Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
(Ore)
3
WHAT CONSTITUTES MINERAL BENEFICIATION?
If the first step is not done correctly, the second step will be incomplete.
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LIBERATION BY SIZE REDUCTION.
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MINERALS OF EQUAL ABUNDANCE.
The cube is sectioned along a vertical plane.
Visualise that lattices with parameters 10mm and 5
mm are superimposed with their axes parallel.
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MINERALS OF UNEQUAL ABUNDANCE.
bauxite
LIBERATION BY DETACHMENT.
If the ore lump is made of mineral grains bonded loosely, fracturing to the grain size
results in complete liberation.
Eg: Pebble phosphate rock
MOSTLY LIBERATION NEEDS SIZE REDUCTION.
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A SIMPLIFIED FLOW CHART FOR ORE DRESSING
8
Comminution
When raw materials are processed in solid state, particle size reduction is
essential. The ROM ore may be as big as 3 m in size.
Minerals should be liberated before concentration. This liberation
accomplished by comminution.
Communiation is one of the primary operations in mineral dressing ;takes
place in a sequence of crushing and grinding processes.
COMMINUTION - The whole operation of reducing the raw ore to the size
required for mechanical separation or metallurgical processing. It is used to
- create particles in a certain size and shape,
- increase the surface area available for next process
- liberate valuable minerals held within particles.
Comminution
Crushing Grinding
OBJECTIVES OF COMMINUTION.
11
STEPS IN COMMINUTION
S. No Process Size reduction
13
ENERGY IN COMMINUTION
Rittingers, Kicks and Bonds theories are used to evaluate any crushing process.
Rittingers law deals with measurements of surface areas
Kicks law deals with volumes of products particles
Bonds theory deals with lengths of cracks formed.
Kick applies to coarse sizes (> 10 mm), Bond applies down to 100 m,
Rittinger applies to sizes < 100 m . 14
It is impossible to estimate accurately the amount of energy required to effect a size
reduction of a given material.
A number of empirical laws have been proposed.
The two earliest laws are due to KICK and VON RITTINGER, and a third law due to
BOND has also been proposed.
It states that the energy consumed in the size reduction is proportional to the area of
new surface produced.
1 1
E - the energy input, E K r f(c )
D1- the initial particle size, D p Df
D2- the final particle size,
K - a constant. Kr = Rittinger's Constant and fc = crushing strength of the material,
f- feed, p-product.
15
Kicks law (1885)
States that the work required is proportional to the reduction in volume of the
particles concerned.
Energy required for producing a specified reduction is proportional to the log of the
reduction ratio.
Df
E K k f c loge
D p
Kk = Kick's Constant and fc = crushing strength of the material
16
Bonds law (1952)
Energy required is based on geometry of a crack expansion as it opens up.
the work input is proportional to the new crack tip length produced in
particle breakage, and
equals the work represented by the product minus that represented by the
feed.
The total work input (represented by a given weight of crushed or ground
product ) is inversely proportional to the square root of the diameter of the
product particles.
1 1
E K b f(c ) Kb = Bond's Constant and fc = crushing strength of the material
Dp Df
Fracture of the ore lump occurs by the extension of existing cracks.
Such cracks lower the activation energy of fracture.
17
LIMITATIONS OF COMMINUTION LAWS.
The size and shape which can be determined by these methods is not very perfect.
It is determined on the average method .
The methods discussed above cant measure the accurate area of the
particles.
So results may not be accurate.
It is very difficult to determine accurate area of the finer particles by these methods.
There is no suitable method available for the determining the area of
the fine particles.
Even if the above conditions are determined, the surface areas of cracks present in
big particles would remain unaccounted.
If all the above conditions are considered then the area of the cracks which
are present in the particles cant be calculated.
It is the major drawbacks of the calculating the area of the particle
surface.
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OPERATING VARIABLES
Comminution of the ROM ore is affected by 5 variables.
1. Moisture content of solids.
Moisture < 3-4 % by wt. no difficulties.
Moisture content > 4wt%- Ores become sticky, clog the machines.
Excess moisture ( > 50 wt%) Easy to feed and remove the product from the
size reduction area. Size reduced minerals are easily transported as slurry.
Grinding is normally done in wet condition ( Crushing is a dry process).
2. Reduction ratio ( RR ).
Average diameter of the feed / average diameter of the product.
In primary crushers , RR = Gape / Set.
Gape- Size of the receiving opening ( max size acceptable in the machine).
Set - Size of discharging opening ( max. size passing through the discharge end).
Normal RR - 3-7 ( for coarse crushing ),
- as high as 100 ( for fine grinding).
Energy requirement increases with RR.
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3. Free crushing.
Individual particles are crushed freely.
The crushed product is removed from the crushing zone quickly.
It avoids formation of excessive amounts of fines ( the number of contacts
are less, hence less crushing).
4. Choke feeding.
It is the reverse of Free crushing.
The feed hopper of the crusher is always full ( choked) .
It prevents complete discharge of the crushed products.
It increases the amount of fines.
Preferred when process becomes more economical ( one or more
intermediate crushing stages can be dispensed with).
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5.Closed / open circuit operation.
Oversized material is returned to the size reduction unit for further reduction after
sizing- closed circuit- more economical, more uniform product.
If no material is returned- open circuit.
Crusher
Closed circuit
Open circuit
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Crushing
i.e., the product of the square root of the flaw length (a) and the stress at fracture
(f) was nearly constant, which is expressed by the equation:
i.e, fracture occurs at a much lower stress loading in the presence of a crack.
Once sufficient energy is given, the crack propagates very fast ( 5000 m/sec).
24
Most ROM (run of mines) ores have such fine cracks.
So crack propagation becomes very easy at lower crushing loads.
There is a critical value for the crack length at any particular level of stress .
Now, the increased stress level at the crack tip is sufficient to break the atomic bond
at that point.
Such rupture of the bond will increase the crack length.
It increases the stress concentration and causes a rapid propagation of the crack
through the matrix.
This leads to final fracture.
When fracture occurs, some of the stored energy is transformed into free surface
energy ( the potential energy of atoms at the newly produced surfaces ).
25
Crushing occurs due to one or a mixture of the disruptive forces
Compression
Tension
Shear
Torsion
Impact
Shatter
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MECHANISM OF CRUSHING.
COMPRESSION /SHEAR.
Crushing results from stresses that are applied to
the particles to be crushed.
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The best method to cause rapture in solid materials is the application of shearing loads.
The orientation of crystals in ores is generally irregular. So, compressive force is sufficient.
The SIZE REDUCERS AS CRUSHERS USE COMPRESSION, SHEAR OR BOTH AS FRACTURING
FORCES.
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Primary crushers
PRIMARY CRUSHING -
Primary crushing is done on dry material. The basic equipments for primary crushing-
1) Jaw crushers.
2) Gyratory crushers.
3) Roll crushers.
JAW CRUSHER-
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Jaw crushers:
1. BLAKE JAW CRUSHER ( 1858 )- Very large in size.
The movable jaw is hinged at the top- the greatest amplitude
of motion is at the bottom of the crushing face.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE OPERATION OF A BLAKE JAW CRUSHER.
36
A DOUBLE TOGGLE JAW CRUSHER
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2. TELSMITH JAW CRUSHER .
38
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3. DODGE JAW CRUSHER .
Here the Jaw action is reverse to that of the Blake Jaw crusher.
Maximum crushing is given to the largest piece and minimum to the
smallest.
The fulcrum is at the lower end of the movable jaw.
Only a small variation of SET occurs on the advancing and receding
actions of the movable jaw.
The jaw is operated through an eccentric ( Crusher has fewer parts)
Advantage- constant discharge opening. More uniform product size.
Disadvantage- stresses are uneven.
Used mainly for laboratory applications.
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4. GYRATORY CRUSHER .
The particles rub against each other- fines too are produced.
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Gyratory crushers
SUSPENDED SPINDLE GYRATORY CRUSHER .
It has
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SUSPENDED SPINDLE GYRATORY CRUSHER
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SUSPENDED SPINDLE GYRATORY CRUSHER.
They work smoothly and continuously.
Larger pieces ( ~ 2 m) can be crushed to finer sizes ( ~ 30 cm ) .
Capacity ~ 5000 T / hr. 47
4b.PARALLEL PINCH CRUSHER.
It does not make an acute cone with the apex during the gyratory motion of the
crushing head.
The extent of the force exerted on the feed material is same at all points along the
faces of the crushing head.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF JAW AND GYRATORY CRUSHERS.
Jaw crusher
or
Gyratory crusher
Jaw crusher is the better choice because of:
1-Jaw crusher can take larger size than gyratory
& is better adopted to handle clayey & spongy
rocks.
2-Gyartory crusher consume more power for
the same feed as produces more new surfaces
than jaw crusher.
3-Installation and housing costs will be more
compared to jaw crushers.
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Secondary crushers
SECONDARY CRUSHING is done to reduce the ore size suitable for ( wet ) grinding.
The feed size will be less than 150 mm avg. dia & product size 12 mm av.dia.
The crushing machine does not have wider GAPE and very sturdy construction.
Secondary crushers are arranged in series with the primary crushers.
Equipments-
CONE CRUSHER,
ROLL CRUSHER,
GRAVITY STAMPS etc.
Secondary crushers are arranged in series with the primary crushers.
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Cone crushers
1-Cone crusher is secondary crusher.
It becomes wedged and squeezed between the crushing head and the hopper.
Large pieces of ore are broken once.
They fall to a lower position (because they are now smaller) where they are broken again.
This process continues until the pieces are small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom
of the crusher.
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Sl. Gyratory crusher Cone crusher
No.
1. Crushing results from interaction Same.
between spindle, crushing head
and bowl.
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Advantages-
A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard ores and
rocks.
It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, easy adjustment and lower
operational costs.
Operated in OPEN CIRCUIT- Can be fitted with fine, medium, coarse or extra coarse crushing
cavities.
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Roll crusher
Roll crusher
1-Used for crushing relatively soft materials like coal &
salt.
2-Capacity is high and reduction ratio is large.
3-Can not produce fine product owing to the spacing
. between adjacent teeth.
. Angle of nip
N
E C,D Rolls
a a N angle of nip
C D E sphere of rocks
ROLL CRUSHERS ( 1806 ) .
Reduction ratio is small 3:1 4:1 ( since very large dia rolls
cannot be made).
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ROLL CRUSHER.
For a given dia. of the rolls and SET ( distance between rolls), there is a maximum
size of ore lump that can be drawn in.
In selecting the rolls, the sizes of the feed and product should be known.
This can be computed based on the friction between the material crushed and the
rolls.
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ROLL CRUSHERS- ANGLE OF NIP
A spherical particle of dia d is positioned for crushing between two rolls of dia D.
Gravity is not considered.
Forces acting on the particle at the point of contact with rolls 1) normal force Fn,
2) tangential force Ft - Resultant of the two - Fr
If Fr is negative w.r.t the horizontal ( directed downward)- particle is nipped & crushed.
Ft
Fr d
D Fn a/2
angle a
If Fr is positive, particle will ride in the trough formed by the rolls & will not be crushed.
a Angle of Nip. Above this the particle is seized. Above this the particle skids.
S- set distance apart of the roll faces at the point of their nearest approach..
Ft
Fr d
D Fn a/2
angle a
S
Ft/Fn- Coe. of friction .
CONDITION TO ENSURE NIP tan (a/2 )</= .
Cos a/2 = [( D/2) + ( S/2)] / [ ( D/2) + ( d/2)] = ( D+S ) / ( D+d ).
Max size of ore lump in relation to roll dia.( Coe of friction assumed- 0.3)
Roll dia 22.5 30 60 90 120 180 cm
Max size
of ore gripped 0.9 1.2 2.4 3.0 4.8 7.2cm 68
ROLL CRUSHERS- METHOD OF FEEDING.
C ( tonnes / hr ) = 60 V L S
V = Peripheral speed ( m/mt).
L = Width of the rolls ( m).
S = Distance between rolls ( m ).
= Sp.Gravity of ore.
C ~ 10-35%.
Theoretically when S=0, C=0. Actually, C will be larger as choked feeding occurs and
roll faces are held apart.
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Another secondary crusher is toothed roll crusher.
Other crushing machines are
Impact crusher.
Gyra-disc crusher.
Hammer mill.
Gravity stamps.
Squirrel cage disintegrator
Disk crusher.
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Comparison between roll & cone crushers:
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FACTORS GOVERNING THE REQUIRED ENERGY.
Most of the input energy is lost as noise, heat and deformation of the ore lumps. Only a small quantity is useful in creating new surfaces
i.e, grinding occurs.
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GRINDING:-
Breaking down of relatively COARSE CRUSHED ore to ULTIMATE FINENESS.
The fineness of the ground product depends on the subsequent mineral beneficiation
operations .
Theoretically, PARTICLES SHOULD BE BROKEN DOWN TILL EVERY PARTICLE IS FULLY MINERAL
( VALUABLE ) OR GANGUE.
For this, fracture should be along boundaries ( detachment ) between valuables and gangue.
It is not possible in practice.
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OBJECTIVES.
Grinding
1) produces new surfaces 2) provides specified sizes.
1. For froth flotation- upper limit of particles 200-300 s, lower limit 5-10 s .
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OLDER TYPE GRINDING MILLS
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TYPES OF GRINDING.
Methods
Batch or continuous grinding.
Differential grinding.
Dry and wet grinding.
Open circuit or closed circuit grinding.
Primary and secondary grinding ( stage grinding ).
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BATCH GRINDING.
A definite quantity of the feed is ground for a pre-determined time.
The ground material is removed from the mill.
The grinding media will remain in the mill.
Second batch is loaded for grinding and the operation continues.
Tumbling mills are used.
Any shape of particle ( cylindrical, cylindroconical, oval, polygonal, cubic etc ) can be
used in the feed.
Inefficient, more product is over ground.
Used mainly for laboratory testing of ores, making paint mixtures, medicines etc.
CONTINUOUS GRINDING.
Ore is fed into the mill continuously at a fixed rate.
Product is discharged after a suitable dwelling time.
Meanwhile new feed is charged.
Continuous grinding is preferred in Mineral Dressing operations.
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DIFFERENTIAL GRINDING.
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DRY GRINDING.
1. Feed material should have low ( < 1 % ) moisture content.
2. The feed should be in less contact with air ( it may absorb moisture during
grinding ).
3. The grinding media and the liner inside the mill should not wear off.
4. Costly filtering equipments are not needed.
5. Dust control during grinding is needed.
WET GRINDING.
1. Needs less power.
2. Needs less space.
3. Minimum dust control only needed.
4. Needs large quantities of water and good , continuous pumping system.
5. Generally cheaper than a dry grinding installation.
The mill grinds the feed to desired size in one pass and removes the
product to receive the next feed.
It needs more power. Needs skilled operator.
Used normally - FEED
for coarse grinding, BALL / TUBE MILL
Dressing.
The mill discharge is sized.
Oversize particles are reground.
This cycle repeats till all particles are of same size.
During regrinding of oversize, new material is also fed to the grinder.
FEED
Need of less skilled operators - reduced cost. BALL / TUBE MILL
OVERSIZE
CLASSIFIER
PRODUCT
FOR CONCENTRATION
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TUMBLING MILLS.
The mill with a liner is half filled with the crushing bodies.
Ore is fed at one end of the mill along with required
quantity of water. Now the mill contains the
feed +water + grinding media
( Crop feed / mill charge ).
The ground product is discharged at the other end.
The water flushes the feed through the mill.
When the mill is rotated, the feed, water and the grinding media is
CHURNED with FLYING ( TUMBLE ).
Grinding of the feed occurs
The Kinetic Energy of the tumbling load is dissipated as grinding of
feed, wearing the mill lining and the media, heat and noise.
Factors influencing
specifications of the pulp ( slurry size of solid particles ),
size of the ground particles.
1. Group I - Mill length / mill diameter, % mill volume having the CROP LOAD
( CHARGE-ore + water + grinding media ), Number of stages These variables
will change wear of liners and grinding media.
2. Group II - Grinding media size ratio, size of new feed, solid to liquid ratio in
the mill They can be maintained constant during the grinding operation.
3. Group III - Circulating load, dwelling time of the material in the mill, feed
rate they affect capacity.
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TUMBLING MILL - GRINDING MEDIA
WC ( Tungsten Carbide ) / ceramic balls are also used Costly but long life.
Tumbling mills
Ball mill, Pebble mill,
Rod mill, Autogenous / Semi autogenous mills.
Tube mill.
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A BALL MILL 91
BALLS INSIDE A BALL MILL
92
BALL MILLS ( 1876) .
They are rotating cylinders with liner and grinding balls
inside.
Grinding medium - steel / iron / WC balls.
They are continuous machines ( 4-20 rpm) .
Crushed ore is fed in one end through a feeder.
The balls fall back onto the feed during rotation of the
shell.
Ground ore is discharged at the other end or through
the periphery .
They are used in closed system for maximum efficiency.
Classified according to
1.shape (cylindrical, cylindroconical ),
2.method of discharging ground material
(overflow discharge, grate / diaphragm
discharge) or
3.method of grinding ( wet or dry).
The mills have a shell and lining inside. They are fitted
to a frame at the ends using trunnions.
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THEORY OF BALL MILLING ( ZONES IN A BALL MILL )-
The path of the balls circular section ( when balls are
lifted ) + parabolic / near parabolic section ( when the
balls are dropped ).
94
THEORY OF BALL MILLING-
But, v = 2 r n.
Cos = mv2 = 42n2r
------ -------- -------2 Path of a typical ball
r mg g
The locus of the points E represents the beginning of
the PARABOLIC PATH for different positions of the balls
from the center to the periphery ( OBA ) .
It is NOT TRUE.
A photograph taken.
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MOVEMENT INSIDE A BALL MILL
Catarating intermediate
speed- grinding occurs.
Centrifuging- at high
speed.
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CRUSHING ACTION IN A BALL MILL
98
The SPEED OF ROTATION (rpm) of the loaded ball mill is critical to success: too slow- the
milling takes too long ; too fast - the contents (balls, ore and water) slam against the wall,
inhibiting milling.
Critical speed defines the velocity at which steel balls will centrifuge in the mill rather than
cascade
Nc =42.3(D-0.5)
Centrifuging grinding
where
It is important to fix the point where the charge, as it is carried upward, breaks away
from the periphery of the Mill.
100
CYLINDRICAL MILL:-
Trunnion
1. Peripheral discharge ( central or peripheral ) mill - cylindrical protrusion used as a mounting
and/or pivoting point.
Discharge through screens in the cylindrical shell .
Eg: Krupp mill. The screen wear is high and hence expensive.
101
CYLINDRICAL MILL
Overflow type ball mill also has a spiral inside the discharging end.
The direction of the spiral is opposite to the running direction of cylinder body,
which can prevent steel balls and ores from being discharged out of ball mill.
102
OVERFLOW TYPE BALL MILLS
103
Grate or diaphragm discharge
It is a low level forced discharge type grinding
equipment.
Productivity of this mill is 10-15% more than that of an overflow type mill of same
104
specifications.
BALL MILL WITH GRATE-DISCHARGE
105
BALL MILL WITH GRATE OR DIAPHRAGM DISCHARGE
106
CYLINDROCONICAL MILL
A cylindrical section connects an obtuse cone with a
steep acute cone ( discharge end ) .
Both ends have hollow trunnions.
Feed is given through a feeder located before the
trunnion at the charge end.
A continuous stream of ground pulp pours out from the
discharge lip ( located axially after the discharge end
trunnion).
Interior lining- cast iron or cast steel.
The conical section at the charge end forces coarse
particles and large dia. balls to the cylindrical portion.
Maximum centrifugal effect is at the central cylindrical
portion.
Fine particles get ground in the conical sections
by smaller dia. balls.
This causes PREFERENTIAL GRINDING( larger particles
by larger balls and smaller particles by smaller balls-
result almost equal size particles).
107
CYLINDROCONICAL MILL
HARDINGE MILL
The peripheral speed of the cylindrical section and the conical sections are different causes
impact grinding in cylindrical section and abrasive grinding at conical section.
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MULTIPLE COMPARTMENT CYLINDRICAL MILL:-
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SERIES OF BALL MILLS MUFULIRA MINE GRINDING AISLE ZAMBIA
1969
111
112
ROD MILL
113
Rod mills produce minimum fines ( Ball mills produce more fines).
The ground product is concentrated by gravity or magnetic methods ( Finer ball bill
products are concentrated by flotation method ) .
114
115
116
117
PEBBLE MILLS
Cylindrical mills with porcelain / rubber linings.
118
AUTOGENOUS GRINDING MILL SAG .
119
TUBE MILL ( Ball mill with different compartments)-
120
AEROFALL MILL-
121
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FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATION OF A GRINDING MILL-
If the peripheral speed of the mill is very high i.e., > critical
speed, it begins to act like a centrifuge and the balls do not
fall back, but stay on the perimeter of the mill.
a) Cascading at low speed,
b) Intermediate speed- grinding- cataracting action
NO WORK IS DONE BY THE MILL. c) Centrifuging high speed.
If speed is very low- the grinding media will roll and slide over one
another in a mass near the bottom of the mill- Cascading action.
123
2. LOAD OF GRINDING MEDIA AND MATERIAL.
The volume contributed by water and material is less compared to that contributed by the
balls.
3. PULP LEVEL.
Lower pulp level gives more degree of freedom of movement of the grinding media - more
effective grinding.
In an overflow discharge mill, the grinding media looses their kinetic energy when they fall
back into the material to be ground.
124
4. SIZE DESTRIBUTION OF GRINDING MEDIA.
The ratio between the balls of various sizes used should be proportional to the feed and
discharge products.
If the size is small, they may get abraded and no grinding occurs.
125
5. SOLID LIQUID RATIO.
40% moisture pulp becomes watery and starts coating the grinding medium.
126
SOLID LIQUID RATIO.
For efficient use of energy in grinding
1.ore particles should form a coating on the liners and the grinding media.
2.the pulp should be fluid enough for steady flow through the mill.
Thin pulp - Solids settle, centrifuging occurs, coating on the grinding media
is not possible- improper grinding .
Optimum solid- liquid ratio:- Depends on coarseness of the ground ore, density of the ore.
Helps to hold the crop load by friction, give desired lift during
rotation of the mill and proper coating on the grinding media.
127
CHARGE VOLUME OF A GRINDING MILL-
128
MOTOR SIZE- ( for a particular grinding operation or a particular plant ).
The power needed to grind a given FEED SIZE to a given PRODUCT SIZE-
W = Power consumption- KWH / metric tonne for wet grinding, closed circuit , P > 70 .
F = size of the screen opening ( microns ) through which 80% of the feed passes.
Wi = The Bond Ball Mill Work index ( 1952 )- is a measure of the resistance of the material to
crushing and grinding . A Bond Ball Mill Work Index test may be required for the design of a
new mineral processing plant . It is determined by Bond Ball Mill Grindability test in a lab using
a Bond Mill.
Grindability is the number of net grams of ( screen ) undersized product per revolution of the mill .
129
CALCULATION OF MILL SIZE MATCHING TO REQUIRED POWER.
KW = [ M * C * Sine ( 2 N ) ] / 12.400
Consider a mass m resting on an inclined
plane.
If the angle of inclination is slowly
increased, a stage will come when the block
of mass m will tend to slide down.
This angle of the plane with horizontal
plane is known as
angle of repose
130
OPTIMUM SIZE OF GRINDING MEDIA.
1. As the size of the grinding media increases, lesser surface area, the pressure between the
surfaces decreases causes breaking of larger particles.
2. As the size of the grinding media decreases, more surface area , the pressure between
the surfaces increases- causes grinding of smaller particles .
Other factors
1. Harder ore lumps - larger grinding media
2. Larger dia mill - needs smaller grinding media to break particles of a given size.
3. Faster mill speeds - needs smaller grinding media to break particles of a given size.
For most efficient grinding the initial charge of the grinding media should have the
size distribution in a complete range from maximum to minimum size.
131
CONSUMPTION OF GRINDING MEDIA.
Due to
1. abrasion of the media surface by contact with the material ,
2. corrosion of the freshly exposed media surface.
132
RECENT TRENDS IN CRUSHING AND GRINDING
Improvements-
Development of
1. Autogenous and semiautogenous grinding machines,
2. Reduced cone oscillations in cone crusher Rapid rotation of
unbalanced load ( and not the motion given by the eccentric) gives
improved efficiency.
3. Centrifugal crusher ( very fine size possible)
4. High pressure grinding rolls.
133
RECENT TRENDS IN CRUSHING AND GRINDING.
Reduction ratio obtained in a single pass is higher than that obtained in conventional
rolls crusher.
ADVANTAGES:-
Reduces grinding strength ,
Improves leachability due to micro-cracking ,
Reduces energy requirements ( 20-50% more efficient than conventional mills).
134
HIGH PRESSURE GRINDING ROLLS (HPGR)
The feed material is
exposed to very high pressure for a
short time.
HPGR has two counter-rotating rolls one fixed and one floating .
The feed is introduced to the crushing zone.
Hydraulic cylinders apply very high pressure to the system in a controlled way.
It causes inter-particle comminution as the feed travels between the two rolls.
The basic operating principle behind HPGRs makes them very energy efficient:
135
Two variable speed drives
Feed Chute
Studded Roll
Studded Roll
137
ROTOR CENTRIFUGAL CRUSHER
138
ATTRIBUTES OF COMMINUTION.
139
140
SIZING.
The screen is a surface with many apertures or holes, usually with uniform
dimensions.
The undersize material will pass through and oversize materials will be retained.
Thus the incoming material is sorted out according to aperture size of the screen.
141
WHAT IS THE NEED FOR SCREENING?
(b) SCALPING - to remove the coarsest size fractions in the feed material, usually so that they
can be crushed or removed from the process;
(c) GRADING - to prepare a number of products within specified size ranges. This is important
in quarrying and iron ore, where the final product size is an important part of the specification;
(d) MEDIA RECOVERY - for washing magnetic media from ore in dense medium circuits;
(f) DE-SLIMING OR DE-DUSTING - to remove fine material, generally below 0.5 mm from a wet
or dry feed; and
(g) TRASH REMOVAL - usually to remove wood fibres from a fine slurry stream.
142
SIZING.
143
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCREENING EFFICIENCY.
SCREENING EFFICIENCY- Weight of grains of given size in the screened product /
their weight in the supplied feed.
1. PARTICLE SHAPE.
Consider -
1. A square meshed sieve.
3. Surface S in the square = K / ( A. ) K= constant 60 for cubic, 50 for oblong, 240 for
laminar etc. = Specific gravity of the mineral.
144
PARTICLE SHAPES
145
1. PARTICLE SHAPE.
146
2. SIZE OF SCREEN OPENING.
Use of very thin and fragile wires for deck construction increases the open area
of a
fine screen.
Near mesh size particles tend to peg or plug the apertures
and reduces the screen efficiency.
147
3. RELATIVE SIZES OF PARTICLE AND OPENING.
It controls the passage / non passage of the particles.
A small particle can fall easily through the sieve opening.
As its size approaches that of the opening, it becomes increasingly difficult to fall
through the opening.
148
RELATIVE SIZES OF PARTICLE AND OPENING.
149
4. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF PARTICLES ON SCREENS.
It is an important parameter.
The particle should fall with its minimum cross section , normal to the
aperture .
As the deviation from normal increases, the chance of passage of the particle
decreases.
150
5. PERCENTAGE OF SCREEN AREA OPENING.
More the area of opening, faster will be the rate of screening
151
8. SOLUBLE SALTS.
Soluble salts adhering to particles increase effective cross section
of the particles- wrong report of sieve analysis.
152
153
WHEN AND WHERE?
Material for size analysis is collected from the crushing section, the grinding section
or closed circuit return / discharge .
Material from the crushing section - to assess the work done by the crusher and the
work to be done by the subsequent grinder.
Material from the mill discharge of grinding section to assess the size distribution
of discharged particles.
Material from closed circuit return- to asses sizes of materials returned for further
grinding.
Material from closed circuit discharge- to assess whether the valuables are properly
liberated for further concentration.
154
NEED.
Lab sizing tests are done to check
1. Progress of the material at various stages of treatment,
2. The efficiency of power and
3. The effect of grinding on the recovery of values from the
ore.
155
THE SCREEN.
Screens are circular shells of brass 8 dia and 2 ht.
Screen cloth is at the bottom of the shell.
Screens nest in each other in order of decreasing size.
A complete set has a cover and bottom pan.
156
THE TECHNIQUES.
Dry or wet screening is done in a laboratory.
Wet screening- Dry the sample and weigh it. Disperse it in water having sodium
silicate ( water glass Na2SiO3 binds colloidal material).
157
1. HAND SCREENING.
Three screens are assembled ( NEST of SIEVES )- the coarsest at the top and the
finest at the bottom.
The sieves should not have any defect and they are brushed to clear the apertures
before assembly.
The final undersize product is collected in a pan, tightly fitting the third screen.
The sieves should closely fit to prevent loss of fines during sieving.
158
The assembly is held in the right hand and struck against the palm of the left hand.
The sieve assembly is rotated by 60O and the direction of shaking is changed every
30 seconds.
159
2. AUTOMATIC SCREENING.
Limitation- Fine particles may adhere to coarse particles or to each other through
electrostatic action.
It can be prevented by wet-cum-dry screening.
160
161
TYPES OF SCREENS.
Screens are made of
1)sheet metal with round or square holes. The apertures will be
flaring out and down ward for easy fall of particles.
The mesh defined as the number of apertures ( holes ) per unit length
( inch or cm).
Different countries use wires of different thicknesses to make the sieve.
This causes difference in the aperture size of the screens used in different
countries.
So standards are employed.
U.S.A - TYLOR,
American Standard Testing of Materials (ASTM E 11-70).
UK - British standard ( B.S 410-62, 410-69),
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy (IMM- London).
FRANCE - AFNOR X 11-501 (Association Franaise de Normalisation).
GERMANY- DIN 4188-1957 (Deutsches Institut fr Normung - The German
Institute for Standardization) .
INDIA - IS 460-1962 .
162
LOGOS OF VARIOUS INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS.
163
TYPES OF SIEVES
Typical openings in laboratory sieve series
Sieve size (mm) BSS [6] Tyler (approx) US (approx)
4.75 - 4 4
The aperture of a 3.35 5 6 6
2.81 6 7 7
standard mesh varies 2.38 7 8 8
from one another by 2.00 8 9 10
1.68 10 10 12
1.414 [ i.e (2)1/2 ]. 1.40 12 12 14
1.20 14 14 16
1.00 16 16 18
Eg :- in Tyler series- Mesh 0.853 18 20 20
no 200 aperture width 0.710 22 24 25
74 microns 0.599 25 28 30
0.500 30 32 35
0.422 36 35 40
150- 74 * 1.414 = 104 s. 0.354 44 42 45
0.297 52 48 50
( next larger size) 0.251 60 60 60
0.211 72 65 70
0.178 85 80 80
250- 74 / 1.414 = 53 s. 0.152 100 100 100
0.125 120 115 120
0.104 150 150 140
0.089 170 170 170
0.075 200 200 200
0.066 240 250 230
0.053 300 270 270
0.044 350 325 325
0.037 440 400 400
164
SIEVE ANALYSIS
165
TYPES OF SCREENS.
166
PRESENTATION OF SEIVE ANALYSIS.
*increasing by
successive addition.
167
PRESENTATION OF SEIVE ANALYSIS.
% retained
Size, mm
% retained
By
Individual size-grade
168
Size, mm
SUB SIEVE SIZING.
SEDIMENTATION,
ELUTRIATION,
INFRA SIZING,
PERMEABILITY METHOD AND
MICROSCOPIC MEHTODS.
169
SUB SIEVE SIZING.
1. SEDIMENTATION.
It is based on the FALLING RATE of SMALL PARTCLES through STATIC LIQUIDS.
170
SUB SIEVE SIZING.
2. ELUTRIATION.
The fall of a particle due to its mass is retarded by the friction
between the particles and the rising column of fluid.
171
IN THE PROCESS OF ELUTRIATION-
Particles falling in a rising fluid can be classified into two sizes.
HOW? The fluid is rising with a certain velocity.
The particles having terminal velocities > this velocity will settle at the bottom of
the sorting column.
The particles having terminal velocities < this velocity will be lifted to the top of
the sorting column.
This will be carried away to the next tube containing sorting liquid.
The process repeats.
Terminal velocity of a fluid is calculated from Stokes law.
Vm= ( 2/9 ) * [( - ) r2 g ] / .
STOKES LAW
= Sp gr of particle,
Theforce that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid
= Sp gr of fluid medium, is directly proportional to
r = radius of the particle, the velocity of the sphere, the radius of the sphere
= viscosity of the medium, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Vm = terminal velocity of the particle.
g = gravitational acceleration
172
Keep the volumetric flow rate of the rising fluid constant.
Now the velocity of the rising fluid in the columns depends on the column diameters.
Narrow dia column gives high velocity - This allows coarser particles to settle.
Larger dia columns gives lower velocity - This allows finer particles to settle.
173
ELUTRIATION.
The laboratory BLITHE ELUTRIATOR consists of
174
3. INFRASIZING .
This can size materials that are finer than those handled by sedimentation or
elutriation.
The process-
A current of air is sent with miniumum turbulence through a series of tubes.
175
4. MICROSCOPIC MEASUREMENTS.
176
MICROSCOPIC MEASUREMENTS.
Place an engraved linear scale ( Ocular - glass ) in the
eyepiece.Keep a micrometer on the stage.
Both the scales are correlated for a particular magnification.
Remove the stage micrometer.
Keep the specimen to be measured.
Measure with the ocular.
177
.
178
COMMINUTION OF ORES
INDUSTRIAL SCREENING.
INTRODUCTION.
Two methods- Screening and Classification.
1.Parallel rods-
Made of steel bars, rails, cast iron or
wood. They have tapered section.
2.Punched plates-
Made of sheet steel. Circular/square/slot
like holes are punched. PICS
Square apertures give more screening area.
Circular holes are better for coarse particles.
GRIZZLIES
MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL
181
SCREENING - FIXED SCREENS.
1.GRIZZLY.
VARIANTS-
182
VIBRATING GRIZZLY
183
2. ROLL SCREENS.
A bank of rolls are arranged in the form of a cascade.
They provide square apertures between adjacent rolls.
Used to screen finer sizes ( 10-100 mm) of HARDER ORES.
Costly, Less efficient.
3. FLAT SCREENS.
They are inclined- helps in the flow of material.
They are given periodic motion helps in rolling /bouncing of PICS
the ore lumps .
Lumps / particles screened depend upon
1. length of the screen ( increased length, better performance ),
2. slope of the screen ( increased slope, lesser particles are
screened ),
3. amplitude of vibration ( should be just sufficient to clear the screen ),
4. frequency of vibration ,
5. depth of particle bed on the deck ( 5-6 particles deep for optimum
screening efficiency).
184
SCREENING MOVING SCREENS.
1.TROMMELS ( REVOLVING SCREENS-REELS ) .
They are rotating cylindrical shells of screen material
( punched sheet ).
They are 3-4 ft in dia and 5-10 ft long.
The material to be screened flows into the shell.
The shell rotates.
The shell is kept in an inclined position.
The particles move towards the discharge ( lower ) end.
The undersize particles are collected at the bottom.
185
TROMMELS STATIONARY AND MOVING
COMPOUND TROMMEL TROMMEL IN SERIES
187
2. FLAT SCREENS.
Most used screens in mineral dressing can screen medium coarse
and fine particles ( 250 mm and 0.2 mm).
They have one or more decks.
They work at low slopes.
The screens are given reciprocating motion straight line,
perpendicular, circular or oblique movements.
Rapid , low amplitude vibrations give higher capacity and
efficiency.
188
FLAT SCREEN
VIBRATION ISOLATORS
189
3. VIBRATING SCREENS
Have one or more decks working at low slopes.
Used for medium coarse and fine screening ( 250 mm and 0.2 mm)
Screens are given a vibratory motion.
Rapid low amplitude vibration higher capacity and efficiency.
190
SCREENING - VIBRATING SCREENS.
191
SCREENING - SHAKING SCREENS.
They are used to sort dry and soft materials normally for coal preparation.
The material gets lifted and thrown forward when the screen moves to the front.
This causes largest particles on top and allows smaller ones to pass through the
mesh.
192
BLINDING of SCREENS by
193
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCREENS
SCREENING CAPACITY ( tonnes / sq meter/ mm screen aperture / day)
Depends on
1)area of the screening surface,
2)size of the opening,
3)specific gravity, moisture content, temperature, proportion of fines etc of the ore.
4)type of screening mechanism used.
194
SCREENING EFFICIENCY.
Is a measure of the effectiveness of the actual screening operation, as compared to the
perfect screening operation.
1.particles that are JUST FINER than a GIVEN SCREEN OPENING are difficult to screen out.
2.particles much finer than the screen opening are easily screened out.
Screening efficiency is related to dwelling time of the passing material and the opening
available during its passage.
195
Increased by
Adversely affected by
196
OPERATING COST.
197
198