlge - Chapter 12: Propulsion antl sleering gear 279

5.3 Rotary-vane steering gear

A rotary-vanesteeringengine con-
sists of a fixed casing, with inside
the casing a rotor to which wings are
attached.The casingis providedwith
two similar fixed wings as are on the
rotor. This arrangement divides the Roteryvane:
house into four chambers,two high- l. Rudder stock
pressureand two low-pressureones. 2. Rotor with wings
A valve block directs hydraulic oil 3. Fixed division blocks with oil
at high pressure into the chambers lines
simultaneously, pushing/rotating the 4. Chambers(filled with oil)
rotor and subsequentlythe rudder. If 5. Electric motor
the rudder is rotated to the other side, o- Hydraulic pump
the high-pressurechambersbecome
low-pressure chambers and vice
Below:
versa. The rudder-stock is located
in the centre ofthe rotor; the rotor is 1. Rudder
pressedonto the conical section of 2. Rotary-vane steering gear with
the rudder stock. The wings and the valve-block
fixed division blocks are provided 3. Electric motor with main hydrau-
with spring-loadedplates which are lic pump
the seals between the hish- and low- 4. Power units (to supply the hydrau-
pressureoil chambers. lic power to operatethe valves in
the valve-block)
Advantagesof a rotary-vanesteering 5. Hydraulic oil tank
gearengineovera ram-steeringengine 6. Emergencymanoeuvringconsole
are: 7. Starterboxeselectricmotors
- it takesup lessspace 8. Bulkhead betr.r een engineroom
- it is easierto build in and steeringgearroom
it hasan int eg ra tebde a ri n g 9. Bottom
it has a constantrudder moment. 10.Entrancefrom engineroom
Disadvantage: I 1.Hydraulic oil lines for manoeu
- it is quite complicatedto repair it. ri n g andcrossconnecti ons

Ship Knowledge - Chapter 12: Propulsion and steering gear