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Chapter 4

The Ancient Near East:

Peoples and Empires

Introduction

In about 1500 BCE emergence of international empires beyond the river

valleys
Emergence of empires led to the extension of civilization
Indo-European migration one of the causes for the emergence of new empires
Indo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-eastern
Europe to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,
Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].
Started migrations in about 2000 BCE, which brought them to Italy, Greece,
Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persia and India.
Family of Indo-European language include Greek, Latin, German, Slavic,
Sanskrit

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The Hebrews: "The Children of Israel [c. 1800 BCE]

Early History
The Hebrews are Semitic-speaking people
They had a tradition concerning their origins and history
Written down in Hebrew Bible known as Old Testament
Descendants of Abraham who migrated from Mesopotamia to the land of
Palestine in about 1800 BCE
Since then Hebrews were identified as "children of Israel"
This migration took place in around 1800 BCE
Due to food shortage they migrated to Egypt in around 1600 BCE
Enslavement, "Exodus" and Moses in about 1300 BCE
Period of wandering and in 1220 BCE Jewish tribes entered Palestine
Conflict with Philistines

United Kingdom (c. 1000 BCE)

Power vacuum in the Near East

Around 1000 BCE emergence of a monarchy under Saul, David and
Solomon
By the time of King Solomon (c. 971-973 BCE) controlled all Palestine
with Jerusalem as its capital
Under Solomon expansion and political, economic and military
organization of life
Solomons building projects
Solomon is best known for the construction of the Temple in the city of
Jerusalem
Hebrews began viewing the Temple as the symbolic center of their
religion and hence of the Hebrew kingdom.

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The Divided Kingdom

After Solomons death emergence of tensions between northern and

southern Hebrew tribes
Kingdom of Israel [10 lost tribes]
Samaria
Kingdom of Judah [2 tribes]
Jerusalem
Assyrians emerged as power in the 9th century and in 722 BCE they
destroyed Kingdom of Israel while Kingdom of Judah had to pay tribute
to the Assyrians.
Then Neo-Babylonians conquered Kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE and
destroyed the Temple. Babylonians deported many Hebrews to Babylon
[Babylonian Captivity]
Persians destroyed the Neo-Babylonians in 536 BCE and allowed
Hebrews to return and rebuilt their temple.
The revived kingdom of Judah survived until the conquest of Alexander
the Great in the 4th century.

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The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel

A commitment to Yahweh "he causes to be"

Hebrew Bible or Torah
Land and God-People relationship
Chosen People
Covenant with Yahweh
Obedience to the law of God
Prophets

The reading of the Torah is a fundamental part of Jewish liturgical services. The Torah, or first
five books of the Bible, presents a system of moral and religious conduct and is revered as the
essence of divine revelation received by Moses on Mount Sinai. Here, a boy reads the Torah as
part of his bar mitzvah ceremony. (Miro Vintoniv/Stock,

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This is Herod's Temple as reconstructed in a model of ancient Jerusalem by archaeologist Michael

Avi-Yonah. The actual temple, built by Herod the Great in the 1st century BC, was destroyed by the
Romans in AD 70. (Archive Photos)

The Hittites Empire (ca. 1600-1200 BCE)

In around 1600 BCE Hittites established empire in Asia Minor

The first Indo-European group to rise to the level of civilization
Remained virtually unknown until very recently, because 100 thousand tablets
were discovered dealing with Hittites history
Indo-Europeans originated from wide regions ranging from South-eastern
Europe to the region beyond Caspian Sea or Southwest Asia [Iran,
Afghanistan and former Russian Republics].
They were in Asia Minor before 2000 BCE
Hittites were warlike people
Ruled Asia Minor, northern Syria, raided Babylon and challenged Egypt for
control of Syria and Palestine.
Mursilis I in 1595 BCE raided Babylon but returned back
They succeeded due to well-trained army
Developed iron industry
Borrowed several features of Mesopotamian civilization
The Hittite Empire declined in around 1200 BCE

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The Assyrian Empire

Emerged after fall of the Hittites in around 1200 BCE
Established powerful states and extended civilization
Semitic-speaking people
Their homeland was northern Mesopotamia
Their capital Nineveh (modern Mosul, Iraq)
The Assyrian mmilitary mmachine: army; pioneer corps; guerrilla warfare;
siege; terror tactics; iron weapons; horse-drawn war chariots; belief that their
gods commanded them to conquer
By 700 BCE their empire included: Mesopotamia; parts of Iranian plateau;
sections of Asia Minor; Syria; Palestine and Egypt down to Thebes
In 612 BCE Assyrians defeated by a coalition of Medes and Neo-Babylonians.
Capital city of Nineveh burned down
Their rule was successful due to the following:
King enjoyed absolute power [greatest king was Ashurbanipal]
Developed efficient communication system
Developed effective military leaders and fighters
Able to deploy troops; Their army was between 100,000 and 200,00
strong.
Army well-organized and disciplined.
Used Iron weapons; The Assyrian spearmen, archers, and cavalrymen
were equipped with weapons and armor of iron.
Used different military tactics

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Assyrian Society and Culture

King representative of god Ashur

Nobles
They improved roads, established messenger service, irrigation to
facilitate effective administration of conquered lands
Had strict laws
Not afraid to mix with other people
Guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture

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Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 600 BCE)

Leader Nebuchadnezzar II
612 BCE destroyed Assyrians
Conquest of Jerusalem and destruction of the Temple in 586 BCE
Defeated by Persians in 536 BCE
Known for
Hanging Gardens [built for emperors wife]
Ishtar the Gate of Babylon
Tower of Babylon
Biblical accounts

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The Persian Empire or The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-

330 BCE)
Aryan people were on Iranian plateau as early as in about 1100 BCE
Persian empire developed from that of Medes, which became very strong in
the 6th century. It is also called The Achaemenid Empire
In 612 BCE Medes and Neo-Babylonians defeated Assyrians
In around 560 BCE the Persian Cyrus defeated Medes
Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE) father of Persia
Lydia and Greek city-states taken in 547 BCE
Mesopotamia taken in 539 BCE.
Jews could return to Jerusalem; Cyrus showed mercy and tolerance
Cyrus was:
Skilful organizer of empire
Provided tolerance
Was favourable by priesthood
Permitted local people to be officials
Had a reputation for mercy
Created a "world empire"

Expanding the Empire

Cambyses (530-522 BCE)
Captures Egypt
Title of pharaoh, 525 BCE
Darius I (521-486 BCE)
Codified Egyptian law; built a canal to link the Red Sea and
Mediterranean; build Persopolis
Persian greatest extent
Added the number of territories
Revolt in Asia Minor [499 BCE Ionian Revolt]
In Battle of Marathon, in 490 BCE, Persians defeated
Alexander the Great in 330 BCE ended ancient Persian Empire
The Parthians (c. 240 BCE-220 CE)
The Sassanid Empire (224-651 CE)
Governing the Empire
Stable rule and tolerance; Considered generosity and tolerance to be more
effective than terrorism and brutality. Captured Babylon without a battle
Administrative ability (provinces). 20 satrapies with governors
Royal road Sardis to Susa; a network of roads
Monarchy/Persian king
Uniform language/ Aramaic; empires basic language of commerce and
administration
Economy; taxing; agriculture, irrigation; Taxes could be paid with official
coins [The gold daric & the silver shekel]
Professional army and Postal service; a huge army of 300,000 men; Built
the first great navy

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The architectural remains and relief sculptures of Persepolis, the Persian city of the great kings of the
Achaemenid Empire, are among the most impressive monuments of the ancient world. These are part
of the ruins of the Apadana, the great, palatial audience hall. When the Apadana was built, stone was
used for the foundations, door casements, columns, and stairways. Walls of colorfully glazed brick
filled in and around to connect these elements.

Darius I was the greatest of the Achaemenid kings. He ruled from 522 to 486 BC. He is seen here
(seated) in a relief sculpture, along with his successor, Xerxes. Darius is famous as a lawgiver, and
many stories were told about his severity yet impartiality in administering the law. It appears that he
strove to standardize legal practices all over his vast empire. (The Bettmann Archive)

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Persian Religion
Zoroastrianism; it influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism was also similar to Vedic Aryan Religion
Zarathustra/Zoroaster (628-551 BCE) was founder or prophet-reformer
Zoroaster preached a message of moral reform during an age of
materialism, political opportunism and ethical indifference
Holy Scripture of Zoroastrianism was Zend Avesta, which was written in
300 CE
Concept of belief
Ahuramazda was god of goodness [wise god]
Ahriman was god of evil [spirit of evil]
Struggle between good and evil
Addituional beliefs
Afterlife
Hell and heaven
Punishment
Free will
Importance of water and fire as means for the purification and sacrifice

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