Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
THE SEAL
OF THE HOLY SPIRIT
w
Eldon Woodcock
^ That the guard detail involved several soldiers is clear from the plural forms
in Matthew 28:4, 11.
** Fitzer notes that here has a weaker meaning, "to conceal," by not
putting the information into written form {"" 7:950).
142 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
ers of Revelation know that the revelation was given, but they
cannot know what it involved.
Toward the end of the Apocalypse, John was told, "Do not seal
up the words of the prophecy of this book" (22:10). Since the Book of
Revelation was not to be sealed up, its contents were revealed and
written down and thus are accessible.
AUTHORIZATION AND CERTIFICATION
The king's seal extended his royal authority to the one who pos-
sessed it.24 It thereby certified that the person was the king's offi-
cial agent. 25 Pharaoh gave Joseph his royal seal, authorizing him
to enact his policies (Gen. 41:42-44).26 Jezebel placed King Ahab's
seal on her letters concerning Naboth (1 Kings 21:8).27 The Per-
sian king's signet ring was used by Haman to seal his decrees
against the Jews, thus putting royal authority behind the decrees
(Esth. 3:10; cf. 8:8, IO).28
A pagan priest placed his seal on the papyrus attached to the
horns of an animal, certifying that it was ritually clean and
suitable for use as a sacrifice.29 The seal of the Jewish high priest
conveyed his priestly authority. 30 The priests and Lvites affixed
their seals to their covenant with God, thereby putting it into effect
(Neh. 9:38-10:1).
On occasion refers figuratively to a confirmation or
implicit certification without a physical sealing. Examples
include the confirmation of the accuracy of Joseph's predictions
when he interpreted the pharaoh's dream, 3 1 and the confirmation
of the report by the Hebrew spies concerning Canaan. 3 2
Important documents were agreed to and certified by means
of a seal. Examples include a marriage contract (Tob. 7:14), a
deed of sale (Jer. 32:9-12, 44), and a covenant with God (Neh.
9:38-10:1).
2 4
Ibid., 7:942.
*** For example Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War 1.129.1.6.
Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 2.90.2.
*' Her purpose was to signify the king's authority as the basis for her instruc
tions.
2 8
Ibid., 11.271.4.
2 9
Herodotus 2.38; cf. Fitzer, ""7:943.
*** Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 15.408.1.4.6.
l
Philo, On Joseph 98.4. Joseph's predictions were confirmed when accurately
fulfilled.
*** Philo, Moses 1.230.3. Philo said the spies who took the time to put together an
accurate report on Canaan received a "seal of reality," that is, the accuracy of their
report was confirmed.
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 143
0 0
C Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the
Romans, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh Clark, 1979), 2 775-76,
and James D G Dunn, Romans 9-16, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX Word,
1988), 876-77
*** These possibilities are mentioned by Cranfield (Romans, 2 775-76)
3 5
Fitzer, ",n 7 948
* Leon Morris, The Epistle to the Romans (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1988), 522
** Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Ro
mans, 1 236, F Godet, Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, trans A Cusin,
translation rev and ed Talbot W Chambers (1883, reprint, Grand Rapids Zonder-
van, 1956), 173
* John Murray, The Epistle to the Romans, New International Commentary on
the New Testament (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1965), 1 138, and Cranfield, Romans,
1236
3 9
Murray, The Epistle to the Romans, 1 138
4 0
Ibid , Morris, Romans, 202-3, and Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Com
mentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 1 236
144 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
4 1
J a m e s D G Dunn, Romans 1-8, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX Word,
1988), 232 Dunn understands t h e seal here to include the ideas of both ratification
and ownership But Fitzer limits the seal here to ratification ("," 7 949)
seal on that message. "He who has received His [Jesus'] witness
has set his seal to this, that God is true" (John 3:33). Acceptance of
His message authenticates His witness as true. 4 7 "The man who
has accepted it has certified that God is truthful" (John 3:33, NIV).
Martin Luther emphasized the force of this confirmation.
Among men nothing is safer a n d more c e r t a i n t h a n t h a t which is
given u n d e r one's h a n d and seal. I feel sure w h e n I have a sealed
document . Anyone who r e a l l y accepts t h e m e s s a g e of t h e
Gospel resolutely sets his seal to it and says: "This seal a n d docu
m e n t m e a n t h a t I can s t a k e life and limb a n d all I possess on
48
this." His h e a r t is certain and h a r b o r s no d o u b t s .
4/
F F Bruce, The Gospel of John (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1983), 97 Cf Leon
Morris, The Gospel according to John, New International Commentary on the New
Testament (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1971), 245-46
Luther's Works, quoted by Morris, The Gospel according to John, 245, 124
4 9
Schippers, "Seal," 3 499
5 0
C Barrett, The Gospel according to St John (London S C , 1960), 238
5 1
Schippers mentions t h a t others prefer this view ("Seal," 3 499)
^ Arthur W Pink, Exposition of the Gospel of John (Grand Rapids Zondervan,
1945), 1 314
*** Patrick Fairbairn, Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (1874, reprint, Grand
Rapids Zondervan, 1956), 349-50
M
Hammer prefers this view because t he two quotations in the verse are t a k e n
from the Old Testament ("Canon and Theological Variety,'' 88) Guthrie suggests
that these texts express the thoughts of Numbers 16 5 and Isaiah 52 11 (Donald
146 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
trast to the teaching by false teachers. These views are all plausi
ble and somewhat interrelated. In view of t h e immediate context,
the last view seems preferable.
The sealing terminology is again figurative. God's seal au
thenticates His foundation, the t r u t h . Here t h e idea of a guarantee
is mingled with t h a t of authentication. 5 5
For example Plato, Theaetetus 191 Fitzer also describes \ as any seal or
stamp indicating ownership ("," 7 204) But his supporting evidence is from
the second century A D
6 6
Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit, 14-15, and Schippers, "Seal," 3 498
" ' Robert H Mounce, The Book of Revelation, New International Commentary on
the New Testament (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 1977), 167
0 0
J A Seiss, The Apocalypse (London Marshall, Morgan & Scott, d ), 164. But
Ladd says this sealing will be spiritual and t h u s not visible (George E Ladd, A
Commentary on the Revelation of St John [Grand Rapids. Eerdmans, 1972], 112)
TO
Seiss, The Apocalypse, 165
7 0
Fitzer, "," 7 951
Schippers, "Seal," 3 500, and Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit, 16
7 2
Seiss, The Apocalypse, 167
148 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / Apri W u n e 1998
George Smeaton, The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (1882, reprint, Carlisle, PA
Banner of Truth, 1974), 79
7 5
Thomas Goodwin argued t h a t in these texts Paul did not include the idea of im
pressing God's holiness upon believers He stressed certification as the main idea
and purpose of sealing, but conceded t h a t the impress of an image was a secondary
element (An Exposition of the Epistle to the Ephesians [reprint, Evansville, IN
Sovereign Grace, 1958], 229-34)
' For example Markus Barth, Ephesians, Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY Dou-
bleday, 1974), 1 135-44
77
For example Richard C Lenski, The Interpretation of St Paul's Epistles to
the Galatians, to the Ephesians and to the Phihppians (Minneapolis Augsburg,
1961), 383, and Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit, 4-5
7 0
For example Fitzer, "," 7 951-52, and Lincoln, Ephesians, 39-40 Lincoln,
however, held t h a t Paul distinguished between baptism and sealing (ibid , 39-40)
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 149
^ Barnabas Ahern "identified t h e sealing with the indwelling Holy Spirit, but
also sees an implicit reference to the s a c r a m e n t of baptism" ("The Indwelling
Spirit, Pledge of Our Inheritance (Eph 1 14)," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 9 (1947)
183-84 Lincoln connected it with the reception of and baptism with the Holy Spirit
(Ephesians, 40)
CKJ
Barth, Ephesians, 139, and John Eadie, Commentary on the Epistle to the Eph
esians (1883, reprint, Grand Rapids Zondervan, d ), 66 Lincoln points out t h a t
"the explicit identification of circumcision in general with a seal and of baptism
with a seal comes from the second century and h a s to be read back into the N T "
(Ephesians, 40) The temporal proximity of the early church fathers to the New
Testament period might seem advantageous to a more accurate interpretation of the
apostolic writings This possibility, however, seems unlikely in the light of t h e i r
often faulty hermeneutics, especially their tendency toward allegorization and
their growing reliance on church tradition Geoffrey W Bromiley discussed both
positive and negative aspects of patristic interpretation ("The Church F a t h e r s and
Holy Scripture," in Scripture and Truth, ed D A Carson and J o h n D Woodbridge
[Grand Rapids Zondervan, 1983], 214-19) For other examples of patristic allego
rization see Roy Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation (Wheaton, IL Victor, 1991),
33-37, and William W Klein, Craig L Blomberg, and Robert L Hubbard J r , Intro
auction to Biblical Interpretation (Dallas, TX Word, 1993), 31-35
0 1
Colin Brown connects these texts to "the vivid experience of the Spirit i t s e l f
("Spirit," in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 3 701)
Eadie considered any reference to baptism as "wholly foreign from the sense and
purpose oF Ephesians 4 30 (Ephesians, 357)
op
^ S D F Salmond understood to be an instrumental dative ("The Epis
tle to the Ephesians," in The Expositor's Greek Testament [London Hodder and
Stoughton, 1903], 3 268) Cf Robert G Gromacki, "Ephesians 1 3-14 The Blessings
of Salvation," in New Testament Essays in Honor of Homer A Kent Jr, ed Gary
Meadows (Winona Lake, IN BMH, 1991), 235
QQ
0 0
Rudolf S c h n a c k e n b u r g , Ephesians A Commentary, trans Helen H e r o n
(Edinburgh Clark, 1991), 65
0 4
Harold W Hoehner, "Ephesians," m The Bible Knowledge Commentary, New
Testament, ed John F Walvoord and Roy Zuck (Wheaton, IL Victor, 1983), 619
150 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / Apri ) une 1998
T H E M E A N I N G O F ( " P L E D G E " )
0 0
James Denney, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, The Expositor's Bible,
ed. W. Robertson Nicoli (1903; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1943), 51; and
Charles Hodge, An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (1859;
reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), 25.
c
" C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians,
Harper's New Testament Commentaries (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), 79;
David K. Lowery, "2 Corinthians," in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, New Tes
tament, 557; and Robert G. Bratcher and Eugene A. Nida, A Translator's Handbook
on Paul's Letter to the Ephesians (New York: United Bible Societies, 1982), 25.
07
Robert A. Peterson, " 'Though all hell should endeavor to shake': God's Preser
vation of His Saints," Presbyterion 17 (Spring 1991): 56; and Lowery, "2 Corinthi
ans," 557.
Smeaton, The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit, 79.
8 9
Ernest R. Campbell, Ephesians (Silverton, OR: Canyonview Press, 1986), 182-
83; Hughes, Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 41; Peterson, " Though all
hell should endeavor to shake': God's Preservation of His Saints," 56; and Lampe,
The Seal of the Spirit, 16.
9 0
Ronald B. Allen, "mi?," in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R.
Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke (Chicago: Moody, 1980),
2:693-94. Allen also says the verb y~\u means (a) to barter or exchange, (b) to pledge,
and (c) to become surety for (a practice vigorously condemned in the Old
Testament, e.g., Prov. 6:1-5; 11:15). Also see O. Becker, "," in New
International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 2:39-40.
y i
J. B. Lightfoot considered this Phoenician usage probable even though he could
find no such usage in then extant Phoenician remains (Notes on the Epistles of
Paul [1895; reprint, Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1957], 323). Ahem agreed that the
noun does not occur in extant Phoenician literature, but noted that the primitive
root V6 does ("The Indwelling Spirit," 180).
^ Lightfoot cited Ezekiel 27:13 as documenting this commercial contact (Notes on
the Epistles of Paul, 323). Cf. A. J. Kerr, "Notes and Studies: ," Journal of
Theological Studies 39 (1988): 92; and Ahern, "The Indwelling Spirit," 182.
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 151
*** Philo, On Flight and Finding 149 5-151 6 He said Judah's sexual desire pic
tured piety and the three securities of his pledge symbolized steadfastness and fi
delity (his signet ring), connection of ward with life (his cord), and discipline on
which one should lean (his staff) Developing such noble qualities from a sinful de
sire and transaction is remarkable misinterpretation
1 0 0
Kerr, "Notes and Studies ," 95
loi Friedrich Blass and Albert Debrunner, A Greek Grammar of the New Testa
ment and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago University of Chicago Press,
1961), 92, Plummer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle
of St Paul to the Corinthians, 41, and Johannes Behm, "," in Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, 1(1964) 475
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 153
w
Abbott, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the
Ephesians and the Colossians, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Critical C o m m e n t a r y (Edinburgh
Clark, 1897), 23, and Lincoln, Ephesians, 40
l4
Hughes, Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 41-42, and Ahern, "The In-
dwelling Spirit," 185-86
105 Murray J Harris, "2 Corinthians," in The Expositor's Bible Commentary, ed
Frank E Gaebelein (Grand Rapids Zondervan, 1976), 10 348
Heinrich A W Meyer, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Epistles to
the Corinthians, trans D Bannerman (New York Funk & Wagnalls, 1884), 434-35
1W
In Romans 8 23 Paul used another term, ("frstfruits") to describe this
concept of the presence of the Holy Spirit to assure future salvation for believers
154 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
In these verses Paul used four participles, all of which are ren
dered as indicative verbs in the New International Version
("stand firm," "anointed," "set his seal of ownership," and "put"):
"Now it is God who makes both us and you stand firm in Christ.
He anointed us, set his seal of ownership on us, and put his Spirit
in our hearts as a deposit, guaranteeing what is to come."
The participle means "to make firm, make sure, be
solidly grounded, be attached to a firm foundation." 1 1 0 Like
, its cognate noun was a legal and commercial
term that designated properly guaranteed security, thereby indi
cating that a business contract was obligatory. 111 Here it refers to
God's continuous strengthening of believers in their relationship
to Christ. 1 1 2 Since Christ is the foundation on which the Christian
stands and since God is making firm that relationship, the
Christian's position in Christ is assured. 1 1 3 As a result, that posi
tion is "indubitable and irreversible." 114
108 Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon and to the Ephesians,
New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids E e r d m a n s ,
1984), 266, a n d A Skevington Woods, "Ephesians," in The Expositor's Bible Com
mentary, 11 (1978) 27
l 0 y
Hughes, Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 43, 173-74, and Hoehner,
"Ephesians," 619
1
Schonweiss, "" m New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology, 1 658, and Heinrich Schlier, ", , " in Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, 1 (1964) 600-602
1 1 1
Schlier noted a relationship between and but did not spec
ify w h a t t h a t relationship was (", , ," 602-3) There is evi
dently some overlapping of meaning, especially in their legal and commercial us
age, and also in indicating a guarantee Schlier cited Leviticus 25 23 as an example
of such u s a g e (ibid , 602) An Israelite's l a n d could not be sold definitively
(permanently, t h a t is) with a legal guarantee
1 1 2
Harris, "2 Corinthians," 325
1 1 3
Schonweiss, "" 1 660
1 1 4
Denney, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 49 Plummer described t h e re
lationship between Christ and believers as "legally indestructible" (A Critical and
Exegetical Commentary on the Second Epistle of St Paul to the Corinthians, 40)
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 155
110
D. Mller, "," in New International Dictionary of New Testament Theol
ogy, 1:121-23.
116
Ibid., 122.
117
Ibid.
Ilo fj^-g anointing is clearly a divine work. Whether the Anointer is the Father,
the Son, or the Holy Spirit is not always clear, especially since all are involved.
Stephen S. Smalley gives a perceptive discussion on this issue (1, 2, 3 John, Word
Biblical Commentary [Waco, TX: Word, 1984], 107-8).
119
Ralph P. Martin, 2 Corinthians, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX: Word,
1986), 28.
^ Denney, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 40; and Christian F. Kling,
The Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians, Commentary on the Holy
Scriptures Critical, Doctrinal and Homiletical, ed. John P. Lange (1868; reprint,
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, n.d.), 22.
156 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
1 2 1
Furnish, 2 Corinthians, 136-37, R C H Lenski, The Interpretation of St
Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians (Minneapolis Augsburg,
1963), 853-54
- ^ F u r n i s h u n d e r s t a n d s as "fully inclusive," t h u s involving
all Christians (2 Corinthians, 137)
-loo
J
^ The NIV rendering at the end of 2 Corinthians 1 22 and 5 5, "guaranteeing what
is to come," is not in the Greek text Nevertheless, as noted earlier, t h e concept of
God's protection of His people is part of t h e meaning of His assurance of
His g u a r a n t e e is p a r t of the meaning of Since both concepts point to the
future, the NIV rendering does represent the apostle's thought
^ ^ As Martin observed, this is emphasized by Paul's placing at the end of the
sentence (2 Corinthians, 108)
^ Kling, The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians, 83
1 2 6
Ibid
^ The Greek construction in 2 Corinthians 5 5,
, is virtually the same as in 1 22
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 157
EPHESIANS 1 13-14
10Q
^ Hughes, Paul's Second Epistle to the Corinthians, 174 (italics his)
^ Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon and to the Ephesians, 264,
and Wood, "Ephesians," 11 26
lo
^ Lincoln, Ephesians, 38, and William Hendriksen, Exposition of Ephesians,
New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids Baker, 1967), 8-90, 31
U 1
Peterson, " T h o u g h all hell should endeavor to shake' God's Preservation of
His Saints," 54, 65, and Lenski, The Interpretation of St Paul's Epistles to the
Galatians, to the Ephesians, and to the Philippians, 381
**** Lincoln, Ephesians, 38
158 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / April-June 1998
loo Wilhelm Mundle, "Hear, Obey," in New International Dictionary of New Tes
tament Theology, 2 175-77
lcJ4
Francis Foulkes, The Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians (Grand Rapids Eerd
mans, 1963), 55
1 3 5
Gromacki, "Ephesians 1 3-14 The Blessings of Salvation," 234 Cf John 14 6,
Acts 4 12
lc
" is what J a m e s H Moulton called an "aorist participle of cornei
dent or identical action" (A Grammar of New Testament Greek [Edinburgh Clark,
1908], 131 [italics his]) Ernest De Witt Burton called this usage an "aorist partici
ple of identical action" (Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek,
3d ed [Edinburgh Clark, 1898], 64-65 Cf Lincoln, Ephesians, 39).
Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 265,
and Foulkes, The Epistle of Paul to the Epht^ians, 56
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 159
Lincoln, Ephesians, 42
140
Schnackenburg, Ephesians, 208
14fc>
H e r b e r t G Miller, Commentary on St Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians
(London Skeffington & Son, 1899), 242
14
' Wood, "Ephesians," 11 65, and Charles Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to
the Ephesians (New York Carter and Brothers, 1856), 274
14 B r u c e ? The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 363,
and Wood, "Ephesians," 65
J Goetzmann, "," in New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology, 2 251-53, and Wood, "Ephesians," 65
150
Hermann Haarbeck and Hans-Georg Link, "," in New International Die
tionary of New Testament, 2 419-21, and Walter Bauer, William F Arndt, and F
Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature, 2d ed , rev F Wilbur Gingrich and Frederick W D a n k e r
(Chicago University of Chicago Press, 1979), 482-83
151
Lincoln, Ephesians, 307
15
^ Eadie observed t h a t the initial in Ephesians 4 30 clearly links t h a t verse
with the preceding exhortations (Ephesians, 354) So also Wood, "Ephesians," 65,
and Campbell, Ephesians, 182
lod Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 363
154
Lewis S Chafer, Systematic Theology (Dallas, TX Dallas Seminary Press,
1948, reprint [8 vols in 4], Grand Rapids Kregel, 1993), 6 234-35
The Seal of the Holy Spirit 161
100
Ronald B. Allen observes t h a t in its overall usage % can refer to both physi
cal and mental pain ("nui?," in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, 2:687-
88).
15t>
Lincoln, Ephesians, 306.
1Di
Irwin J . Habeck, Ephesians: Amazing Grace (Milwaukee: N o r t h w e s t e r n ,
1985), 95.
150
Hodge, A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians, 275; and Chafer, Sys
tematic Theology, 6:234.
loti Miller, Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, 243.
160
Chafer, Systematic Theology, 6:234-35.
1 W
Eadie, Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians, 355.
162 BIBLIOTHECA SACRA / Aprils!une 1998
CONCLUSION
The seal of the Holy Spirit certifies God's ownership and protec
tion of His people from the moment of saving faith, when the Holy
Spirit begins His indwelling. As a result of this action initiated
by God, grounded on Christ's redemptive work, and accomplished
by the Holy Spirit, the salvation of believers is secured.
Paul referred to the indwelling Holy Spirit as the believer's
. In commercial settings the functioned to secure
a business transaction. This function was unnecessary to God,
whose word is sufficient to guarantee what He has promised.
Thus Paul used commercial imagery to assure believers of the
As an ATLAS user, you may print, download, or send articles for individual use
according to fair use as defined by U.S. and international copyright law and as
otherwise authorized under your respective ATLAS subscriber agreement.
No content may be copied or emailed to multiple sites or publicly posted without the
copyright holder(s)' express written permission. Any use, decompiling,
reproduction, or distribution of this journal in excess of fair use provisions may be a
violation of copyright law.
This journal is made available to you through the ATLAS collection with permission
from the copyright holder(s). The copyright holder for an entire issue of a journal
typically is the journal owner, who also may own the copyright in each article. However,
for certain articles, the author of the article may maintain the copyright in the article.
Please contact the copyright holder(s) to request permission to use an article or specific
work for any use not covered by the fair use provisions of the copyright laws or covered
by your respective ATLAS subscriber agreement. For information regarding the
copyright holder(s), please refer to the copyright information in the journal, if available,
or contact ATLA to request contact information for the copyright holder(s).
About ATLAS:
The design and final form of this electronic document is the property of the American
Theological Library Association.