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1R-12
Report on Torsion
in Structural Concrete
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*
Subcommittee members who produced this report.
Subcomittee Chair.
The committee would like to thank the following individuals for their contribution to this report: Mohammad Ali, Neal S. Anderson, Shri Bhide, Michael D. Collins, Maria Cristina
Vidigal de Lima, Leonard Elfgren, Christos Karayannis, Liang-Jenq Leu, Mohammad Mansour, Basile Rabbat, Khaldoun Rahal, and Paul Zia.
A clear understanding of the effects of torsion on concrete The behavior of members subjected to torsion combined with
members is essential to the safe, economical design of reinforced bending moment, axial load, and shear is discussed. This report
and prestressed concrete members. This report begins with a brief deals with design issues, including compatibility torsion, span-
and systematic summary of the 180-year history of torsion of drel beams, torsional limit design, open sections, and size effects.
structural concrete members, new and updated theories and their The final two chapters are devoted to the detailing requirements
applications, and a historical overview outlining the development of transverse and longitudinal reinforcement in torsional members
of research on torsion of structural concrete members. Historical with detailed, step-by-step design examples for two beams under
theories and truss models include classical theories of Navier, torsion using ACI (ACI 318-11), European (EC2-04), and Cana-
Saint-Venant, and Bredt; the three-dimensional (3-D) space truss of dian Standards Association (CSA-A23.3-04) standards. Two design
Rausch; the equilibrium (plasticity) truss model of Nielson as well examples are given to illustrate the steps involved in torsion design.
as Lampert and Thrlimann; the compression field theory (CFT) Design Example 1 is a rectangular reinforced concrete beam under
by Collins and Mitchell; and the softened truss model (STM) by pure torsion, and Design Example 2 is a prestressed concrete
Hsu and Mo. girder under combined torsion, shear, and flexure.
This report emphasizes that it is essential to the analysis of torsion
in reinforced concrete that members should: 1) satisfy the equi- Keywords: combined action (loading); compatibility torsion; compression
librium condition (Mohrs stress circle); 2) obey the compatibility field theory; equilibrium torsion; interaction diagrams; prestressed concrete;
condition (Mohrs strain circle); and 3) establish the constitutive reinforced concrete; shear flow zone; skew bending; softened truss model;
spandrel beams; struts; torsion detailing; torsion redistribution; warping.
relationships of materials such as the softened stress-strain rela-
tionship of concrete and smeared stress-strain relationship of
steel bars. CONTENTS
1
2 REPORT ON TORSION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (ACI 445.1R-12)
and axial load is discussed in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 introduces D = cross-sectional depth used in fracture mechanics
additional design issues related to torsion, such as precast calculations, mm (in.)
spandrel beams, torsion limit design, size effect, open sections, D0 = size effect constant for computing sN for plain
and torsional moment distribution. Detailing of torsional concrete section
members is described in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 covers detailed D1 = normalized constant to represent characteristic
design examples of several beams subjected to torsion using structural dimensions used in fracture mechanics
ACI 318, EC2-04, and CSA-A23.3-04 design equations, and calculations
additional graphical design methods reported by researchers. Db = size effect constant for computing sN for reinforced
concrete section
1.2Scope Dc = total energy dissipated on discontinuous concrete
Theories presented in this report were developed and verified yield surface
for building members of typical size. For application to large- Ds = total energy dissipated by reinforcement
scale members, size effects should be considered. They could e = moment arm for torsion, mm (in.)
present a serious safety issue when using the shear strength Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa (psi)
equations provided in the design standard, which cannot take Eps = modulus of elasticity of prestressed reinforcement
into account the shear strength reduction in large-scale members in flexural tension zone, MPa (psi)
caused by loss of aggregate interlock behavior. Experimental Eps = tangential modulus of Ramberg-Osgood curve at
information on large-scale torsional members is lacking. zero load MPa (psi)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement and struc-
CHAPTER 2NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS tural steel, MPa (psi)
The material presented is a summary of research carried EJw = rigidity of beam under warping torque, Nm2 (lb-in.2)
out worldwide and spanning more than four decades, fc = characteristic concrete cylinder compressive
making unification of the symbols and notations used by the strength, MPa (psi)
various researchers and design codes a challenge. In some fc* = concrete effective (plastic) compressive stress,
cases, mostly for graphs and figures, the notation is kept as MPa (psi)
originally published. fck = characteristic compressive strength of concrete,
MPa (psi); fck = fcm 8 MPa (fck = fcm 1200 psi)
2.1Notation fcm = mean compressive strength of concrete, MPa (psi)
a = moment arm for bending, mm (in.) fd = diagonal concrete stress, MPa (psi)
ac = geometric property index fds = diagonal concrete stress corresponding to strain eds,
ao = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block in MPa (psi)
concrete strut of torsional member, mm (in.) f = reinforcement stress in direction, MPa (psi)
A = area of yield surface, mm2 (in.2) fp = prestressing reinforcement stress in the l direction,
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete MPa (psi)
cross section, mm2 (in.2) fy = specified yield strength of longitudinal reinforce-
A = total area of longitudinal reinforcement to resist ment, MPa (psi)
torsion, mm2 (in.2) fp = stress in prestressing reinforcement; fp becomes fp
Ao = gross area enclosed by shear flow path, mm2 (in.2) or ftp when applied to longitudinal and transverse
(noted as Atb in Eq. (7.2.6)) reinforcement, respectively, MPa (psi)
Aoh = area enclosed by centerline of outermost closed fp0.1 = characteristic yield strength of prestressing rein-
transverse torsional reinforcement, mm2 (in.2) forcing strands, MPa (psi); fp0.1 = 0.9fu
Aps = area of prestressing reinforcement in flexural fpc = compressive stress in concrete due to prestress,
tension zone, mm2 (in.2) MPa (psi)
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension rein- fpk = characteristic tensile strength of prestressing rein-
forcement, mm2 (in.2) forcing strands, MPa (psi); fpk = fpu
As = area of longitudinal compression reinforcement, fpo = effective prestress after losses in prestressing rein-
mm2 (in.2) forcement, MPa (psi)
At = area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion fpu = specified tensile strength of prestressing reinforce-
within spacing s, mm2 (in.2) (noted as Atb in Eq. ment, MPa (psi)
(7.2.6)) fp,ud = design ultimate strength of prestressing reinforcing
b = width of compression face of member, mm (in.) strands, MPa (psi); fp,ud = fpk/gs (gs = 1.15)
bc = width of stirrups, mm (in.) fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, MPa (psi)
B = integral of Tw ft = reinforcement stress in t direction, MPa (psi)
C = cross-sectional constant to define torsional proper- ft = uniaxial tensile strength of concrete, MPa (psi)
ties of a beam ft* = concrete effective (plastic) tensile stress, MPa (psi)
dv = distance between top and bottom longitudinal rein- ftp = prestressing reinforcement stress in t direction,
forcement, mm (in.) MPa (psi)
fty = specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement, To = pure torsional strength of section, Nm (in.-lb)
MPa (psi) Ts = nominal torsional strength provided by reinforce-
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa (psi) ment, Nm (in.-lb)
fyd = design yield strength reinforcing steel, MPa (psi); Tu = factored torsional moment at section, Nm (in.-lb)
fyd = fy/gs (gs = 1.15) Tw = warping torsional moment, Nm (in.-lb)
fy = yield strength of the torsional longitudinal rein- Txu = factored balanced torsional strength, Nm (in.-lb)
forcement, MPa (psi) Txub = balanced torsional strength, Nm (in.-lb)
fyv = torsional hoop yield strength reinforcement, MPa T xub = nondimensional balanced torsional strength, Nm
(psi) (in.-lb)
G = shear modulus, MPa (psi) v = shearing stress due to shear, MPa (psi)
h = overall thickness or height of a member, mm (in.) v* = plastic flow rate (Chapter 7)
Ho = horizontal force in radial direction, N (lb) (Chapter 7) vu = ultimate shear stress, MPa (psi)
Ip = polar moment of inertia, mm4 (in.4) V = applied shear force at section, N (lb)
k1 = ratio of average stress to peak stress Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, N (lb)
K = value from Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion Vo = pure shear strength of section, N (lb)
Kf = flexural stiffness of floor beams, Nm2 (lb-in.2) Vu = factored shear force at section, N (lb)
Kts = torsional stiffness of spandrel beam, Nm/rad w = ultimate distributed load on helical stair, N/m (lb/ft)
(in.-lb/rad) (Chapter 7)
= span length of beam, mm (in.) W = external work, N/m (lb/ft)
f = length of flexural beam, mm (in.) x = shorter overall dimension of rectangular part of
q = width of shear flow q along top wall (Fig. 4.2(a) cross section, mm (in.)
and (b)), mm (in.) x1 = distance section centroid and an infinitesimally
m = ratio of effective (plastic) compressive stress to small area of yield surface, mm (in.)
effective (plastic) tensile stress of concrete y = longer overall dimension of rectangular part of
M = applied flexural moment at section, Nm (in.-lb) cross section, mm (in.)
Mo = pure flexural strength of section, Nm (in.-lb) z = distance along axis of beam, mm (in.)
n = integer value a, b = Saint-Venants coefficients for homogeneous
nR = number of redundants torsional section
nV = coefficient describing an under-reinforced, partially a*, b* = rotational angles in beam subjected to torsion
under-reinforced, or completely over-reinforced section (Chapter 7)
N = applied axial load at section, N (lb) a1 = stress block factor given as ratio of fd to fc (Chapter 5)
No = pure axial strength of section, N (lb) b = factor relating effect of longitudinal strain on shear
ph = perimeter of centerline of outermost closed trans- strength of concrete (American Association of State
verse torsional reinforcement, mm (in.) Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
po = perimeter of outer concrete cross section, mm (in.) LRFD (general message)
(sometimes noted as pcp) b1 = factor relating depth of equivalent rectangular
P = applied concentrated load, N (lb) compressive stress block to neutral axis depth; also,
q = shear flow, N/m (lb/in.) block factor given as ratio of ao to td (Fig. 4.5)
r = ratio of top-to-bottom yield forces of the longitu- g1 = angle along helical stair (in plan) at which maximum
dinal reinforcement torsional moment is assumed to occur
r = size effect constant for computing sN g2 = angle along helical stair (in plan) at which vertical
R = shape parameter used in Ramberg-Osgood moment is assumed to be zero
s = center-to-center spacing of longitudinal and trans- gt = shear strain
verse reinforcements, mm (in.) ed = strain in d direction
sl = center-to-center spacing of longitudinal reinforce- edec = strain in prestressing reinforcement at decompres-
ment, mm (in.) sion of concrete
st = center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforce- eds = maximum strain at concrete strut surface (Fig. 4.3)
ment, mm (in.) eh = strain in hoop direction e
t = wall thickness of hollow section, mm (in.) ey = yield strain in direction
td = thickness of shear flow zone, mm (in.) eo = strain at peak compressive stress fc in concrete
T = applied torsional moment at section, Nm (in.-lb) ep = peak strain in concrete
Tc = nominal torsional strength provided by concrete, er = strain in r direction
Nm (in.-lb) es = strain in nonprestressed reinforcement; es becomes
Tcr = torsional cracking resistance of cross section, Nm e or et when applied to longitudinal or transverse
(in.-lb) reinforcement, respectively
Tf = applied torsional moment, Nm (in.-lb) (Chapter 9) et = strain in t direction
Tmax = maximum torsional moment, Nm (in.-lb) (Chapter 7) ety = yield strain in t direction
Tn = nominal torsional moment strength, Nm (in.-lb)
euk = characteristic total elongation of reinforcing steel at F = angle of twist in torsional beam, radians/m
ultimate load (radians/in.)
ex = longitudinal strain at midheight of concrete section F = second derivative of rotation with respect to beams
z = softening coefficient of concrete strut axis z
h = normalized reinforcement ratio of longitudinal F = third derivative of rotation with respect to beams
reinforcement axis z
hb = balanced normalized reinforcement ratio of longi- Y = bending curvature of concrete strut
tudinal reinforcement w = reinforcement index in direction
ht = normalized reinforcement ratio of transverse steel ws = functional indicator of an index of reinforcement
reinforcement ws = reinforcement ratio index
htb = balanced normalized reinforcement ratio of trans- wt = reinforcement index in t direction
verse steel reinforcement
q = angle between axis of strut, compression diagonal, 2.2Definitions
or compression field and tension chord of the ACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through
member; also, the angle between -t direction/axis an online resource, ACI Concrete Terminology, http://
and d-r direction/axis, radians terminology.concrete.org.
x = coefficient equal to 1 for rectangular sections and
to p/4 for circular cross sections; x can be taken CHAPTER 3HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF
as unity for all shapes of cross sections with only TORSION THEORIES AND THEORETICAL MODELS
negligible loss of accuracy for Ao and po 3.1Naviers theory
r = reinforcement ratio in direction A theory for torsion of elastic homogeneous members
rp = prestressing reinforcement ratio in direction was first developed by C. L. Navier (1826) for circular cross
rt = reinforcement ratio in t direction sections. His theory, which was based on equilibrium condi-
rtp = prestressing reinforcement ratio in t direction tions, compatibility conditions, and a linear stress-strain
s = compressive stress acting in combination with relationship like Hookes Law, has guided the development
torsional moment, psi (MPa) of various theories about the behavior of reinforced concrete
s0 = nominal torsional strength according to the current members subjected to torsion after cracking.
code specifications based on plastic limit analysis,
MPa (psi) 3.2Thin-tube theory
sd = principal stress in d direction for concrete struts, Naviers torsion theory for members of circular sections
MPa (psi) was followed by Saint-Venants (1856) solution for rectan-
s = normal stress in longitudinal direction for reinforced gular sections. Saint-Venants torsional constants considered
concrete, MPa (psi) warping of rectangular cross sections. According to Saint-
smax = maximum principal tensile stress, MPa (psi) Venants circulatory shear flow theory, the most efficient
sN = nominal strength of structure, MPa (psi) cross section to resist torsion is a thin tube. Bredt (1896) was
sr = principal stress in r direction for the concrete struts, able to derive simple equations for thin tubes. His thin-tube
MPa (psi) theory states that the shear stress multiplied by wall thick-
st = normal stress in the transverse direction for rein- ness has a constant value around the perimeter and that this
forced concrete, MPa (psi) shear flow is found by dividing the torsion by twice the area
s = strength of plain beams according to elastic analysis enclosed by the shear flow path. Bredts theory has served as
with maximum stress limited by material strength, the basis for modern theories of cracked reinforced concrete
MPa (psi) members subjected to Saint-Venant torsion.
t = shearing stress due to torsion and shear, MPa (psi) 3.2.1 Two- and three-dimensional plane truss models
tmax = maximum shear stress, MPa (psi) The first theoretical models for shear in cracked reinforced
tt = applied shear stress in -t coordinate for reinforced concrete members date back to the turn of the century when
concrete, MPa (psi) Ritter (1899) and Mrsch (1902) formulated the two-dimen-
n = uniform plastic effectiveness factor (Chapter 7) sional (2-D) plane truss model concept, where reinforced
nc = plastic effectiveness factor for compression concrete members were modeled as an assembly of two
(Chapter 7) types of linear elementsconcrete struts and reinforcement
nt = plastic effectiveness factor for tension (Chapter 7) ties. The axis of concrete struts in the model was assumed
j = friction angle to be inclined at 45 degrees to longitudinal members, and
f = strength reduction factor shear strength was assumed to be controlled by the yielding
fc = strength reduction factor for concrete (0.65 for of transverse reinforcement ties. By extending the 2-D
cast-in-place, 0.70 for precast concrete) plane truss model, Rausch (1929) developed a three-dimen-
fp = strength reduction factor for prestressing tendons sional (3-D) space truss model for torsion that consisted of
(0.90) longitudinal and hoop reinforcement-resisting tension and
fs = strength reduction factor for nonprestressed rein- concrete struts-resisting compression. He also assumed that
forcing bars (0.85)
the shear flow path would follow the centerline of the hoop
reinforcement.
3.2.2 Skew-bending and space truss theoriesIn later
years, research on torsion followed two theoretical tracks
skew-bending and space truss. Lessig (1959) first proposed a
skew-bending theory for reinforced concrete members with
two modes of failure, Mode 1 and Mode 2, as explained in
3.3.5. The skew-bending theory used only equilibrium equa-
tions and assumed that all reinforcement yielded before
failure. Lessigs research was followed by the skew-bending
theory of Walsh et al. (1966) and Collins et al. (1968a,b), who
proposed a third failure mode, Mode 3, and used all three
modes to derive nondimensional torsion-bending moment
interaction equations (Walsh et al. 1967), as described in Fig. 3.3.2ACI Committee 438Torsion, Mexico City,
3.3.5. Based on three modes of failure, a nondimensional October 1976: Tom Hsu, Lennart Elfgren, Phil Ferguson,
interaction surface of torsion, shear, and flexure was derived Art McMullen, Emory Kemp, Gordon Fisher, Paul Zia, and
by Elfgren (1972a,b) and Elfgren et al. (1974a,b). Rauschs Michael Collins.
space truss theory for torsion was generalized by Lampert
and Thrlimann (1969, 1971), who showed how the angle relationships) have been the basis for research in torsion
of inclination of the compression diagonals at failure could of reinforced concrete members. (Equation notation in this
be determined from equilibrium if both the hoops and longi- section are provided in Chapter 2.)
tudinal reinforcement were assumed to yield. Lampert and 3.3.2 Twentieth centuryIn the first 60 years of the twen-
Collins (1972) showed that predictions of skew-bending and tieth century, progress in reinforced concrete theories was
space truss theories were in close agreement. made primarily on flexure. Early flexural theories for rein-
3.2.3 Compression field theory (CFT)The truss model forced concrete assumed plane sections remained plane
with linear elements developed by Rausch was replaced in the and stress-strain relationships of concrete and reinforce-
1960s by a new type of truss model with membrane elements ment were linear. Equilibrium conditions for longitudinal
that were subjected to in-plane normal and shearing stresses. stresses were used to determine the location of the neutral
In determining the torsional strength of members where some axis and stresses in concrete and reinforcement caused by
reinforcement does not yield, consider compatibility conditions. the moment. The contribution of concrete tensile stresses
Such conditions were introduced by Baumann (1972) for shear was disregarded if concrete cracking was expected. Later
and by Collins (1973) for torsion. Mitchell and Collins (1974) flexural theories accounted for the nonlinear stress-strain
incorporated compatibility conditions in their CFT, which also response of the concrete and steel reinforcement so that the
relied on equilibrium equations and nonlinear material models complete moment-curvature relationship for a section could
for concrete and reinforcement. Unlike previous models, the be predicted. In terms of shear and torsion research, a signifi-
CFT calculates cracked member torsional behavior up to the cant achievement was made with the development of truss
peak torque. A compatibility condition derived by minimizing models (Ritter 1899; Mrsch 1902; Rausch 1929). Research
the strain energy in the system is used to calculate the angle of in torsion of reinforced concrete underwent significant
inclination in the truss model struts. advances during the last 40 years of the twentieth century.
3.2.4 Softened truss model (STM)In 1985, Hsu and Mo Two theories were developedskew-bending and truss
(1985a,b,c) proposed the STM by softening the concrete models with membrane elements. Skew-bending includes
stress-strain curve. All of the aforementioned models satisfy the theories of Lessig (1959), Yudin (1962), Collins et al.
Naviers theory. Earlier models overestimated test strengths (1968a), Hsu (1968a), and Elfgren (1972a,b). Truss models
(Hsu 1968c), whereas the CFT, which uses spalling of include the theories of Nielsen (1967), Lampert and Thr-
concrete cover, and STM, which uses softening of concrete, limann (1968, 1969), Collins (1973), Mitchell and Collins
have been shown to predict test results accurately (McMullen (1974), Elfgren et al. (1974a,b), Collins and Mitchell (1980),
and El-Degwy 1985). and Hsu and Mo (1985a,b,c). Several researchers involved
in the development of theories for torsion were members of
3.3Historical development of theories for ACI Committee 438 for Torsion, which is now the Joint ACI-
reinforced concrete members subjected to torsion ASCE Committee 445 for Shear and Torsion (Fig. 3.3.2).
3.3.1 GeneralSection 3.1 summarizes the historical Development of these modern truss models was based on
models developed to describe reinforced concrete members the same three principles of mechanics, which, in terms of
subjected to torsion, covering almost two centuries of torsion and shear, include the softened stress-strain relation-
research from 1826 to the early twenty-first century (2007). ship of concrete.
Classical theories include Navier (1826), Saint-Venant 3.3.3 Classical torsion theory for homogeneous members
(1856), Bredt (1896), and Bach (1911). This review shows Navier (1826) derived a theory for torsion of homogeneous
that the three principles of mechanics of materials (equilib- elastic members with circular cross sections. His theory is
rium, compatibility conditions, and materials stress-strain based on the three principles of mechanics of materials:
American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Materialwww.concrete.org
REPORT ON TORSION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (ACI 445.1R-12) 7
Fig. 3.3.4.2Number of published papers on torsion from 1900 to 2007 (plot prepared by
A. Belarbi).
the shear problem of membrane elements in a tube and the as a truss with two types of linear elements: struts made
warping of tube walls that cause flexure in concrete struts. out of concrete and ties made out of steel reinforcement.
Figure 3.3.4.2 shows that the number of globally published The Ritter and Mrsch model represents the struts and ties
papers on torsion began to surge around 1960 and peaked as lines without cross-sectional dimensions, where forces
around 1970. The principles of equilibrium, compatibility satisfy equilibrium at points of intersectiona model with
conditions, and materials stress-strain relationships that the advantage of conceptual clarity. Extending the 2-D plane
were needed to solve torsion problems in reinforced concrete truss model to a 3-D space truss model, Rausch (1929) devel-
members were primarily developed between 1960 and 1985 oped a theory for torsion of reinforced concrete. Rauschs
(Lampert and Thrlimann 1971; Lampert and Collins 1972; space truss model, as shown in Fig. 3.3.5a, is made up of
Elfgren et al. 1974a,b; Collins and Mitchell 1980; Hsu and 45-degree diagonal concrete struts, longitudinal reinforcing
Mo 1983). Theories and tests produced before 1980 are bars, and hoop reinforcing bars connected at the joints by
summarized in detail by Hsu (1984). hinges. Torsional moment is carried by the concrete struts
By 1985, researchers solved the basic problems of reinforced in axial compression (dotted lines), and by the straight rein-
concrete design by applying Naviers theory. Further research forcing bars in axial tension (solid lines) in the longitudinal
was necessary to refine the constitutive laws of materials for (horizontal) and lateral (hoop) directions. Equilibrium of
torsion and shear. The experimental work needed to generate the joints in the longitudinal, lateral, and radial directions
new advancements is tedious and requires highly sophisticated requires that the forces in the longitudinal bars (X), in the
testing equipment. Only two universities in North America hoop bars (Q), and in the inclined struts (D) should be evenly
the University of Toronto and University of Houstonare distributed among all cells and joints. To satisfy equilibrium,
capable of studying the behavior of reinforced concrete shell the relationship between these forces should be X = Q =
and panel elements subjected to in-plane shear and normal D/2. As shown in Fig. 3.3.5a, the series of hoop forces Q
stresses. The study of softened concrete in shear elements, at the joints constitute a shear flow q = Q/s. Using Bredts
which has been the subject of extensive research worldwide lever arm area concept, T can be related to q (or Q/s) by
in the last three decades, continues to be a major research 2Ao, as expressed by Bredts equation (Eq. (3.3.3)). The term
topic. The need for larger and more complex specimens has Ao refers to the area enclosed by a series of straight lines
increased ongoing work at both universities. The high cost of connecting joints of the cross section.
experimental research needed for new developments in torsion Assuming that ultimate torque is reached when the forces
imposes a limiting constraint on new research. For example, in the transverse reinforcement reach the yield stress, then q
studying the behavior of full-scale girders with open sections = Q/s = Atfty/st and Eq. (3.3.3) becomes
that involve Saint-Venant and warping torsion is expensive. The
future of torsion research is largely tied to available equipment At fty
or to the combined efforts of many institutions, or both. Tn = 2 Aoh (3.3.5)
st
3.3.5 Space truss model using struts and tiesThe first
theory for shear design of reinforced concrete was developed
at the turn of the twentieth century when Ritter (1899) and Although the space truss model has the advantage
Mrsch (1902) formulated the concept of plane trusses with of conceptual clarity in terms of simple assemblage of
struts and ties. They modeled a reinforced concrete member compression struts and tension ties, Rauschs equation (Eq.
Fig. 3.3.6.2Three failure modes in skew-bending theories (Lessig 1959; Yudin 1962;
Collins et al. 1968a; Elfgren et al. 1974a,b).
skew compression zone and force equilibrium about the axis combined torsion and flexure, Lampert and Collins (1972)
perpendicular to the center of the compression zone. The showed that both the skew-bending theory and the space
crack angles defining the skew failure surfaces were deter- truss theory predict the same parabolic shape for the interac-
mined by minimizing the torsional resistance. The resulting tion curve. Elfgren et al. (1974a,b) then derived a nondimen-
equations were complicated. sional interaction surface for combined torsion, shear, and
Yudin (1962) took a different approach by deriving three flexure based on the three modes of skew-bending failure. If
equilibrium equations: moment equilibrium about the longi- the inclination angle of cracks in each wall is adjusted so that
tudinal and transverse axes through the compression zone both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement can yield, the
center, and force equilibrium about the axis perpendicular to interaction surface becomes identical to that derived from
the compression zone center. Assuming all the crack angles the equilibrium (plasticity) truss model (Elfgren 1972a,b),
to be 45 degrees, he showed that his equation for ultimate as explained in 5.5.
torque was the same as Rauschs. Lessig and Yudins research 3.3.7 Truss models with membrane elements
was followed by the skew-bending theory of Walsh et al. 3.3.7.1 Equilibrium (plasticity) truss model for torsion
(1966, 1967) and Collins et al. (1968a,b), who also identified Rauschs space truss model with struts and ties (1929) was
Mode 3 failure. The three modes of failure1, 2, and 3are replaced by a new and more realistic type of truss model
governed by the dominant effect of positive flexure moment, in the 1960s. As shown in Fig. 3.3.7.1a, the new model is
torsion shear, and negative flexure moment, respectively. For made up of membrane elements treated as trusses made up
of struts and ties after cracking. Three equilibrium equations = Atfty/st), Lampert and Thrlimanns Eq. (3.3.7.1e) looks
for the elements were first derived by Nielsen (1967) and identical to Rauschs Eq. (3.3.5), except the term Ao is
Lampert and Thrlimann (1968). defined differently. The former is based on the centerline
of longitudinal reinforcement and the latter is based on
s = sdcos2q + srsin2q + r f (3.3.7.1a) the centerline of hoop reinforcement. Equation (3.3.7.1e)
was first used in the European CEB-FIP code in 1978 and
s t = s d sin 2 q + s r cos2 q + rt ft (3.3.7.1b) ACI 318-95. By combining Eq. (3.3.7.1e) with equations
for shear and flexure, Elfgren (1972a,b) and Elfgren et al.
tt = (sd + sr)sinqcosq (3.3.7.1c) (1974a) established a nondimensional interaction surface
as shown in Fig. 3.3.7.1b, based on the equilibrium (plas-
Because Eq. (3.3.7.1a) through (3.3.7.1c) describe the ticity) truss model as explained in 6.5. Elfgren also showed
transformation of stresses, they form a system of stresses the interaction surface derived from the truss model is iden-
that should satisfy Mohrs stress circle, a type of equilib- tical to the skew-bending theory. Actual testing has shown,
rium condition called Mohrs circular stress equilibrium. however, that Elfgrens interaction surface overestimates the
The longitudinal and transverse reinforcement stresses are experimental results in the region adjacent to torsion and
assumed to yield at failure (f = fy, ft = fty), and the concrete shear because softening concrete was not considered.
tensile stress is neglected (sr = 0). Equations (3.3.7.1a) 3.3.7.2 Compatibility truss model for torsion
through (3.3.7.1c) were simplified to yield the shear stress tt 3.3.7.2.1 GeneralAccording to Navier, the strain
in the case of pure shear without normal stresses (s = st = 0) compatibility (or geometric) condition should be considered
if the angle of twist is to be related to the torsional moment.
Assuming the membrane element to behave as a truss as
t t = r f y rt fty (3.3.7.1d)
shown in Fig. 3.3.7.1a(b), three strain compatibility equa-
tions have been derived by Baumann (1972) and Mitchell
A reinforced concrete tube subjected to torsion can be and Collins (1974).
visualized as an assembly of shear elements similar to the
one shown in Fig. 3.3.3. e = e d cos2 q + e r sin 2 q (3.7.2.1a)
The torsional moment at yielding, Tn, can then be derived
by substituting the shear stress tt (tt = q/t) into Eq. (3.3.3)
and substituting r = A/st and rt = At/stt e t = e d sin 2 q + e r cos2 q (3.7.2.1b)
A f y At fty g t
Tu = 2 Ao (3.3.7.1e) = ( e d + e r )sin q cos q (3.7.2.1c)
s st 2
Because Eq. (3.7.2.1a) through (3.7.2.1c) describe the
Equation (3.3.7.1e) was first derived by Lampert and
transformation and distribution of strains, they should satisfy
Thrlimann (1968, 1971). In the case of equal yield force
Mohrs strain circle. This type of compatibility condition is
in both longitudinal and transverse reinforcement (Afy/s
therefore called Mohrs circular strain compatibility.
3.3.8 Derivation of ACI 318: torsion design equationsAs torsion proved to be much more difficult because they were,
discussed previously, ACI equations for designing members respectively, two-dimensional and three-dimensional prob-
under torsion are based on the space truss model theory. lems. From a historical perspective, the development of the
There are two basic design equations: one for torsional current torsional theories spanned over 40 years. Equilib-
hoop reinforcement, and another for torsional longitudinal rium equations were developed in the 1960s, compatibility
reinforcement. conditions were added in the 1970s, and the formulation and
From the truss model (Fig. 3.3.7.1a(b)), equilibrium of the expressions of softening coefficients were introduced in the
top face of the element relates the shear flow q to the force 1980s and 90s.
in the torsional hoop reinforcement per unit length (Atft/s) Since 1960, the bulk of work has focused on beams
through the equation subjected to monotonic torsional loading. Early tests on
members subjected to reverse cyclic loading were conducted
q = At ft cotq (3.3.8a) by Collins and Chockalingam (1979) on reinforced concrete
s beams subjected to pure torsion and by Stevens et al. (1991)
on membrane elements subjected to reversed cyclic shear up
Substituting Eq. (3.3.8a) into Bredts Eq. (3.3.3) and to reinforcement yielding. Significant recent advances have
assuming yielding of the hoop reinforcement renders the ACI applied rational models such as the STM and the modified
318 requirement for transverse reinforcement for torsion. CFT to shear elements subjected to cyclic loading. Vecchio
(1999) and Palermo and Vecchio (2003, 2004) applied the
MCFT for cyclic loading up to yielding of the reinforcement.
At Tu
= (3.3.8b) Mansour et al. (2001), Zhu et al. (2001), Zhu and Hsu (2002),
s f2 Ao f yv cot q and Mansour and Hsu (2005a,b) studied cyclic torsion and
shear, including the unloading and reloading branches of the
Similarly, from the equilibrium of the left face of the softened stress-strain curves (hysteretic loop) and the effect
element, shown in Fig. 3.3.7.1a(b), the shear flow q can be of Poissons ratio in a membrane element. The latter was
related to the force in the torsional longitudinal reinforce- crucial in determining the descending branch of the softened
ment per unit length (Af/s) through the equation stress-strain curve.
Belarbi and Greene tested several full-scale box girders
A f under cyclic torsion and combined torsion and shear
q= tan q (3.3.8c) (Belarbi and Greene 2004; Greene and Belarbi 2008). The
s
cyclic shear tests of membrane elements (Mansour and
Hsu 2005a,b) permitted the establishment of cyclic stress-
The term Al is defined in ACI 318 as the total area of strain curves of concrete and reinforcement. These cyclic
torsional longitudinal reinforcement in the cross section, constitutive laws laid the foundation for the Cyclic Soft-
assuming that po = ph, where ph is the perimeter of the ened Membrane Model (Mansour and Hsu 2005a,b), which
centerline of the outermost hoop bars. Equation (3.3.8c) then could be used for the design of seismic-resistant reinforced
becomes concrete structures (Hsu et al. 2006).
q=
A f
tan q (3.3.8d) CHAPTER 4BEHAVIOR OF MEMBERS
ph SUBJECTED TO PURE TORSION
4.1General
The torsional strength of concrete beams depends on many
An expression for the amount of torsional longitudinal
factors, such as the amount and distribution of transverse
reinforcement in ACI 318 is obtained by equating the shear
and longitudinal reinforcement, concrete strength, cross
flow q of Eq. (3.3.8d) and (3.3.8a)
section shape, and, for rectangular cross sections, aspect
ratio (depth-to-width ratio). Concrete strength and amount
A f yv
A = t ph cot 2 q (3.3.8e) of reinforcement can change the failure characteristics. The
s f y failure mechanism varies from ductile to sudden and brittle,
depending on the longitudinal and transverse reinforce-
3.4Concluding remarks ment volumetric ratios. Chapter 4 details the behavior of
This historical review identifies research studies that have plain concrete, reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete
provided the foundation for the current understanding of under pure torsion. The behavior of high-strength concrete
torsion in reinforced concrete members. It took almost the members is also discussed. The effects of other stress resul-
entire twentieth century for researchers to successfully apply tants, such as shear and flexure, are discussed in Chapter 6.
Naviers theory to cracked reinforced concrete. The applica-
tion of Naviers theory to the flexure theory of reinforced 4.2Plain concrete
concrete was relatively easy because of the one-dimensional Saint-Venants elastic theory accurately describes the
condition of equilibrium and compatibility, combined with torsional behavior of plain concrete members at low torque
the non-softened constitutive laws of materials. Shear and before cracking. This theory assumes that the cross section
on the nature and size of the aggregate. The role of the size
effect on the fracture process zone width should also be
considered. Between the microcracks of this zone, there are
less damaged or even elastic parts; this can be considered a
result of the strong tendency for eventual localization of the
damage and the simultaneous recovery of the undamaged or
less-damaged parts between the final cracks.
4.3Reinforced concrete
Before the concrete cracks, a member under pure torsion
is assumed to behave elastically with a nearly linear torque-
twist curve. After cracking, the resistance mechanism
changes and stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement carry
most of the tensile load whereas the concrete carries the
compression. The longitudinal reinforcement tensile strains Fig. 4.3aDiagonal cracks in members under pure torsion
cause the member to lengthen. Increased torque causes a (Mitchell and Collins 1974).
nearly linear increase in the beam length. A longitudinal
restraint acts as a compressive prestress force and increases
the torsional strength. the surface, crack width, beam strength and stiffness, and
Members reinforced for torsion typically have closed stir- failure mode. The reinforcement ratios have a strong influ-
rups and at least one longitudinal bar in each stirrup corner, ence on the inclined crack angles and the size of the cracks.
as originally required in ACI 318-63. Members with only The crack width is related to the principal tensile strain.
longitudinal reinforcement behave similarly to a plain When the volumetric ratios rl and rt are equal, q is approxi-
concrete member in regards to torsional rigidity and torsional mately 45 degrees and the cracks have the smallest width
strength, and they fail after cracking in a brittle manner. because the strains in the longitudinal and transverse direc-
An uncracked beam loaded in pure torsion has only shear tions are also equal. For beams with rt larger than rl, the
stresses on a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. angle is greater than 45 degrees relative to the horizontal and
The associated principal tensile stress causes inclined cracks the strain larger in the longitudinal direction, which causes
on the beam surface in the principal compressive stress wider cracks. Similarly, in beams with rt less than rl, the
direction. These cracks spiral around the beam. The tensile angle is less than 45 degrees relative to the horizontal, the
cracks are due to strain in the principal tensile stress direc- transverse strain is larger, and the cracks are also wider than
tion, and they affect the concrete acting in compression. The when q is 45 degrees (Mitchell and Collins 1974; Hsu 1993).
tensile strains have the effect of weakening the concretes The volumetric ratios of longitudinal and transverse rein-
ability to withstand compression in the perpendicular direc- forcement to concrete affect the failure mechanism. Large
tion. This is known as softening of the concrete compres- rl and rt result in reinforcement stresses less than yield
sive strength. Tests performed by Vecchio and Collins (1982, when the concrete reaches its ultimate compressive strain at
1986) identified the principal tensile strains as the primary the surface. In this condition, the concrete is crushed and
variable influencing tension softening and quantified them. the beam experiences sudden and brittle failure. Beams of
Continued work by Belarbi and Hsu (1994, 1995), Pang and this type are called over-reinforced. Figure 4.3b shows an
Hsu (1995), Hsu and Zhang (1997), Hsu and Zhu (2002), example of beam failure boundaries (Leu and Lee 2000).
and Hsu and Mo (2010) has improved the understanding The condition known as balanced failure point is met when
of compression softening. Other studies, such as those of concrete reaches its ultimate strain at the point where both
Vecchio and Collins (1993) and Koutchoukali and Belarbi transverse and longitudinal reinforcement begin to yield
(2001), have also been reported based on further calibration simultaneously. Beams with rl and rt less than the rein-
of their original models. After cracking, the longitudinal and forcement ratios at the balanced condition are called under-
transverse reinforcement are in tension, and the concrete reinforced (Region I). Under-reinforced beams are capable
struts between the diagonal cracks are in compression, as of continued twist as the reinforcement yields, producing
shown in Fig. 4.3a. The faces of the beam are warped as a ductile failure. Over-reinforced beams are in Region IV
the beam is twisted, causing bending stresses, in addition where the failure is brittle. For lower ratios of either r or rt,
to compressive stresses, in the concrete struts (Mitchell the longitudinal or transverse reinforcement yields before the
and Collins 1974). The concrete between inclined cracks concrete is crushed. Beams of this type are called partially
is capable of acting in tension and will increase the overall under-reinforced (Regions II and III).
beam torsional stiffness. This effect, known as tension stiff- The volumetric ratios of longitudinal and transverse rein-
ening, is most predominant immediately after the first cracks forcement have a strong influence on the beams postcracking
appear and decreases with increased torsion. torsional stiffness and strength as shown in Fig. 4.3c. For
The volumetric ratios rl and rt have a significant effect on under-reinforced beams with equal volumetric ratios r
the behavior of reinforced concrete beams subject to pure and rt, an increase in the total reinforcement increases the
torsion. The ratios affect the angle of the inclined cracks on torsional rigidity, which is the slope of the torque-twist curve
4.4Prestressed concrete
Adding longitudinal prestressing to a concrete member
subjected to torsion will increase its cracking torque and,
to a lesser extent, its failure torque. The longitudinal
prestressing force creates a compression-shear biaxial state
of stress that delays cracking of concrete. This effect is illus-
trated by Cowans failure criteria, shown in Fig. 4.4a. The
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion has been simplified into two
straight lines in Fig. 4.4a(a). If the Mohr circle of stresses
touches the straight line BD described by t = c tanj, where
j is the friction angle (a typical value for concrete is 37
degrees), failure is by sliding. If the Mohr circle touches the
tension cutoff line DE described by s = ft, failure is by sepa- Fig. 4.4bUltimate torque-versus-reinforcement factor for
ration. In Fig. 4.4a(b), smax = OE = FE FO = FP FO. The prestressed and reinforced beams under pure torsion (Hsu
variable smax can then be expressed as 1984). (Note: 1 in.-kip = 0.113 kNm.)
2
f pc f pc only the prestress and the concrete tensile strength. In effect,
s max = + t 2
2 2 (4.4a) the longitudinal prestress increases the cracking strength,
as shown in Fig. 4.4b. Expressions for prestressed member
torsional strength are similar to those of reinforced concrete
f pc members with a factor that increases the strength due to the
t = ft 1 + (4.4b) prestress. Pure torsion tests have shown that the prestressed
ft
beams appear to require approximately the same minimum
torsional reinforcement as the nonprestressed beams (Hsu
Cowans failure envelope using Mohrs circle is a simple 1984). Similar to beams without prestressing, prestressed
and concise model for explaining the compression-shear state beams without web reinforcement fail shortly after cracking.
of stress. Equation (4.4b) for shear stress is derived from the Testing has shown that as the amount of longitudinal rein-
geometry of Cowans failure envelope, and it is a function of forcement and prestress increase, the torque at cracking,
g t
= ( e d + e r ) sin q cos q (5.3.1c)
2
po
F= g t (5.3.2)
2 Ao
E ps (e dec + e s )
fp =
{ ( E (e ) }
1/ R
1+ + e s ) / f pu
R
fp > 0.7fpu
ps dec
(5.4.3a(b))
DN At ft
q= (5.5d)
po s
and
At ft po
tan q = (5.5e)
s DN
DN At ft
T = 2 Ao (5.5f)
po s
ao (5.5b) a b f A s
Ao = Aoh ph e t = 1 1 c oh 1 e ds (5.5h)
2
2 ph At ft
po = ph 4ao (5.5c)
a b f A p
e = 1 1 c oh o 1 e ds (5.5i)
Based on the equilibrium of an element in the shear flow 2 ph DN
zone, shown in Fig. 5.2.1(b), the shear flow, q, in a box
section can be expressed in terms of the longitudinal rein- A trial-and-error process can be used to solve the eight
forcement force, DN, and the transverse reinforcement force, variables (q, ao, et, e, Ao, po, DN, and Atft) using Eq. (5.5a)
Atft. The longitudinal reinforcement force DN is assumed to through (5.5c), (5.5e), and (5.5h) through (5.5i). First, select
be distributed uniformly along the shear flow path po. Equi- a value of eds and assume a pair of forces, Atft and DN, from
librium Eq. (5.2.1a) through (5.2.1b) are simplified in three which the four variables q, ao, et, and e, can be calculated
respects: 1) for pure torsion, s = st = 0; 2) concrete tensile from Eq. (5.5e), (5.5g), (5.5h), and (5.5i), respectively.
stress is neglected, sr = 0; and 3) when no prestressing rein- Given the value of ao, the variables Ao and po can be calcu-
forcement is used, rp = rtp = 0. In the CFT, several approxi- lated from Eq. (5.5b) and (5.5c). Based on the values of et,
mate algorithms have been developed to plot the torque-twist e, and ed (related to eds by geometry), another q can be calcu-
curve using the equilibrium and compatibility relationships lated from Eq. (5.5a). If the q from Eq. (5.5a) is not equal
to the q from Eq. (5.5e), assume another pair of Atft and DN, This equation is valid for HSC up to 100 MPa (14.5 ksi).
and repeat the cycle until Eq. (5.5a) and Eq. (5.5e) produce As proposed by Belarbi and Hsu (1995), for NSC up to 42
the same q. MPa (6.0 ksi), z becomes
Once these eight variables are solved, the torque T can be
calculated from Eq. (5.5f) and the angle of twist, F, from 0.9
z= (5.6.2d)
Eq. (5.3.3). In Eq. (5.3.3), the curvature of the concrete 1 + 400 e r
struts, Y, can be obtained from Eq. (5.3.4a), where the neutral
axis depth td is equal to ao/b1, and eds is the chosen value. The
torque-twist response (T-versus-F curve) is then determined The softening coefficient z usually varies in the range of
by repeating these calculations for a series of eds values. 0.2 (0.045) to 0.6 (0.003).
5.6.3 Centerline of shear flow zone and formulas for Ao
5.6Softened truss model and poAs shown in Fig. 5.3.4(c), the resultant force of
5.6.1 GeneralThe softened truss model is built on satis- the compression stress block C is located at a distance k2td
fying the equilibrium Eq. (5.2.1a) through (5.2.2), the compat- from the surface, where the coefficient k2 defines the loca-
ibility Eq. (5.3.1a) through (5.3.4b), the stress-strain materials tion of the resultant force C. By integrating the concrete
relationships in Eq. (5.4.1a(a)) and (5.4.1a(b)) for concrete, stress-strain curve given in Eq. (5.4.1a(a)) and (5.4.1a(b)),
and Eq. (5.4.2a(a)) through (5.4.2b(b)) for reinforcement. the coefficient k2 is found to vary in the range of 0.40 to 0.45,
The properties of concrete stress block and shear flow zone depending on concrete strength. To simplify, the centerline
are derived from the softened stress-strain relationships of of the shear flow is assumed to coincide with the centerline
concrete. of the shear flow zone, located at a distance 0.5td from the
5.6.2 Concrete stress blockAs shown in Fig. 5.3.2, the extreme compression fiber. This assumption also results in a
diagonal concrete struts in the shear flow zone are subjected compatible agreement between theory and tests.
to axial stress and bending. The compressive strains in the Based on this simple centerline assumption of the shear
concrete struts are assumed to vary linearly from eds at the flow, formulas for calculating the lever arm area Ao and the
surface to zero at the neutral axis, as shown in Fig. 5.3.4(b). perimeter po for a thick tube, whose thickness is usually
The compression zone depth td is defined as the shear flow quite large with respect to the overall dimension of the cross
zone. The distribution of compressive stresses within the section and different from the thin tube assumption in CFT
thickness td is shown by the solid curve in Fig. 5.3.4(c), when the softening of concrete is considered, are
based on the softened stress-strain relationship shown in Fig.
5.3.4(e). The peak stress is zfc and the average compressive 1
Ao = Ac pc t d + t d2 (5.6.3a)
stress is sd. The average stress sd of the concrete stress block 2
in Fig. 5.3.4(c) can be expressed as follows
po = pc 4td (5.6.3b)
sd = zfc (5.6.2a)
When the softening coefficient z of concrete is consid-
where the coefficient k1 is the ratio of the average stress to ered, the shear flow zone thickness td is usually large with
the peak stress. By integrating the stress-strain curve in Eq. respect to the overall cross section dimensions. The formula
(5.4.1a(a)) and (5.4.1a(b)), the coefficient k1 can be expressed for calculating Ao, therefore, is expressed in Eq. (5.6.3a) and
should include the third term td2. The thin tube formula used
e ds 1 e ds e ds in the CFT (Eq. (5.5b)) is not used because it neglects the
k1 = 1 3 ze 1 (5.6.2b(a))
ze o ep ao2 term.
o
5.6.4 Solution algorithmThe 18 governing equations
for a torsional member are: four equilibrium, (Eq. (5.2.1a)
z 2 1 e ds z2 e ds 1 e ds through (5.2.2); seven compatibility, (Eq. (5.3.1a) through
k1 = 1
2
1 + 1
( 2 z) 3 ze o ( 2 z) ze o 3 ze o
2 (5.3.4b)); seven constitutive (Eq. (5.4.2a(a)) through
(5.4.3a(b)) and (5.6.2a) through (5.6.2d)).
e ds For a member subjected to pure torsion, the normal
>1
ep stresses sl and st acting on an element in the shear flow zone
(5.6.2b(b)) are equal to zero (sl = st = 0). When the concrete tensile
strength is neglected, sr = 0. Disregarding these three vari-
The coefficient k1 is tabulated as a function of eds and z in the ables (sl, st, and sr) in the analysis, the 18 equations contain
work by Hsu (1993), and equals approximately 0.8. The soft- 19 unknown variables as follows: seven stress or force vari-
ening coefficient was first proposed by Zhang and Hsu (1998) ables, including tlt, sd, fl, ft, flp, ftp, and T; 10 strain or geom-
as a function of tensile strain er and concrete strength fc etry variables, including el, et, glt, ed, er, q, F, Y, td, and eds;
and two material coefficients, including z and k1. If one of
5.8 1 5.8 the unknown variables is selectedfor example, edthen
z= 0.9
fc(MPa ) 1 + 400 e r and fc(MPa ) (5.6.2c) the remaining 18 unknown variables can be solved using the
18 equations.
Next, select the concrete strain ed as the independent vari- Equations (5.6.8a) and (5.6.8b) will facilitate solution
able because it varies monotonically from zero to maximum. procedures (5.6.9).
The solutions for a series of ed values make it possible to 5.6.9 Solution procedure and flow chartThe solution
trace the loading history. A solution algorithm is given by procedure is illustrated by a flow chart shown in Fig. 5.6.9.
Hsu (1993) and is briefly described. This method requires This solution procedure uses 12 equations, Eq. (5.4.2a)
the derivations of Eq. (5.6.5) through (5.6.8b). through (5.4.3b) and (5.6.2a) through (5.6.8b), to solve 12
5.6.5 Thickness td as a function of strainThe thickness unknown variables (z, k1, sd, f, ft, fp, ftp, e, et, er, eds, and
of the shear flow zone td can be expressed in terms of strain td) for each selected value of ed. From these stresses and
using the seven compatibility equations: Eq. (5.3.1a) through strains, the remaining six variables (q, tt, T, gt, F, Y) can
(5.3.4b). The substitutions and manipulations result in be calculated using the appropriate equilibrium or compat-
ibility equations. Selecting a series of ed values produces the
Ao ( e d ) ( e r e d ) entire loading history of the 18 variables. The efficiency of
td = (5.6.5) this solution procedure arises from the fact that the angle q
po ( e e d ) ( e t e d )
is eliminated in the expressions of Eq. (5.6.5) through (5.6.7)
and is, therefore, not involved in the iteration process of td.
The variable td is expressed in terms of strains in all d, r, In addition, the derivation of Eq. (5.6.6) and (5.6.7) allows
, and t directions (ed, er, e, et). The compressive strain is the iteration to include nonlinear stress-strain relationships
defined as negative and tensile as positive. The variable td (Eq. (5.4.3a) and (5.4.3b)) of prestressing strands, therefore
is also involved in equilibrium equations through the terms making this solution algorithm applicable to prestressed
Ao, po, r, and rt. Therefore, the variable td should first be concrete beams. A hand-calculation example illustrating
assumed and then checked by Eq. (5.6.5). this solution procedure is given by Hsu (1993). The STM
5.6.6 Longitudinal strain el as a function of longitudinal theory was used by Hsu and Mo (1983, 1985a) to calculate
stresses f, fpThe strain e can be related to the reinforce- the strength and behavior of 108 torsional beams. For the
ment stresses f and fp by eliminating the angle a from the 61 under-reinforced beams with stirrup spacings within ACI
equilibrium Eq. (5.2.1a) using compatibility equations (Eq. code limits, the experiment-to-calculated torsional strengths
(5.3.1c) to (5.3.4b)). These manipulations result in had a mean value of 1.014 and a standard deviation of 0.051.
The post-cracking deformations (angle of twist and strains
Ao ( e d ) ( s d ) in reinforcement and concrete) were also correctly evalu-
e = ed +
( A f + A f ) (5.6.6)
p p
ated. McMullen and El-Degwy (1985) compared the STM
(softened theory) and the CFT (spalling theory) using their
extensive torsion tests. They concluded that the space truss
The three unknown variables e, f, and fp can be solved model with softening of concrete gives a better prediction of
using Eq. (5.6.6) and the stress-strain relationships, Eq. maximum torque for the beams tested in this investigation
(5.4.2a), (5.4.2b), (5.4.3a), and (5.4.3b), for longitudinal (average Tu,exp/Tu,th = 1.03 and standard deviation = 0.091).
reinforcement. The space truss theory with spalling of concrete cover gave
5.6.7 Transverse strain et as a function of transverse an average Tu,exp/Tu,th of 1.10 and a standard deviation of
stresses ft, ftpSimilarly, the strain et can be related to the 0.129. McMullen and El-Degwy also observed that concrete
reinforcement stresses ft and ftp by eliminating the angle q cover spalled only after maximum torque was reached.
from equilibrium Eq. (5.2.1b) using the compatibility equa-
tions (Eq. (5.3.1b) through (5.3.4b)). 5.7Graphical methods
5.7.1 Rahals methodRahal developed a simplified
Ao s ( e d ) ( s d ) method for design and analysis of reinforced concrete panels
et = ed +
(
po At ft + Atp ftp (5.6.7)) subjected to pure shear (Rahal 2000a) and extended the
method to reinforced concrete beams subjected to torsional
moments (Rahal 2000b). The original method for calculating
The three unknown variables et, ft, and ftp can be solved shear relates the normalized ultimate shear strength vu/fc of
using Eq. (5.6.7) and the two stress-strain relationships, Eq. reinforced concrete panels to the reinforcement indexes wt
(5.4.2c) and (5.4.2d) and (5.4.3a) and (5.4.3b), for transverse and wL in the transverse and longitudinal directions, respec-
reinforcement. tively. The reinforcement indexes are given by
5.6.8 Useful compatibility equationsBy combining
compatibility Eq. (5.3.1a) and (5.3.1b), the two variables er and rt fty rl f l y
wt = ; wL = (5.7.1a)
q can be expressed directly in terms of strains e, et, and ed as fc fc
e r = e + e t e d (5.6.8a)
Figure 5.7.1 gives the relationship between the indices and
the normalized shear strength obtained using the results of
e + ed the modified CFT (Collins and Mitchell 1991). Each curve
tan 2 q =
e t + e d (5.6.8b)
American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Materialwww.concrete.org
REPORT ON TORSION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (ACI 445.1R-12) 27
At fty po
wt = (5.7.1b)
0.42 sAcp fc
A f y + Aps f py
wL = (5.7.1c)
0.375sAcp fc
Acp2
Tu = 0.67 vu (5.7.1d)
pcp
Fig. 5.7.1Normalized shear strength curve for reinforced
concrete members (Rahal 2000a).
In contrast to the STM and CFT, Rahals method is used
to calculate approximate strength only and not the entire
perimeter, and therefore can be applied to closed sections of
torque-twist relationship. Equations (5.7.1b), (5.7.1c), and
various shapes.
(5.7.1d) depend on the gross area and outer cross section
5.7.2 Leu and Lees MethodLeu and Lee (2000)
proposed a graphical solution to the STM. Their strength
76 11, 000
hb = (fy in MPa) or hb = (f in psi)
200 + f y 30, 000 + f y y
(5.7.2c)
76 11, 000
htb = (fy in MPa) or htb = (f in psi)
100 + f y 15, 000 + f y y
(5.7.2d)
h
wL = (5.7.2e)
h b
ht
wt = (5.7.2f)
htb
Fig. 6.3.3eObserved and calculated lateral curvature in Fig. 6.4aTorsion-axial compression interaction in rein-
sections subjected to combined torsion and shear (Rahal forced concrete (tests from Bishara and Peir [1968]). (Note:
and Collins 1995a). 1 in.-kip = 0.113 kNm.)
dashed lines show that available theoretical models capture the descending branch plotted in Fig. 6.4a demonstrate suit-
this phenomenon. ability to capturing the behavior of Bisharas tests. The results
provided (Bishara and Peir 1968), however, were less conser-
6.4Torsion and axial load vative than experimental results from prestressed beams
Elements subjected to combined torsion and compressive without stirrups tested by Humphreys (1957) and Zia (1961).
forces, N, include bridge piers under gravity and horizontal The square root factor in Eq. (6.4a) was labeled the
loads, and prestressed concrete beams subjected to torsion. prestressed factor by Hsu (1968b). He showed that this
Cracked spandrel beams subjected to torsion tend to elon- prestressed factor can be derived theoretically from an
gate. Columns and walls restraining the elongation induce element subjected to shear and compression, assuming
beam compression acting in combination with the compat- the principal tensile stress reached the tensile strength of
ibility torsion and other stress-resultants. Though the combi- concrete. The prestressed factor can also be derived from the
nation of torsional moment (T) and axial force (N) can be skew-bending theory of a beam in pure torsion. To ensure
critical in design for these cases, it has not been adequately best fit with the test results, the constant 12 in the prestressed
studied, particularly in experimental research on nonpre- factor was reduced to 10, resulting in Eq. (6.4b).
stressed elements and combined torsion and axial tension.
Lack of adequate studies is due to the relative rarity of this 1 + 10 ( s fc) (6.4b)
combination compared with others discussed. Torsion tests
on concrete beams subjected to various prestressing levels
simulate conditions similar to those of reinforced concrete The torsional strength based on a 45-degree angle of
beams subjected to combined torsion and axial compres- the compression diagonals and spalled dimensions of the
sion. Experimental results on members without stirrups by section described previously is 2.1 kNm (18.6 in.-kip)38
Humphreys (1957) and Zia (1961) showed trends similar to percent of experimental strength. This strength is increased
those observed by Bishara and Peir (1968), which are given to 4.62 kNm (40.9 in.-kip)84 percent of experimental
in Fig. 6.4a. A drop in torsional strength beyond the trans- strengthif unspalled dimensions are used. For prestressed
formation point was clear only in Zias tests on prestressed members, ACI 318 allows a 37.5 degrees value for the
concrete beams subjected to torsion. Humphreys reported angle of the compression diagonals, leading to a strength
a 170 percent increase in torsional strength and Zia a 190 of 6.05 kNm (53.3 in.-kip). This value, which is plotted
percent increase in torsional strength due to prestressing. in Fig. 6.4a, remains considerably smaller than the experi-
Based on their experimental findings, Bishara and Peir (1968) mentally observed maximum torque of 17.2 kNm (151.9
recommended Eq. (6.4) to calculate an increase in torsional in.-kip) acting in combination with a compressive stress of
strength in the presence of an axial compressive load approximately 0.65fc. The general procedure for the torsion
and shear design method in AASHTO (1998) specifications
s accounts for the effect of compression and prestressing on
T = To 1 + 12 (6.4a) torsional strength.
fc
Figure 6.4a shows calculations for the AASHTO LRFD
method (general method) based on unspalled dimensions,
The descending part is taken as a line joining the transfor- which are more likely for small concrete cover (19 mm [0.75
mation point (defined as the point at s = 0.65fc and Tu = 3To) in.]) used in Bishara and Peirs (1968) tests. Although this
and pure compression strength. Results from Eq. (6.4) and method underestimates an increase in torsional strength at
Fig. 6.5cCrack pattern and failure mechanism for a beam loaded in combined torsion,
shear, and flexure (Elfgren 1979).
American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Materialwww.concrete.org
REPORT ON TORSION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (ACI 445.1R-12) 39
Fig. 7.2.1.4cTesting of spandrel beams under lateral sway (Pantazopoulou and Moehle 1990).
the column (location of maximum torsion in the elastic anal- 7.2.4 Existing code statusIn ACI 318, a flexural moment
ysis) would reduce the torsion affecting the spandrel beam. redistribution formula has been maintained since 1971.
7.2.2 Design benefits from torsion redistributionPlastic In 1977, ACI 318 introduced the torsional limit design,
hinges and moment redistribution permit full strength use allowing the torsional plastic hinge to have a torsional shear
of the strength of the flexural members cross section. With stress of 0.33 fc MPa (4 fc psi). Alternatively, Section
torsion, elastic analysis typically results in high torsional 8.6.1 of ACI 318-77 specifies that any set of reasonable
moments, which in turn require both stirrups and longitu- assumptions can be used for computing relative torsional
dinal reinforcement beyond minimum requirements. Torsion stiffnesses of structural elements. Commentary indicates
redistribution can reduce design torsional moments, allowing that member stiffnesses should reflect the degree of cracking
for more economical designs. and inelastic action occurring along the member length
7.2.3 Disregarding structural torsionAlthough one
before yielding. The stress limit of 0.33 fc MPa (4 fc
common practice is to ignore spandrel beams torsional stiff-
psi), however, has been extended to prestressed and nonpre-
ness and similar members under gravity loads, effectively
stressed members subjected to an axial tensile or compres-
assuming full torsional redistribution, it is also common to
sive force in the subsequent editions, including ACI 318-11.
disregard spandrel beams torsional moments resulting from
In commentary Section 8.6.1 of ACI 318-77, in the case of
wind or earthquake actions. Sections 7.2.4 through 7.2.6
compatibility torsion (torsion not required to satisfy equilib-
address codes, experimental evidence, and discussions of
rium), torsional stiffness can be disregarded. Section 8.6.1
their limitations.
commentary effectively permits up to 100 percent torsional
American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Materialwww.concrete.org
42 REPORT ON TORSION IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (ACI 445.1R-12)
Fig. 7.2.5.1aSeries A (Hsu and Burton 1974). (Note: 1 in.-kip = 0.113 kNm; 1 kip =
4.45 kN.)
Fig. 7.2.5.1bSeries B (Hsu and Burton 1974). (Note: 1 in.-kip = 0.113 kNm; 1 kip =
4.45 kN.)
these two specimens closely matched the design assump- load increased significantly, almost doubling, at the same
tion of 52 percent torsional redistribution. Specimens A5 torsion value until failure. Failure occurred at a load far
and B3 were designed for 100 percent or complete torsion below design strength, indicating that the design assumption
redistribution, as implied in ACI 318 commentary. As shown for torsion redistribution was invalid. Figures 7.2.5.2a and
in Fig. 7.2.5.1a and 7.2.5.1b, torsion resisted at the joint 7.2.5.2b show the torque-versus-measured twist deformation
stayed constant after cracking occurred. After cracking, the for Series A and B, respectively. Both figures support conclu-
Fig. 7.2.5.2aSeries A torque-twist relationship (Hsu and Burton 1974). (Note: 1 in.-kip
= 0.113 kNm; 1 in. = 0.0254 m.)
Table 7.2.5.3Maximum crack width at service increase may be within the measurement tolerance. Speci-
load mens B1 and B2 had the same crack widths. These tests indi-
Design torsion Maximum crack cate that significant torsion redistribution can be performed
Specimen redistribution, % width, in. (mm) without affecting serviceability. Nevertheless, the results
A1 0 0.004 (0.10) were not sufficient to support firm conclusions.
A3 52 0.005 (0.13) Following Hsu and Burtons (1974) approach, Hsu and
A5 100 Hwang (1977) tested T-shaped specimens with short span-
B1 0 0.005 (0.13) drel beams to study the moment distributions between floor
B2 52 0.005 (0.13) beam and spandrel in the case of high shear-to-torsion
B3 100 ratio. They found that the torsional limit design method
can be applied to spandrel beam end regions, adjacent to
the columns, where high shear stresses are combined with
sions similar to those previously mentioned. Specimens A1 torsional moments. As a result, the torsional limit design
and B1 exhibited high ductility, as indicated by the torque- was added to ACI 318-77 code. Torsional hinge moment was
twist relationship. Specimens A3 and B2 exhibited a twist
calculated based on a torsional shear stress of 0.33 fc in
angle 50 percent greater at failure than that of Specimens A1
and B1, which roughly corresponds to the designed torsion MPa (4 fc in psi). Conclusions reached by Hsu and Burton
redistribution. Specimens A5 and B3, designed for 100 (1974) were validated by Abul Mansur and Rangan (1978),
percent torsion redistribution, exhibited far lower twisting who conducted experiments on seven beams with configu-
ductility. In fact, both specimens failed at 0.3 103 degrees/ rations shown in Fig. 7.2.5.3. In a related set of experi-
mm (8 103 degrees/in.), far less than the angles exhibited ments, Abul Mansur and Rangan (1978) studied the effect of
by Specimens A1 and B1. applying a concentrated load directly on the joint. This work
7.2.5.3 Cracking service loadHsu and Burton (1974) showed that applying a concentrated load in this fashion did
defined service load as one-half the ultimate design load or not affect torsion redistribution results, which were gener-
actual ultimate test load, whichever was larger. Table 7.2.5.3 ally in agreement with Hsu and Burtons work (1974).
shows the maximum crack widths measured at the service 7.2.6 Factors affecting torsion redistributionSection or
load for specimen Series A and B. No crack width readings member ductility is a primary factor affecting permissible
were recorded while testing Specimens A5 and B3 because redistribution. With flexure, ACI 318-95 relates ductility
these two specimens failed prematurely. to the amount of longitudinal reinforcement present in the
A comparison of Specimens A1 and A3 shows that section. A similar torsional ductility reinforcement ratio
maximum crack widths increased only slightly for the 52 would be appropriate, accounting for transverse and longi-
percent torsional redistribution assumption. This slight tudinal reinforcement areas coupled with torsion support
Fig. 7.2.5.2bSeries B torque-twist relationship (Hsu and Burton 1974). (Note: 1 in.-kip
= 0.113 kNm; 1 in. = 0.0254 m.)
Fig. 7.3.1aTypical L-shaped spandrel beam (Lucier et al. 2007). (Note: 1 in. = 0.0254 m.)
tribution in an indeterminate system, whereas in precast 4. Reinforcement requirements on the inside face and
structures, the torsional effect is more severe and connec- outside face may be considered separately; shear increases
tion details can significantly affect the torsional behavior the required reinforcement on the inside face and decreases
of structural members (Klein 1986; Raths 1984). The ACI it on the outside face.
torsion design procedure produces design results compa-
rable to those offered by the Zia-Hsu method (Prestressed 7.4Torsion limit design
Concrete Industry (PCI) 1999), which was updated based 7.4.1 Basic concepts of limit designThere are two
on the Zia-McGee method (PCI 1978) developed from the fundamental limit design theories (Gvozdev 1938, 1960;
tests of small laboratory specimens. The aspect ratio of their Melan 1938; Horne 1949; Lubliner 1990):
component rectangles rarely exceeded 1:3, in contrast to 1. Lower-bound approach
large precast members such as L-shaped spandrel beams. 2. Upper-bound approach
Large spandrel beams may develop plate-bending action in The lower-bound approach requires a stress field that
addition to torsion, and therefore behave differently from the satisfies equilibrium everywhere and that does not violate
small laboratory specimens. The Zia-Hsu method has been appropriate yield conditions or material failure criterion at
calibrated by two tests (Klein 1986) of full-size members any location.
with support conditions similar to those used in practice. The classic example of lower-bound approach is the truss
Torsion behavior of slender spandrel beams in these tests model in which a stress field is assumed and the ultimate
was much different from compact beams. Spandrel beams strength is calculated accordingly. For members made of
showed no signs of cover spalling or stirrup debonding, for plastic materials (those that satisfy the basic theory of plasticity
which closed stirrups are required. End region behavior of assumptions), the resulting ultimate strength is easily proved to
slender precast spandrel beams is dictated by connection provide a conservative, lower-bound solution to the true ulti-
details. Upper horizontal reaction prevents torsional rotation mate strength of the structural member under consideration.
and causes out-of-plane web bending. Vertical shear force In the upper-bound approach, a strain field or failure
from the reaction is carried across the same diagonal crack. mechanism is developed that does not violate strain compat-
Out-of-plane bending caused by horizontal forces is essen- ibility conditions or appropriate yield conditions and that
tially the same as bending produced by a concentrated load does not exceed material failure criterion at any location.
or reaction in the corner of a structural slab. Tests conducted A classic example of the upper-bound approach is the
by Logan (2007) and by researchers at North Carolina State yield line theory of slabs in which a failure mechanism is
University (Lucier et al. 2007; Hassan et al. 2007) confirmed assumed and the ultimate strength is calculated accordingly.
that out-of-plane bending dominates torsional response in For members made of materials satisfying basic theory of
slender spandrel beams. Lucier et al. (2007) evaluated the plasticity assumptions, the resulting ultimate strength can
need for closed ties in slender spandrel beams using full- easily be proved to provide an upper-bound, or unconserva-
scale tests. Twelve precast spandrel beams, each nearly 14 m tive, solution to the true ultimate strength of the structural
(15.3 yd) long, were tested to failure in the laboratory. End member under consideration. Exact solutions are obtained
regions of the beams were designed for plate-bending and if the results of the upper-bound and lower-bound solutions
shear, with and without closed ties. Several beams failed in are identical.
flexure or ledge punching. The ledge punching failures were The advantage of applying either the lower- or upper-
primarily due to interaction with global tension and shear bound approach lies in their simplicity. Relaxation of either
forces in the ledge. Beams with reinforcement to prevent equilibrium or strain compatibility conditions in solving the
such flexure and ledge failures failed due to combined torsion governing equations significantly simplifies the solution
and shear. All torsion/shear failures occurred just inside the procedure. There are, however, disadvantages:
bearing reaction along a failure plane inclined at an angle of 1. The potential exists for large over- or under-estimation
approximately 45 degrees. Although the beams with closed of true ultimate strength; and
ties performed somewhat better, all of the beams sustained 2. No information is provided for important quantities,
test loads well in excess of their calculated nominal strengths. such as deflections and rotations at service or failure load
These test results suggest that slender spandrel beams can be limit states; these are quantities that require classical deflec-
designed based on the following four principles: tion analysis considering all conditions of equilibrium,
1. Torsion acting on the 45-degree failure plane can be compatibility, and constitutive relations governing the mate-
divided into plate-bending and twist components, each equal rial behavior.
to Tu/2. Research in limit design faces the following challenges:
2. Plate-bending component of torsion requires equal 1. The appropriate stress or strain field needs to be derived
amounts of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement evenly and validated from ultimate strength calculations that are
distributed over the height of the beam. neither too conservative nor too unconservative for the cases
3. The twist component of torsion is resisted by out-of- of lower and upper bounds, respectively.
plane shear stresses, which are greatest near the sections top 2. Parameters should be developed for the stress or strain
and bottom, as predicted by Saint-Venants equations and the field such that optimization techniques can be used to achieve
soap bubble analogy. Closed ties are required only where realistic lower and upper ultimate strength estimations.
the concrete section cannot safely resist the twist component.
Here, x and y are the shorter and longer overall rectangular For any selection of angle g1 or g2, the resulting ultimate
cross section dimensions, respectively, and fc is the charac- load provided a lower-bound solution to the true ultimate
teristic concrete cylinder compressive strength. As an alter- strength of the stair. The most realistic estimate of ultimate
native, the value of To can be set by the designer. This condi- load is obtained when the ultimate load in Eq. (7.4.2.2b) is
tion will result in an equation to solve the redundancies. maximized, or when
3. To obtain the other (nR 1) equations, introduce (nR
1) known quantities in the stress-resultant field. For this w w
purpose, the position of inflection points and the maximum = 0 and = 0 (7.4.2.2c)
g 1 g 2
values of any stress resultants other than the torsional
moment can be assumed. All or some of these can then be
used to obtain the required (nR 1) equations. Substituting Eq. (7.4.2.1) and (7.4.2.2a) through (7.4.2.2c)
4. The above nR equations can be solved simultaneously, into the equilibrium equations for the helical stairs and
and the resultant stress field is completely formulated. proceeding with additional mathematical derivations
7.4.2.2 Helical stair exampleRangan et al. (1978) (Rangan et al. 1978), an equation for the ultimate helical
applied the four steps (7.4.2.1) to the design of a helical stair strength was provided as a function of the stair dimen-
stair with fixed support, subject to uniformly distributed sions and the characteristic concrete cylinder compressive
strength fc.
np np
F( z ) = Bo + Bn sin z + Bn cos z (7.5.2c)
n =1 L n =1 L
where Bo, Bn, and Bn are constant in the Fourier series expan-
sion of a beams curvature under warping.
Both the Saint-Venant torsion (1856) and warping torsion
Fig. 7.5.2Typical B-F curve (Hwang and Hsu 1983). expressed the basic governing equation for mixed torsion as
walled open section, warping torsional resistance predomi- T ( z ) = GC( z ) F (z ) EJ w F (z ) (7.5.2d)
nates and the Saint-Venant torsional resistance does not
occur. Past research has usually ignored secondary warping
phenomenon (Vlasov 1961; Zbirohowski-Koscia 1968), The solution for Eq. (7.5.2d) was calculated using matrix
mainly due to the mathematical difficulties encountered in notation, which is discussed in Hwang (1978). Before
formulating this type of torsional resistance and the very cracking, the GC and EJw terms are constants for any given
narrow thickness of metal structures. The wall thickness of section and the solution is easily identified. After cracking,
reinforced concrete open sections, however, is often substan- however, both GC and EJw vary as functions of the load
tial compared with overall cross-sectional dimensions. level, making it essential to employ a trial-and-error proce-
Therefore, this secondary warping may play a less signifi- dure to obtain the solution for mixed torsion (Hwang 1978).
cant role in reinforced concrete structures. Krpan and Collins (1981a) also developed an analytical
The torsional behavior of a homogeneous elastic member procedure using Vlasovs theory and incorporating CFT
with a thin-walled open section is predicted by Vlasovs to predict the elastic pre- and post-cracking response of
theory. The theory was later generalized by Hwang (1978) to thin-walled reinforced concrete beams. The post-cracking
predict the torsional behavior of inelastic reinforced concrete response was categorized as either a cracked elastic response
members with open sections in the post-cracking stage. The or an inelastic warping torsion response. The authors recom-
mathematical formulation proposed by Hwang (1978) and mended using the post-cracking section properties rather
Hwang and Hsu (1983) is given Eq. (7.5.2a). than the uncracked elastic when analyzing the overall struc-
7.5.2 Consideration of warping torsion-formulation ture values to achieve a more accurate assessment of the
Applying the concept of sectorial area, Vlasov (1961) actual force distributions in the structure.
derived the basic equation for warping torsion, which relates 7.5.3 Experimental verificationTo verify the proposed
the warping torque Tw to the third derivative of the rotation solution, Hwang and Hsu (1983) designed two reinforced
with respect to z, F concrete beam specimens with open sections and tested their
torsional behavior. The results were used to evaluate the
Tw = EJwF (7.5.2a) Fourier Series method proposed for mixed torsion analysis.
A comparison of experimental and predicted data revealed
The quantity EJw is used to characterize rigidity of the that the Saint-Venant torsional resistance had to be modified
beam subjected to warping torsion. The term Jw is called the by certain empirical factors, as addressed in Hwang (1978).
sectional moment of inertia and is calculated by applying Incorporating these modification factors into the Saint-
procedures summarized by the original work of Vlasov. Venant torsional portion, they found that a mixed torsion
Integrating Eq. (7.5.2a) results in the equation analysis using the Fourier Series method predicted with
reasonable accuracy both the pre- and post-cracking stages
B = EJwF (7.5.2b) of the T-F curves of the two tested specimens.
Figure 7.5.3 shows test results and analytical predictions for
where B is the integral of Tw. a thin-walled reinforced concrete specimen tested by Krpan
A typical B-F curve is shown as a solid line in Fig. 7.5.2. and Collins (1981b). That work indicated that to accurately
This B-F curve can be constructed by a method proposed predict the strain in transverse reinforcement, it was necessary
by Hwang (1978) and Hwang and Hsu (1983) based on a to account for the interaction between Saint-Venants torsion
bimaterial model. A point on the curve signifies a certain load and warping torsion. Test results obtained by the authors,
level. At the specific load level, the slope of a straight line shown as numbered points in Fig. 7.5.3, were compared with
connecting this point with the origin is defined as the post- analytical predictions made according to the method proposed
cracking warping rigidity. The presence of an end diaphragm by Krpan and Collins (1981a). Figure 7.5.3 shows these
provides a warping restraint, which is considered in their results and confirms the ability of the developed analytical
model by incorporating an applied bidirectional moment. method to predict measured torque and twist. This method
also accurately predicted the elastic pre- and post-cracking
Fig. 7.6aNominal torsional failure strengths of beams with rectangular cross section and various sizes. Left: plain
concrete beams. Right: longitudinally reinforced concrete beams without stirrups (Baant and Sener 1987). Top: test
data of Humphreys (1957). Middle: data of Hsu (1968a) and of McMullen and Daniel (1975). Bottom: Data on micro-
concrete beams tested by Baant et al. (1988).
Good reinforcement detailing is required to ensure that the a longitudinal bar at the corners. Enclosure of the longitudinal
hoop and longitudinal reinforcement can develop their yield reinforcement by the transverse reinforcement provides the
strength to resist circulatory shear flow. necessary equilibrium at the joint in the three principal direc-
Good detailing demands consideration of the interaction tions, where the three-dimensional force flow is equilibrated.
between the member longitudinal and transverse reinforce-
ment. Although each member type brings about different 8.2Transverse reinforcement
detailing conditions, the designer should be mindful of this 8.2.1 GeneralOnce proportioned for torsion and shear, the
overall force interaction in the member. Transverse reinforce- transverse reinforcement is laid out at a specific longitudinal
ment, oriented either horizontally or vertically, should contain spacing along the member span. The objective of transverse
Fig. 7.6bPlain and longitudinally reinforced microconcrete beams tested by Baant et al.
(1988) and the typical mode of torsional failure.
reinforcement for torsion and shear is to provide the reinforce- member cross sectionstirrups are provided in a closed rect-
ment around the perimeter to enclose the member core. Typi- angular shape to encase the rectangular member core. The
cally, this reinforcement has a smaller diameter than the longi- hooks of the closed stirrup are developed into the core with
tudinal reinforcement due to spacing, placement, bending, 135-degree bends. These bends ensure the hooks are well-
and proportioning needs. The transverse reinforcement should anchored to the member core and prevent hook pullout under
enclose the perimeter as closely as possible while maintaining high torsional loads. Figure 8.2.1a provides an example of a
clear cover requirements. A closed stirrup is imperative for simple rectangular closed stirrup.
torsional detailing. In the simplest casea basic rectangular
Other common examples of cast-in-place member types supplemental ties or stirrups developed back into the rectan-
subject to torsional loads are shown in Fig. 8.2.1b. The key gular core of the individual member.
to providing transverse reinforcement in a member subject As shown in Fig. 8.2.1c, good detailing usually dictates that
to torsion is to start with the largest rectangular cross section additional ties or stirrups reinforce any protrusions. These
and provide a rectangular closed stirrup in that section. Alter- ties also have a semi-closed detail with 135-degree or greater
nately, multiple-leg configurations can also be used for this hooks developed into the core, which is the region enclosed
purpose with single or multi-leg pieces or bar layouts to rein- by the closed stirrup shape. In addition to the closed stirrups
force the cross section. Any protrusions, apertures, ledges, and longitudinal bars shown in Fig. 8.2.1b and 8.2.1c, local
corbels, or other geometric outcroppings are provided with reinforcement in the disturbed regions or D-regions should
accommodate specific load concentrations. To be effective in
any size member subjected to torsion, spacing between the
closed ties should not exceed about one-half of the smallest
dimension of the member, except for slender precast span-
drel beams, such as those used in parking structures. In these
members, torsional forces cause out-of-plane bending in the
web. As described in 7.3, limited testing of such members
has not shown signs of spalling or stirrup debonding for
which closed stirrups are required. In load tests, slender
precast spandrel beams have performed exceptionally well
without closed ties. The current state of practice on spandrel
beam behavior is contained in a recent study at North Caro-
lina State University (Lucier et al. 2010).
8.2.2 Hooks and development considerationsStirrups
or ties are best terminated with 135- or 180-degree bends.
Hooks should be developed into the main core of the
member, where greater confinement is present. This detail
is important in isolated members, where hook confinement
is only provided by the member core, and no other external
geometric conditions provide confinement. Practical consid-
erations might dictate the use of simpler stirrup geometry,
Fig. 8.2.1aA typical closed stirrup usually employing 90-degree hooks. When 90-degree hooks
used in a simple rectangular cross are used, confinement should be provided at locations where
section. a slab frames into the beam side or elsewhere as needed.
Fig. 8.2.2aRecommended two-piece closed single and multiple U-stirrups for members
subjected to torsion (ACI Committee 315 2004).
Fig. 8.2.2bIneffective closed stirrup types for members subjected to torsion (ACI
Committee 315 2004).
8.4Detailing at supports
Precast concrete members require other special detailing
considerations due to their horizontal support conditions.
Torsional forces in precast members are often equilibrated
by out-of-plane, horizontal, or sometimes vertical, reactions
at discrete locations along the member depth. The member
end conditions and subsequent details are highly dependent
on the support configuration.
Figure 8.4 illustrates a common precast spandrel beam
and the horizontal force couple that is typically developed
at the end. Additional reinforcement is thereby required at
Fig. 8.4Support detailing requirements in a precast the member end near the top to accommodate a potential
spandrel member, dependent on the support connection 45-degree crack that typically develops at the end location
locations (Raths 1984). due to the couple resisting torsion, as shown in Fig. 8.4(a)
and 8.4(b). A possible reinforcement scheme to address this analogy provides the basic concept for torsion design assuming
condition is shown in Fig. 8.4(c) and 8.4(d). Similar condi- that the tension contribution in concrete is neglected and the
tions often exist in other precast members due to their specific diagonal compression struts spiraling around the member
support and horizontal restraint conditions. Although these with variable inclined angle that depend on the loading condi-
are D-region locations, they are complicated by the three- tion and reinforcement ratio. The bending moment and longi-
dimensional or out-of-plane nature of the problem. tudinal forces due to torsion and shear are considered resis-
tant to four chords, one in each corner of the space truss and
CHAPTER 9DESIGN EXAMPLES the shears by the shear flows in the walls. Dimensions of a
9.1Torsion design philosophy cross section are limited to prevent crushing of the diagonal
Design philosophy for torsion in the ACI 318-11 building compression struts. In addition to this AASHTO LRFD
code is based on a thin-walled tube, space truss analogy in method (general method), CSA-23.3-04 provides a simplified
which compression diagonals wrap around the tube and the method for a restricted group of structural members, which
tensile contribution of concrete is neglected. Both solid and states that the inclined angle of diagonal concrete compres-
hollow members are considered tubes in accordance with sion strut is fixed at 35 degrees.
Saint-Venants circulatory shear flow pattern both before and
after cracking. The outer part of the cross section centered 9.2Torsion design procedures
along the stirrups is assumed to provide torsional resistance. 9.2.1 Torsion design in ACI 318-11According to Saint-
The contribution of core concrete cross section is neglected. Venants circulatory shear flow pattern, the most efficient
Once a reinforced concrete beam has cracked in torsion, the cross section to resist torsion is tube-shaped. Therefore,
torsional resistance is provided primarily by closed stirrups torsion of a reinforced concrete member is a three-dimen-
and longitudinal bars located near the members surface and sional (3-D) problem because it involves the shear in a
diagonal compression struts. The inclined angle of the diag- reinforced concrete two-dimensional (2-D) wall element of
onal compression struts is permitted to be taken as 45 degrees a hollow tube and the out-of-wall bending of the concrete
for nonprestressed and lightly prestressed members, and 37.5 struts. In ACI 318-11, two simplifications are made. First, the
degrees for most prestressed members. Accordingly, ACI concrete strut bending is neglected and the amount of hoop
318-11 makes the specific assumptions in torsion design that: steel required in the tube determined from Bredts (1896)
a) Concrete tensile strength in torsion is neglected equilibrium equation of a cross section
b) Torsion has no effect on the shear strength of concrete
c) Torsion stress determination is based on the closed thin- qy = Tu/2Ao (9.2.1a)
walled tube with uniform stress distribution and specific
thickness, called shear flow where the symbol qy is the shear flow at yield (N/mm [lb/
d) The torsional, flexural, and shear strength are accounted in.]); Tu is the torsional moment (Nmm [in.-lb]); and Ao
for by adding longitudinal reinforcement calculated for [mm2 (in.2)] is the lever arm area enclosed by the centerline
torsion and flexure of the shear flow.
e) The longitudinal reinforcement are calculated for Second, the hoop and longitudinal steel are assumed to
torsion and shear yield at ultimate strength. To design steel reinforcement in
The design of torsional resistance in Section 6.3 of a 2-D shear element, it is possible to use only three equilib-
EC2-04 is also based on a truss model using the thin-walled rium equations (Hsu 1993). Combining the three equations
closed section theory with an effective wall thickness. creates a simple equation for yield shear flow
The angle between the concrete compression strut and the
members longitudinal axis, q, may be taken between 22 q y = ( At f y / st )( A f y / s ) (9.2.1b)
and 45 degrees. Both the solid and hollow cross section can
be modeled by an equivalent hollow section neglecting the
core concrete contribution to calculate the torsional resis- where fy is yield stress of hoop steel and longitudinal steel
tance, which is limited by the strength of the concrete struts. (MPa [psi]); At, A are area of hoop steel and longitudinal
The longitudinal and transverse reinforcement contributions steel (mm2 [in.2]), respectively; and st, s are spacing of hoop
to torsional resistance are accounted for after the thin-wall steel and longitudinal steel (mm [in.]), respectively. Substi-
cracks. Effects of combined torsion and shear may be super- tuting the shear flow qy into Bredts (1896) equation gives
imposed assuming the same value for the strut inclination
angle. The required longitudinal and transverse reinforce- Tu = 2 A0 ( At f y / st )( Al f y / sl ) (9.2.1c)
ment for torsion should be added to the existing longitudinal
reinforcement for bending and transverse reinforcement for which is the essence of the ACI code provision.
shear, respectively. The lever arm area Ao (mm2 [in.2]) is formed by sweeping
The Canadian code (CSA-A23.3-04) provides a General the lever arm of shear flow one full circle around the axis
Design Method for torsion derived from the modified of twist. The centerline of shear flow was taken by Rausch
compression field theory (CFT) and represents solid cross (1929) to be the centerline of the hoop steel bar, and the
sections by an equivalent thin-walled tube with a wall thick- corresponding lever arm area is denoted as Aoh (mm2 [in.2]).
ness determined by cross section dimensions. The space truss
However, this definition of area Aoh was found to overesti- by an equivalent hollow section from which the torsional
mate the torsional strength by as much as 30 percent. There- resistance is calculated. Complex shapes, such as T-sections,
fore, the ACI code provides a simple, approximate formula can be divided into a series of subsections modeled as an
for calculating the lever arm area as equivalent thin-walled section, and the total torsional resis-
tance taken as the sum of the capacities of each individual
Ao = 0.85Aoh (9.2.1d) element. The effects of combined torsion and shear for both
hollow and solid members can be superimposed assuming
To provide a more accurate formula for the ultimate the same value for the strut inclination angle q.
torsional strength, consider the softening of concrete struts A common value for angle q is 45 degrees. Eurocode 8
in the reinforced concrete 2-D wall elements of a tube. Under (EN 1998-1:2004) determines that: In the critical regions
a biaxial tension-compression stress condition, the compres- of primary seismic beams, the strut inclination q in the
sive stress-strain curve of the 2-D elements should be multi- truss model shall be 45 degrees (Paragraph 5.5.3.1.2(2)
plied by a softening coefficient. This softening coefficient of EC2-08). However, in members not designated to resist
is a function of the principal tensile strain (Zhang and Hsu seismic actions, a reduced value of angle q could be consid-
1998) and varies from approximately 0.25 to 0.50. Applying ered to decrease the required transverse reinforcement and
this softened stress-strain curve of concrete to the study of required longitudinal reinforcement. This way, fewer stir-
reinforced concrete tubes under torsion (Hsu 1990, 1993), rups and more longitudinal bars could be provided. Required
the thickness td (mm [in.]) of the shear flow zone and lever torsional reinforcement is added to the required stirrups and
arm area can be determined as bars calculated from the shear and flexural design, respec-
tively. Strength of materials used in EC2-04 is based on
t d = 4Tu / Acp fc characteristic values and depend on whether the value is
(9.2.1e) used for strength or stiffness. The characteristic value used
Ao = Acp (2Tu pcp / Acp fc)
to calculate strength corresponds to the 95 percent fractile
of strength from material tests. The characteristic value for
where Acp is the area enclosed by the outer boundary of cross stiffness corresponds to mean strength from material tests.
section (mm2 [in.2]); and pcp is the periphery of the outer Design values are based on multiplying the characteristic
boundary (mm [in.]). These formulas are given in the ACI value for resistance by the safety factors a and b.
code commentary, and the background was given in a paper Design procedure in accordance with EC2-04:
by Hsu (1997). - Step 1: Calculation of the equivalent thin-walled section
9.2.2 Torsion design in EC2-04Section 6.3 of EC2-04 characteristics such as tef, Ak, and uk (also refer to Fig. 6.11
requires a full design procedure for a reinforced concrete of EC2-04 for notation)
member under torsion covering both ultimate and service-
ability limit states in cases where the static equilibrium of tef = A/u 2c and, in the case of a hollow section, tef < treal
the structure depends on torsional resistance of the elements.
In conventional statically indeterminate reinforced concrete where
structures, torsion arises from consideration of compat- tef = effective wall thickness of the equivalent thin-
ibility and it is normally unnecessary to consider torsion walled section [mm (in.)]
at the ultimate limit state. However, even if torsion arises A = total area of the cross section within the outer
from consideration of compatibility only, it may lead to circumference, including inner hollow areas (for
excessive cracking in the serviceability limit state. There- example, A = bh in a rectangular cross section with
fore, a minimum reinforcement of stirrups and longitudinal width and height equal to b and h, respectively)
bars should be provided to prevent excessive cracking, as [mm2 (in.2)]
indicated in EC2-04 for cracking control (Section 7.3) and u = outer circumference of the cross section (for
detailing beams (Section 9.2). example, u = 2(b + h) in a rectangular cross section)
In normal slab-and-beam or framed structures, specific c = distance between edge and center of the longitu-
calculations for torsion are usually unnecessary when dinal reinforcement (centroid cover) [mm (in.)]
torsional cracking is being adequately controlled by shear treal = real thickness of a hollow section [mm (in.)]
and minimum flexural reinforcement. Where torsion is Ak = area enclosed by the centerlines of connecting
essential for equilibrium of the structure, EC2-04 should be walls, including inner hollow areas (for example,
consulted. One example of this is when structure arrange- Ak = (b tef)(h tef) in a rectangular cross section)
ment is such that loads are imposed mainly on one face of a [mm2 (in.2)]
beam without corresponding rotational restraints provided. uk = perimeter of the area Ak (for example, uk = 2(b +
The design of torsional resistance moment is based on a h 2tef) in a rectangular cross section)
truss model using a thin-walled closed section theory with - Step 2: Assume the value of angle of compression struts,
inclined angle q between the concrete compression strut and q, based on the expression: 1 cotq 2.5 (45 degrees q
the beam axis. The angle q should be limited and recom- 22 degrees). For combined shear and torsion, the same value
mended limits are: 1 cotq 2.5 (45 degrees q 22 of q should be assumed and the common value is 45 degrees.
degrees). With a solid section, the section can be modeled
- Step 3: Check the maximum resistance of the member - Step 4: Calculation of the required cross-sectional area
subjected to torsion and shear. This is limited by the strength of the longitudinal reinforcement for torsion, SAs:
of the concrete struts. If the following relationship is not
satisfied, the member cross section dimensions, the concrete TEd uk cot q
compressive strength, or both, should be increased As = (9.2.2f)
2 Ak f y d
TEd V
+ Ed 1 (9.2.2a) where fyd is the design yield stress of the longitudinal rein-
TRd.max VRd.max
forcement [MPa (psi)].
Notes: The longitudinal reinforcement for torsion should
where be added to the required longitudinal reinforcement for
TEd = design torsional moment [Nm (in.-lb)] flexure. The longitudinal reinforcement should generally be
TRd.max = design torsional resistance moment according to distributed over the length of side, zi, (zi is the side length of
the following relationship [Nm (in.-lb)] wall i defined by the distance between intersection points
with the adjacent walls [refer to Fig. 6.11 of EC2-04]), but
TRd,max = 2vacwfcdAktefsinqcosq (9.2.2b) for smaller sections it may be concentrated at the ends of this
length. According to EC2-04 provisions (Section 9.2.3(4)),
VEd = design shear force [N (lb)] longitudinal bars for torsion should be arranged such that
VRd.max = maximum design shear resistance according to the there is at least one bar at each corner, with the others being
following relationship [Nm (in.-lb)] distributed uniformly around the inner periphery of the links,
with a spacing not greater than 350 mm (14 in.).
a c bw zvfcd - Step 5: Calculation of the required cross-sectional area
VRd , max = (9.2.2c)
(cot q + tan q) of the transversal reinforcement for torsion
Asw TEd
bw = width of the web of the cross section [mm (in.)] = (9.2.2g)
z = inner lever arm, for a member with constant depth, s 2 Ak f ywd cot q
corresponding to the bending moment in the element
under consideration. In the shear analysis of rein- where
forced concrete without axial force, the approximate Asw = cross-sectional area of the transversal reinforce-
value z = 0.9d may normally be used (d is the effec- ment (stirrups) [mm2 (in.2)]
tive depth of the cross section) [mm (in.)] s = spacing of the stirrups [mm (in.)]
v = strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in fywd = design yield stress of transversal reinforcement
shear, recommended values (values for use in a [MPa (psi)]
country may be found in its National Annex): Notes: The transversal reinforcement for torsion should
be added to the existing transverse reinforcement for shear.
v = 0.6(1 fck / 250) [ fck in MPa] The torsion links (stirrups) should be closed and anchored
(9.2.2d)
v = 0.6(1 fck / 36.26) [ f y in ksi]] by means of laps or hooked ends and form an angle of 90
degrees with the axis of the structural element. Refer to Fig.
9.6 of EC2-04 for recommended shapes. According to provi-
acw = coefficient taking into account the state of compres- sions of EC2-04 (Section 9.2.3(3)), longitudinal spacing of
sive stress the torsion stirrups should not exceed u/8, or the require-
ments about the maximum longitudinal spacing between
1 non-prestressed shear assemblies (Section 9.2.2(6) of EC2-04) or the lesser
1+ s / f 0 < s cp 0.25 fcd
cp cd dimension of the beam cross section.
a cw = (9.2.2e) - Step 6: Check the value of the angle of compression
1.25 0.25 fcd < s cp 0.5 fcd
struts, q, based on the calculated and provided longitudinal
2.5(1 s / f ) 0.5 fcd < s cp fcd
cp cd and transversal reinforcement from Steps 4 and 5
in design only if the torsion due to factored loads, Tf [Nm The longitudinal strain ex is affected by the bending
(in.-lb)], exceeds 0.25Tcr. The cracking torque Tcr [Nm (in.- moment: shear, torsion, and if present, by axial load and
lb)] is assumed to be reached when the principal tensile stress prestressing in the member. In the presence of bending
fl [MPa (psi)] (equivalent to the shear stress v in pure torsion) moment, shear, and torsion, the strain at mid-depth of the
equals the factored tensile strength of the concrete, fcr [MPa section, ex, is computed from the expression
(psi)]. For the calculation of Tcr, the following assumptions
are made: e x = ( M f / d + V f2 + [0.9 ph T f / 2 Ao ]2 ) / (2 Es As ) (9.2.3f)
- Solid cross sections are represented by an equivalent
thin-walled tube with a wall thickness [mm (in.)]
where
tc = 0.75Ac/pc (9.2.3a) Mf = moment due to factored loads [Nm (in.-lb)]
Vf = shear force due to factored loads [N (lb)]
- Bredts classical equation for tubular section applies ph = perimeter of the centerline of the closed transverse
[MPa (psi)] reinforcement [mm (in.)]
Es = modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement [MPa (psi)]
v = Tf/(2Aotc) (9.2.3b) As = area of flexural reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member [mm2 (in.2)]
- Area enclosed by shear flow path [mm2 (in.2)] q = 29 + 7000ex (degrees)
For a given angle q, the transverse reinforcement to resist the
Ao = 2/3Ac (9.2.3c) factored torque Tf is derived from equilibrium and given by
Table 9.2.4Comparison of torsion design procedures for ACI, EC2, and CSA codes
Pure torsion design procedure ACI 318-11 EC2-04 CSA-A23.3-04
Section 11.5.1, Section 11.2.9.1, Eq. 11-2
2
2
f A A c
c cp 0.38lf c
Tcr = fc [ fc in MPa ]
Determine the factored torsional Tu < fl c p c
[ f in MPa ]
12 p cp
1 moment and if torsion effects can be
2
disregarded A cp
2
Tu < fl [ fc in psi ] A c
fc Tcr = 0.38lf 12 f [ f in psi ]
c c c
p cp p c
Section 6.3.2(1)
Eq. 6-26 and 6-27
Calculate properties of the equivalent
2 A / p c
TEd
thin-walled section t ef = max t r t ef =
2c t
2 Ak VEd = t t t ef z
,
Section 11.5.3.1,
Eq. (11-18) and Section 11.2.1.1, Eq.
(11-3)
Tu ph Vc 2 fc
2
f + [ fc in MPa ]
1.7 Aoh bw d 3 Section 6.3.2(4)
Section 11.3.10.4,
Eq. 6-29 and 6-30
2l fc Eq.11-19
Determine if dimensions of the cross pure torsion
Vc TEd VEd
3 = [ fc in MPa ] + 1 TEd <= TRd,max 2 2
w v oh
TRd , max = 2na c fcd Ak t ef sin q cos q
Tu ph V c
2 c c
f + 8 f [ f in psi ]
1.7 A b d
oh
w
Vc
= 2l fc [ fc in psi]
bw d
Calculate the amount of stirrups Section 11.3.10.3,
required for pure torsion 11.3.8.1, and 11.3.6.4
Eq.11-1, 11-12, 11-13, and 11-17
Av bw
Section 11.5.3.5,
Section 6.3.2 (2) and 9.2.3
= 0.06 fc [ fc in MPa ]
Eq. (11-20) and Section 11.5.3.6, s min fyv
Eq. (11-21) transformed into Eq. 9.5N
v
f A bw
c
12 s min
fyv
s f 2 fyt Ao cot q
and Section 11.5.5.2, Eq. (11-23) can be rt = 0.08 fc / fyk [ fc in psi ] q = 29 + 7000 e x
4 ( )
Select and check the stirrups details expressed by 2
and Eq. 9.6N Mf 2 0.9 p T h f
for the cross section A t
0.75 fc bw + (Vf Vp ) + + 0.5 N f Ap f po
= [ fc in MPa ] u/8
dv 2 A o
s min
2 12 fyv ex =
2[ E s As + E p Ap ]
smax = min 0.75d (1 + cot a )
At 0.75 bw
= fc [fc in psi] min(b , h ) At Tf
w
s
2
min
f yv
s 2 Ao f s fy cot q
0.7 d v
smax = min
63
Section 11.5.3.7,
Calculate the longitudinal bars At fyt 2
required for pure torsion Al = ph cot q
s fyl Section 6.3.2(3) and 9.2.1 Section 11.3.10.6 and 11.3.9.2, Eq. 11-14
Eq. (11-22):
Tu uk cot q and 1-21 can be transformed into
5 fc Acp A t
f yt Al 2
fctm
and Section 11.5.5.3, A , min = 0.26 bt d 0.45 ph Tf
Select and check the longitudinal bar = cot q
Eq. (11-24) fyk 2 Ao
details for the cross section and Eq. 9.1N
5 fc Acp At fyt
A ,min = ph [ fc in psi ]
fyl s
fyl
g
f p fcp
< fl (1.5 A )
Determine if torsion effects can be 12 pcp Tcr = 0.38lf c fc 1 + [ fc in MPa ]
3 pc 0.38lf c fc
disregarded
2
2
A cp (1.5 A )g
f p fcp
Tu < fl fc [ fc in psi ] Tcr = 0.38lf c 12 fc 1 + [ fc in psi ]
pc 0.38lf c 12 fc
p cp
Section 11.2.1.1,
Eq. (11-3), Section 11.3.2, Eq. (11-9),
and Section 11.5.3.1, Eq. (11-18)
Vc 2l fc
= [ fc in MPa ]
bw d 12
Vc
= 2l fc [ fc in psi ]
bw d Section 6.3.2(4)
Eq. 6-14, 6-29, and 6-30 Section 11.3.10.4,
f c
V d u TEd VEd Eq. 11-18
Determine if dimensions of the cross + 700(0.00689) a c bw zvfcd
c w c
V = 0.6 l b d [ f in MPa ]
4 12 VRd , max = + 1
u
M Vf Vp Tf
section are adequate ( cot q + tan q) TRd , max VRd , max + 0.25f c fc
Vu d bw d v 1.7 Aoh t
fc + 700 TRd , max = 2na c fcd Ak t ef sin q cos q
w
Vc = 0.6 l b d [ fc in psi ]
Mu
Tu ph Vc 2 fc
2
f + [ fc in MPa ]
1.7 Aoh b w
d 3
Tu ph V c
2
f +8 fc [ fc in psi ]
1.7 Aoh b d w
Shear resistance of concrete: Section
11.2.1.1, Eq. (11-3) and Section 11.3.2,
Eq. (11-9) The angle of diagonal compression strut:
Vc 2l fc Section 11.3.6.4, Eq. 11-12 and 11-13
= [ fc in MPa ] 2
Mf 2 h
0.9 p T f
bw d 12 + + 0.5 N A f
f p po
(Vf Vp ) +
, dv 2 A o
Vc ex =
= 2l fc [ fc in psi ] 2[ E s As + E p Ap ]
Design shear resistance of a member without shear reinforce-
bw d
ment: Section 6.2.2(1). If not adequate, At Tf
f c
V d Required shear reinforcement: Section 6.2.3(4); Eq. 6-13 and
u
c
V = 0.6 l + 700(0.00689) b d [ f in MPa ] w c 6-14 s 2 Ao f s fy cot q
12 M u
a c bw zvfcd
Required shear reinforcement: Section 11.4.7 VRd , max =
Av Vu fVc ( cot q + tan q) Vc = f c lb12 fc bw d v [fc in psi]
= Minimum shear reinforcement: Section 9.2.2(5);
s fdfyv 0.40 1300
Maximum effective cross-sectional area of the shear rein- b=
forcement: Section 6.2.3(3) 1 + 1500 e x 1000 + sze
Minimum shear reinforcement: Section
11.4.6.3, Eq. 11-13 Required shear reinforcement: Section
fc bw 11.3.5.1, Eq. 11-7 can be transformed into
Av , min = 0.75 [ fc in MPa ] Av Vs
12 fyt =
s f s fy d v cot q
bw
Av , min = 0.75 fc [ fc in psi]
65
f yt
66
Assume the angle of diagonal compres- Calculate the terms of the equivalent thin-walled section for
Required transverse reinforcement for torsion:
sion strut. Required transverse reinforce- torsion design: Section 6.3.2(1)
Section 11.3.10.3, Eq. 11-17 can be trans-
ment for torsion: Section 11.5.3.6 and Required transverse reinforcement for torsion: Section
Torsion design to determine transverse formed into
6 11.5.6, Eq. (11-21) transformed into 6.3.2(2)
reinforcement for torsion At Tf
At Tu Asw TEd
= s 2 Ao f s fy cot q
s f 2 Ao fyv cot q s 2 Ak fywd cot q
Fig. 9.3Design process flow chart for combined shear and torsion effects.
Tu ph 30 106 1280
= = 2.65 MPa (347.6 psi)
2
1.7 Aoh 1.7 92, 400 2
Fig. 9.4.1Rectangular
reinforced concrete
cross section subjected whereas
to pure torsion.
5 fc 5 20 2.80 MPa (403 psi)
fc Acp2 f = 0.75 =
Tu < fl 6 6
12 pcp
Because the expression in Eq. (11-18) (ACI 318-11) is
valid, the cross section dimensions are adequate.
where
3. Calculate the amount of stirrups required for pure
f = strength reduction factor for torsion and shear = 0.75
torsion (ACI 318-11, Section 11.5.3.3).
l = modification factor of lightweight concrete
To calculate transverse reinforcement for torsion, Eq.
(normalweight concrete, l = 1.0)
(11-20) and (11-21) in ACI 318 can be transformed into
pcp = perimeter of outer concrete cross section, mm (in.)
= 2 (bw + h) = 1600 mm (64.0 in.)
At Tu
Acp = total area enclosed by the outside perimeter of
concrete cross section, mm (in.) = bw h = 150,000 s f2 f yt Ao cot q
mm2 (240 in.2)
Therefore, where
f Acp2 20 150, 000 2 At = area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion
fl c = 0. 75(1. 0 ) 12 1600 Nmm s = spacing of the stirrups
12 pcp
fyt = design strength of torsion transverse reinforcement
= 3.93 kNm (36.3 in.-kip) = 420 MPa (60,000 psi)
Tu = 30.0 kNm (266 in.-kip). Ao = gross area enclosed by shear flow path = 0.85Aoh
Torsion effects must be considered. q = angle of compression diagonals in truss analogy for
2. Determine if dimensions of the cross section are torsion = 45 degrees
adequate (ACI 318-11, Section 11.5.3.1). Therefore,
Dimensions of the cross section are adequate if
30 10
6
At Tu
=
2
Vu Tu ph
2
V fc s f 2 fyt Ao cot q 0.75 2 420 0.85 92, 400 1
+
b d 1.7 A2 f b d + 8 12
c
At 0.35 bw 0.175 300 A = total area of the outside perimeter of the concrete cross
s = 2 f = 420
section
min yv
= bwh = 300 500 = 150,000 mm2 (240 in.2)
= 0.125 mm2/mm (0.005 in.2/in.) pc = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section
= 2(bw + h) = 2(300 + 500) = 1600 mm (64.0 in.)
The maximum spacing of the stirrups is given by (ACI c = distance between edge of member and center of the
318-11, Section 11.5.6.1) longitudinal reinforcement
= 50 mm (2.0 in.)
p /8 The area enclosed by the centerlines of the connecting
smax = min h = 160 mm (6.50 in.) thin-walls is calculated by
300 mm
Ak = (bw tef)(h tef) = 200 400 = 80,000 mm2 (124.0 in.2)
For stirrups 8 (ds = 8.0 mm [0.315 in.]), At = 50.3 mm 2
(0.078 in.2) and s 81 mm (3.20 in.). Select: s = 80 mm The perimeter of the area enclosed by the centerlines of
(3.15 in.). the connecting thin-walls is determined by
For stirrups No. 3 (ds = 9.5 mm (0.375 in.)), At = 71.0 mm2
(0.11 in.2) and s 115 mm (4.55 in.). Select: s = 110 mm
(4.50 in.).
( ) ( )
uk = 2 bw tef + h tef = 2(200 + 400)
4. Calculate the longitudinal bars required for pure torsion = 1200 mm (48.0 in.)
(ACI 318-11, Section 11.5.3.7).
Total longitudinal reinforcement for torsion (Al) (Eq. 2. Determine if dimensions of the cross section are
(11-22) in ACI 318) is calculated by adequate (evaluate the strength of concrete struts) (EC2-04,
Section 6.3.2(4)).
At f yt Dimensions of the cross section are adequate if (Eq. (6-29)
A = ph cot 2 q = 0.610 1280 1 1
s f y in EC2-04)
= 780.8 mm2 (1.18 in.2) TEd VEd
+ 1 pure
torsion
TEd <= TRd , max
TRd , max VRd,max
Minimum longitudinal reinforcement (Eq. (11-24) in ACI
318) is calculated by
where
5 fc Acp A fyt 5 20 150, 000 TEd = design torsional moment = Tu
A , min = = 0.610 1280 1
s
t
ph VEd = design shear force = Vu
12 fy fy 12 420
TRd, max = design torsional resistance moment
< 0 mm2 VRd, max = design shear resistance force
The design torsional resistance moment is given as (Eq.
Therefore, A = 780.8 mm2 (1.18 in.2) (6-30) in EC2-04)
At least one longitudinal bar is required in each stirrups
corner and bar spacing distributed around the perimeter of the TRd , max = 2 va c fcd Ak tef sin q cos q
closed stirrups is 305 mm (12 in.). Therefore, the number of
longitudinal bars is at least six and each bar requires780.8/6
where
= 130 mm2 (0.20 in.2).
v = strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in
For six longitudinal bars 14 (ds = 14.0 mm [0.551 in.]),
shear
Al = 6 153.9 = 923 mm2 (1.43 in.2).
= 0.6(1 fc/250) = 0.6(1 20/250) = 0.552 (fc in MPa)
For six longitudinal bars No. 5 (ds = 15.9 mm [0.625 in.]),
ac = 1 (for non-prestressed elements)
Al = 6 200 = 1200 mm2 (1.86 in.2).
q = angle of compression diagonals in truss analogy for
9.4.3 Solution according to EC2-04 code
torsion
1. Calculate the terms of the equivalent thin-walled section
1 cotq 2.5; assume q = 35 degrees
(EC2-04, Section 6.3.2(1)).
fcd = design compressive strength of concrete
Effective wall thickness is calculated by
= fck/gc = 20/1.5 = 13.3 MPa (1933 psi)
Therefore,
A / pc 150,000/1600 = 94 mm
tef = max = max
2 c 2 50 = 100 mm TRd , max = 2 va c fcd Ak tef sin q cos q
tef = 100 mm (4.0 in.) = 2 0.552 1 13.3 80, 000 100 sin 35 cos 35(10 6 )
= 55.2 kNm (513.4 in.-kip)
where TRd , max = 55.2 kNm (513.4 in.-kip) > Tu = 30 kNm (266 in.-kip)
Because the above expression is valid, dimensions of the 4. Calculate the longitudinal bars required for pure torsion
cross section are adequate. (EC2-04, Section 6.3.2(3)).
3. Calculate the amount of stirrups required for pure The total longitudinal reinforcement needed for torsion
torsion (EC2-04, Section 6.3.2 (2)). (SAl) is given as (Eq. (6-28) in EC2-04)
The amount of stirrups required is calculated using the
equation Tu uk cot q 30 106 1200 cot 35
A = A
2 Ak f yd 2 80, 000 365.2
At Tu
880 mm2 (1.37 in.2)
s 2 Ak f ywd cot q
Minimum longitudinal reinforcement is determined by
where (Eq. (9.1N) in EC2-04)
At = area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion
s = spacing of the stirrups fctm
fywd = design strength of transverse reinforcement A , min = 0.26 bt d 0.0013bt d
f yk
= fty/gs = 420/1.15 = 365.2 MPa (52,174 psi)
Therefore,
where
Tu 30 10
6 fctm = mean tension strength of concrete
= = 0.30fck2/3 = 0.3(202/3) = 2.21 MPa (319 psi)
2 Ak f ywd cot q 2 80, 000 365.2 cot 35
bw = mean width of tension zone = 300 mm (12 in.)
= 0.359 mm2/mm (0.014 in.2/in.) Therefore,
The ratio of the required transverse reinforcement is given = 185 mm2 (0.287 in.2)
by
Longitudinal bars are arranged with at least one bar at each
At A 0.359 corner of the stirrups and the others distributed uniformly
rt = a
= 90
rt = t = = 0.0012 around the inner periphery of the torsion links (closed stir-
sbw sin a sbw 300
rups) with a maximum spacing of 350 mm (13.8 in.). There-
fore, the number of longitudinal bars is at least six and each
where a is angle between the stirrups and longitudinal axis. bar requires 880/6 = 147 mm2 (0.23 in.2).
The ratio of the minimum stirrups is (Eq. (9.5N) in EC2-04) For six longitudinal bars 14 (ds = 14 mm [0.55 in.]), A
= 6 154 = 924 mm2 (1.43 in.2).
( )
rt = 0.08 fc / f yk = 0.08 20 / 420 = 0.00085 For six longitudinal bars No. 5 (ds = 15.8 mm [0.625 in.]),
A = 6 198 = 762 mm2 (1.88 in.2).
9.4.4 Solution according to CSA-A23.3-04 code
The maximum longitudinal spacing of the stirrups is given 1. Determine if torsion effects may be disregarded (CSA-
as (Eq. (9.6N) and Section 9.2.3(3) in EC2-04). A23.3-04, Section 11.2.9.1).
If the magnitude of the torsion, Tf, satisfies the following
u/8 expressions (Eq. (11-2) in CSA-A23.3-04), torsional effects
smax = min 0.75d (1 + cot a ) need not be considered
min(b , h )
w Tf < 0.25Tcr
1, 600 / 8 = 200
A2 A2
smax = min 0.75 450 = 338 = 200 mm (8.0 in.) Tcr = c 0.38lfc fc 1 +
f p fcp
= c 0.38lfc fc
pc 0.38lfc fc pc
300
For stirrups 8 (ds = 8.0 mm [0.315 in.]), At = 50.3 mm2 150, 000 2
= 0.38 1 0.65 20 Nmm
(0.078 in.2) and s 137 mm (5.40 in.). Select: s = 125 mm
1600
(5.0 in.).
For stirrups No. 3 (ds = 9.5 mm [0.375 in.]), At = 71 mm2 = 15.5 kNm (144 in.-kip)
(0.110 in.2) and s 194 mm (7.66 in.). Select: s = 180 mm
(7.1 in.). where
Ac = Acp = 150,000 mm2 (240 in.2)
T f ph
2
0.25fc fc 0.9 ph T f
1.7 Aoh 2 Ao 0.9 ph T f
ex = =
2 Es As 4 Es As Ao
With a concrete cover of 40 mm (1-1/2 in.) and 10M (No. 3)
stirrups (diameter 12 mm [1/2 in.]), the following calcula-
with Ao = 0.85Aoh = 0.85 84,860 = 72,130 mm2 (120 in.2)
tions/values apply
and the longitudinal reinforcement As = 413 mm2 (0.64 in.2)
(established in Section 6 of this example), the following is
Aoh = (300 2 46)(500 2 46) = 84,864 mm2 (141.0 in.2)
obtained
ph = 2[(300 2 46) + (500 2 46)] = 1232 mm (50.0 in.2)
0.9 1232 30 106
ex = = 0.00140
Therefore, 4 200, 000 413 72,130
At Tf Av bw 300
s = 0.06 fc f = 0.06 20 420
s 2 Ao f s f y cot q min yv
= 0.192 mm2/mm (0.00775 in.2/in.)
The maximum spacing of the stirrups is (CSA-A23.3-04, 1. Determine if torsion effects may be disregarded.
Section 11.3.8.1) The torsion effects can be disregarded if this expression is
valid: Tu 0.25fTcr
0.7dv
smax = min = 277 mm (11.2 in.)
600 mm Ac2 150, 000 2
Tcr = 0.328 fc = 0.328 20 Nmm
pc 1600
where = 20. 6 kNm (193.87 in.-kip)
dv = effective shear depth = max(0.9d, 0.72h) = max(396
mm, 360 mm) [(16.0 in., 14.4 in.)] The torque is disregarded if Tu = 30 kNm (266 in.-kip) is
For stirrups 10M (ds = 11.3 mm [0.444 in.]), At = 100 mm2 smaller than 0.25fTcr = 0.25 0.75 20.6 = 3.9 kNm (35.8
(0.155 in.2) s 210 mm (8.32 in.). Select s = 200 mm in.-kip). Torsion effects, therefore, must be considered.
(8.0 in.). 2. Calculate normalized shear stress and determine if size
For stirrups No. 3 (ds = 9.5 mm [0.375 in.]), 71.0 mm2 (At of cross section is adequate.
= 0.110 in.2) s 150 mm (5.89 in.). Select: s = 150 mm Shear stress in the walls of the cross section is calculated by
(5. 9 in.).
6. Calculate the amount of longitudinal bars required for Tu 30 106
pc 1600
pure torsion (CSA-A23.3-04, Section 11.3.9.2 and 11.3.10.6). v f 0.75
Total longitudinal reinforcement is calculated using the = = = 0.212
fc 0.67 Ac2 fc 0.67(150, 000)2 20
following equation (Eq. (11-21) and (11-14) in CSA-A23.3-04)
Table 9.4.6Summary of design solution of Example 1 using all five solution methods
Code Transverse reinforcement Longitudinal reinforcement
required: 0.61 mm2/mm (0.0227 in.2/in.) 780.8 mm2 (1.18 in.2)
2 2
minimum: 0.125 mm /mm (0.0042 in. /in.) 0 mm2 (0 in.2)
ACI 318
8/80 mm (No. 3 at 4.50 in.) 614 (6 No. 5)
provided:
0.625 mm2/mm (0.0244 in.2/in.) 923 mm2 (1.86 in.2)
required: 0.359 mm2/mm (0.014 in.2/in.) 880 mm2 (1.37 in.2)
2 2
minimum: 0.261 mm /mm (0.0103 in. /in.) 185 mm2 (0.287 in.2)
EC2-04
8/125 mm (No. 3 at 7.10 in.) 614 (6 No. 5)
provided:
0.402 mm2/mm (0.0155 in.2/in.) 924 mm2 (1.88 in.2)
required: 0.468 mm2/mm (0.0175 in.2/in.) 402 mm2 (0.61 in.2)
minimum: 0.192 mm2/mm (0.00775 in.2/in.)
CSA A23.3-04 Four 15M + two 10M
10M/200.0 mm (No. 3 at 5.90 in.)
provided: (6 No. 3 or 6 No. 4)
0.500 mm2/mm (0.0186 in.2/in.)
1000 mm2 (0.66 or 1.18 in.2)
required: 0.40 mm2/mm (0.0160 in.2/in.) 568.1 mm2 (0.92 in.2)
minimum:
Rahal (2000b)
8/120.0 mm (No. 3 at 6.50 in.) 612 (6 No.4)
provided:
0.417 mm2/mm (0.0183 in.2/in.) 678 mm2 (1.18 in.2)
required: 0.470 mm2/mm (0.019 in.2/in.) 615 mm2 (1.0 in.2)
minimum:
Leu and Lee (2000)
8/100.0 mm (No. 3 at 5.50 in.) 612 (6 No. 4)
provided:
0.503 mm2/mm (0.0200 in.2/in.) 678 mm2 (1.18 in.2)
Nondimensional balanced torsional strength is calculated Required reinforcement indexes (Fig. 5.7.2): w and wt
using Eq. (5.7.2g) For convenience, assume w = wt.
Referring to (Fig. 5.7.2), ws 0.73 w = wt 0.70.
140 140 Balanced normalized reinforcement ratios hb and htb are
Txub = ( f y in MPa ) = = 0.196
300 + f y 300 + 420 calculated by Eq. (5.7.2c) and (5.7.2d)
76
Balanced torsional strength Txub is determined by Eq. hb = (f in MPa) = 76
= 0.125
200 + f y y 200 + 420
(5.7.2h)
Tu f y A A
w s Txub w s 55.1 30 fs 0.73w hl 0.0868 0.0868 420 0.0861
f 0.75 fc Acp 20 150, 000
A 615 mm2 (1.0 in.2)
where
Tu = applied torsional moment = 30.0 kNm (266 in.-kip) At least one longitudinal bar is placed at each corner of
f = strength reduction factor for shear and torsion; the stirrups with the others distributed uniformly around
which is assumed to be the same as that in ACI 318 the inner periphery of the closed stirrups with a maximum
= 0.75ws = strength contour value (Fig. 5.7.2) spacing of 300 mm (12 in.), as indicated in ACI 318. There-
2. Calculate the longitudinal bars and stirrups required for fore, the number of longitudinal bars is at least six and each
pure torsion. bar requires 615/6 = 102.5 mm2 (0.17 in.2).
For six longitudinal bars 12 (ds = 12.0 mm [0.472 in.]), load, which consists of two truckloads located symmetri-
A = 6 113 = 678 mm2 (1.05 in.2). cally at a distance 3200 mm (10 ft 6 in.) from midspan. Each
For six longitudinal bars No. 4 (ds = 12.7 mm [0.500 in.]), axle load is taken as 24 percent of the crush live load (513.8
A = 6 127 = 762 mm2 (1.18 in.2). kN/4) with 100 percent impact and a maximum side shift
Required stirrups are calculated using Eq. (5.7.2b) of 914 mm (36.0 in.). The self-weight of the girder is 34.4
kN/m (2.36 kip/ft). The girder is also subjected to a superim-
f y At pcp posed dead load caused by the track rails weight, rail plinth
ht 0.1036 0.1036 pads, power rail, guard rail, cableway, acoustic barrier, and
fc Acp s
other permanent loads. At derailment, this superimposed
420 1600 At dead load is assumed to produce a uniform vertical load of
0.1036
20 150, 000 s 12.8 kN/m (0.88 kip/ft) and a uniformly distributed torque of
3.16 kN-m/m (0.71 ft-kip/ft). This torque is neglected in the
At
0.470 mm2/mm (0.019 in.2/in.) calculation because the magnitude of the distributed torque
s is small, and the torque is acting in a direction opposite to
the derailment torque.
Using ACI 318, the maximum stirrups spacing is calcu- 9.5.2 Solution according to ACI 318-11
lated to be 160 mm (6.3 in.). 1. Determine the factored forces for (ACI 318-11, Section
For stirrups 8 (ds = 8.0 mm [0.315 in.]) At = 50.3 mm2 9.2.1).
(0.08 in.2) and s 107 mm (4.2 in.) and it can be used: s = Factored dead and live loads
100 mm (4.0 in.). The load factor for live loads is taken as 1.6.
For stirrups No. 3 (ds = 9.5 mm [0.375 in.]) At = 71 The derailment load per axle is calculated by
mm2 (0.11 in.2) and s 151 mm (5.9 in.) and it can be used:
s = 150 mm (5.5 in.). 513.8
Pu,L = 16 2 = 411 kN/axle (92.4 kip/axle)
4
9.5Design Example 2: Prestressed concrete box
girder under combined torsion, shear, and flexure
The derailment torque per axle is calculated by
9.5.1 Design problem statement
9.5.1.1 Design problem descriptionDesign the shear and
torsional reinforcement of a box girder. A 3658 mm (12 ft) Tu,L = 16 513.8 2 0.914
wide and 1270 mm (4 ft 2 in.) deep box girder with over- 4
hanging flanges (Fig. 9.5.1.1(a)) was designed as an alterna- = 375.7 kNm/axle (277 ft-kip/axle)
tive to the double-tee girder in Dade County, FL (Hsu 1997).
The standard prestressed box girder is simply supported, 24.00 The load factor for dead loads is taken as 1.2.
m (79.00 ft) long, and prestressed with 64 strands at 1860 MPa The girder weight is calculated by
(270 ksi), 13.0 mm (1/2 in.), seven-wire strands as shown in
Fig. 9.5.1.1(b). Total prestress force is 6076 kN (1366 kips) wu,g = 1.2(34.4) = 41.3 kN/m (2.83 kip/ft)
after prestress loss. The design of flexural reinforcement is
omitted for simplicity. The concrete cover is 40 mm (1.5 in.), The superimposed dead weight is calculated by
and material strengths are normalweight concrete: fc = 48.0
MPa (7000 psi) and fy = 420 MPa (60,000 psi). wu,s = 1.2(12.8) = 15.4 kN/m (1.05 kip/ft)
9.5.1.2 Sectional properties
L = 24.00 m (79.00 ft) Factored shear, torque, and bending moment
h = 1270 mm (50.00 in.) The Vu, Tu, and Mu at 0.3L from the support are
d = 1016 mm (40.00 in.) at 0.3L from support Vu = (wu,g + wu,s)(0.2L) + 2Pu,L = (41.3 + 15.3) 0.2
t = 251 mm (9.88 in.) (average of stem width) 24.00 + 2 411 = 1094 kN (246 kips)
bw = 502 mm (20 in.) Tu = 2Tu,L = 2 375.7 = 752 kNm (554 ft-kip)
A = 1.523 106 mm2 (2361.4 in.2) Mu = 0.5(wu,g + wu,s)(L 0.3L)(0.3L) + 2Pu,L(0.3L)
I = 319.8 109 mm2 (768,336 in.4) = 0.5(41.3 + 15.4)(24.00 7.2) 7.2 + 2 411 7.2
yt = 516 mm (20.34 in.) = 9347 kNm (6922 ft-kip)
yb = 753 mm (29.66 in.) 2. Determine if torsion effects may be disregarded.
l = modification factor of lightweight concrete (l = 1.0) Check outstanding flanges
9.5.1.3 Loading criteriaThe standard girders are designed As indicated by Fig. 9.5.1.1(a), the parameter Acp2/pcp is
to carry a train of cars, each 22.86 m (75 ft 0 in.) long. Each determined by (disregard overhanging flanges)
car has two trucks with a center-to-center distance of 16.46 Acp = 1854 203 + 0.5(1854 + 1791) 1067 = 2.32 106
m (54 ft 0 in.). Each truck consists of two axles 1981 mm mm2 (3597 in.2)
(6 ft 6 in.) apart. The crush live load of each car is 513.8 kN pcp = 1854 + 1791 + 2 1270 = 6185 mm (243.5 in.)
(115.5 kip). The maximum web reinforcement amount was Acp2/pcp =(2.32 106)2/6185 = 8.70 108 mm3 (53,090 in.3)
obtained at section 0.3L from the support under a derailment Check threshold torque (ACI 318-11, Section 11.5.1)
Ag = 2.32 106 (1270 419)(1320) = 1.20 106 mm2 Assume a clear concrete cover of 40 mm (1.5 in.) and 13
(1855 in.2)(fTcr/4) mm No. 4 bars for web reinforcement
= Aoh = 0.5[(1854 93) + (1791 93)](1270 93)
= 2.04 106 mm2 (3177 in.2)
Ag2 f pc Ag2 6076 / A ph = (1854 93) + (1791 93) + 2(1270 93)
f(0.083)l fc 1 + = f(0.083)l fc 1 + = 5813 mm (229.5 in.)
pcp 0.33 fc pcp 0.33 fc
9754 7224
( ) e = (753 127) 508
2
1.20 106 6076 / 1523 6 9754
=0.75(0.083)(1.0) 48.0 1 + 10 = 496 mm (19.47 in.) at 0.3L from support
6185 0.33 48.0
d = yt + e = 516 + 496 = 1012 mm (39.81 in.) at 0.3L
= 276 kNm (202 ft-kip) < 752 kNm (554 ft-kip) from support
Factored torsional moment should be considered in design. d = 0.8h = 0.8 1270 = 1016 mm (40.00 in.) governs
3. Determine if dimensions of the cross section are bw = 2t = 2 251 = 502 mm (20.0 in.)
adequate (ACI 318-11, Section 11.5.3.1). bwd = 502 1016 = 510 103 mm2 (790 in.2)
Check cross section The interaction equation for hollow box sections is (Eq.
(11-18) in ACI 318-11)
752 (1000)
2
Ats Tu
Vu d = =
Vc = 0.6 0.083l fc + 700 0.0689
M w
b d, s ( )
f2 Ao f yv cot q 0.75 2 2.21 106 420 1.303
u
At 1 Av
+ = 0.414 + 0.5 2.043
Vc = (0.6 0.083(1.0) 48.0 + 700 0.00689 0.119) s 2 s
510 103 = 1.44 mm2/mm (0.0575 in.2/in.)
1000 = 469 kN (105.4 kip)
At 1 Av fc bw
s + 2 s = 0.375 12 f
Vc,min = 2 0.083l fc bwd min yt
= 0.259 mm2/mm (0.01 in.2/in.)
510 103 < 1.44 mm2/mm (0.0575 in.2/in.) OK
= 2 0.083(1.0) 48.0
1000 (Eq. (11-23) in ACI 318-11)
(Eq. (11-3) in ACI 318-11) Select two layers of 18 mm bars (No. 6 bars) in each
vertical wall at 305 mm (12 in.) spacing
= 587 kN (132.13 kip) governs
2 ( 254)
= 1.666 mm2/mm (0.0656 in.2/in.)
V 588 1000 (305)
f c + 8 0.083 fc = 0.75 + 8 0.083 48.0
bw d 510 103 > 1.440 mm2/mm (0.0575 in.2/in.) OK
The transverse reinforcement in the top wall should be fcr = 7000 + 1400 = 8400 psi (57.9 MPa)
added to the flexural reinforcement required in the top flange
acting as a transverse continuous slab. - Mean compressive strength (based on fcr)
5. Calculate number of longitudinal bars required.
Design of torsional longitudinal reinforcement (Eq. fcm = 57.9 MPa (8400 psi)
(11-22) in ACI 318-11)
- Characteristic compressive strength (MPa) (EC2-04,
A f yv Section 3.1.2(5))
A = t ph cot 2 q = 0.414 5813 1 1.3032
s f y fc = fcm 8 fck = 49.9 MPa (7240 psi)
= 4085.9 mm2 (6.46 in.2)
- Strength class for concrete according to Section 3.1.2
Check minimum limitation for At/s and A,min (Eq. (11-23) (Table 3.1) in EC2-04 corresponding to mean compressive
in ACI 318-11) strength
=
(
5 0.083 48.0 1.2 10 6
)
0.414 5813 1 Concrete tensile strength (EC2-04, Section 3.1.6 (2)
420 - Mean tensile strength
= 8215 2407 = 5808 mm2 (9.17 in.2) governs
ft = 0.3fc2/3 = 4.07 MPa (590 psi)
Select 36 16 bars (No. 5 bars) longitudinal bars
- Design tensile strength
A = 36 201 = 7236 mm2 (11.22 in.2) > 5808 mm2 (9.17 in.2)
fctk ,0.05 0.7 ft
fctd = a ct = 1 = 1.89 MPa (275 psi)
Arrangement of reinforcing bars gc 1.5
The arrangement of the reinforcing bars for torsion and shear
is summarized in Table 9.4.6. This reinforcement arrangement
could be conservatively used throughout the girder length. - Modulus of elasticity
9.5.3 EC2-04 code 0.3
9.5.3.1 Material properties f
Em = 22 cm = 37.28 GPa (5405 ksi) (EC2-04, Section
9.5.3.1.1 Concrete 10
Concrete compressive cylinder strength (EC2-04, Section
3.1.3, Table 3.1)
3.1.2 and 3.1.6)
- Specified compressive strength (The characteristic
Parabola-rectangle diagram for concrete under compres-
concrete cylinder compressive strength)
sion, as shown in Fig. 9.5.3.1.1 (EC2-04, Section 3.1.7)
fc = 48.0 MPa (7000 psi)
f pk 1860
f p,ud = = = 1617 MPa (234.78 ksi)
gs 1.15
n = 1.4 + 23.4
100
Strain at design yield strength
= 2.00 f pd
e c 2 = (2 + 0.085 ( fc 50) ) / 100
0.53
e p, yd = = 0.0074
Ep
= 0.0020
90 fc
4
- Structural class (XD3) = 4 + 2 (service life of 100 years) 9.5.3.4 Prestressed tendons requirements
1 (concrete class C45) = 5 Minimum longitudinal reinforcement (EC2-04, Section
9.2.1.1)
- Minimum cover with regard to durability
ft
cmin,dur = 50 mm (1.97 in.) (reinforcing steel) A = 0.26 bt d 0.0013bt d
f yk
= 60 mm (2.36 in.) (prestressing steel)
- Minimum cover where bt = 470 mm (18.5 in.) mean width of tension zone,
and d = 1172 mm (46.1 in.) distance from extreme top fiber
cmin = max(cmin,b; cmin,dur; 10 mm [0.39 in.]) to the centroid of the reinforcement.
= 50 mm (1.97 in.) for reinforcing steel Therefore,
= 60 mm (2.36 in.) for prestressing steel
A,min = 716 mm2 (1.1 in.2)
- Nominal cover
The area of the prestressed tendons is
cnom = cmin + 10 mm (0.39 in.)
= 60 mm (2.36 in.) for reinforcing steel AP = 64 99 = 6336 mm2 (9.82 in.2) As,min OK
= 70 mm (2.76 in.) for prestressing steel
9.5.3.5 Shear design
- Distance from center of longitudinal reinforcing bars to 9.5.3.5.1 Design shear resistance of a member without
extreme concrete fiber (cover from bars centroid) shear reinforcement (EC2-04, Section 6.2.2(1))
(
= 66 mm (2.56 in.) > cmin + 12 mm/2 (0.47 in./2)
VRd ,c = C Rd ,c k (100r fck )
1/ 3
)
+ k1s cp bw d vmin + k1s cp bw d
- Distance from center of prestressed tendons to extreme
bottom fiber (cover from tendons centroid) where
d = 517 + 494 = 1011 mm (39.8 in.) at 0.3L = 7.2 m
= 102 mm (3.94 in.) > cmin + 13 mm/2 (0.51 in./2) (23.7 ft) (9.5.1.1(b))
bw = 470 mm (18.50 in.)
9.5.3.3 Factored shear, torque, bending moment, and prestress CRd,c = 0.18/gc = 0.18/1.5 = 0.12
Factored shear force k = 1+ 200 d 2 k = 1.44
Vu = 1.4 (34.4 + 12.8) 0.2 24.0 + 1.5 (513.8/2) 2 Ap
r = 0.02 r = 0.0133
= 1089 kN (245 kip) bw d
N Ed Pt
Factored torsional moment s cp = = = 5.1 MPa (734.4 psi) (compressive)
Ac Ac
Tu = 1.5 (513.8/2)2 0.914 = 705 kNm (520 ft-kip) k1 = 0.15
vmin = 0.035k3/2fck1/2 vmin = 0.428
Factored bending moment Therefore
Mu = 0.5 1.4 (34.4 + 12.8) 0.7 0.3 (24.00)2 VRd,c = 698 kN (156.2 kip)
+ 1.5(513.8/2)(2 7.2) = 9561 kNm (7074 ft-kip)
Because
Prestress force at time t =
VRd,c < VEd = 1089 kN (245 kip),
Pt = 6076 kN (1366 kip) shear reinforcement must be provided
Total prestress losses 9.5.3.5.2 Minimum shear reinforcement (EC2-04, Section
9.2.2(5))
20 percent or w = Pt/Po = 0.80
The ratio of the minimum stirrups is
( )
Therefore, prestress force at time t = 0
rw,min = 0.08 fck f yk = 0.08 49.9 / (1.2 420) = 0.00113
Po = Pt/w = 7595 kN (1708 kip)
Therefore
Asw, S + T q = 45 degrees
2.18 mm2/mm (0.087 in.2/in.),
s
SAs 2943 mm (4.62 in.2),
q = 35 degrees q = 35 degrees
For two single-legged 10 stirrups, spacing is calculated Final selection of longitudinal bars (q = 35 degrees)
from shear and torsion
For 12 (0.47 in.) As = 113 mm2 (0.175 in.2).
q = 45 degrees
Due to uniform distribution and symmetry
s 72 mm (2.8 in.) < smax OK
4012 SAs = 4524 mm2 (7.0 in.2).
q = 35 degrees
The torsional longitudinal reinforcement is in addition
s 102 mm (4.0 in.) < smax OK to the prestressing tendons. Low values of angle q (q = 22
degrees) lead to a design with lower area requirements of
q = 22 degrees transverse reinforcement (10/175 mm) and higher area
requirements of longitudinal reinforcement (4016). High
s 178 mm (7.0 in.) < smax OK values of angle q (q = 45 degrees) lead to higher area require-
ments of stirrups (10/70 mm) and lower area requirements
Total selection (q = 35 degrees): two single-legged stir- of longitudinal bars (4010).
rups of 10/100 mm (diameter 0.39 in. at 4.0 in.). The selection of q = 45 degrees maximizes the concrete
9.5.3.6.5 Longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion strength components, such as VRd,max = 3945 kN and TRd,max
(EC2-04, Section 6.3.2(3)) = 5910 kNm. This value of angle q could be used when
Total longitudinal reinforcement for torsion (Eq. (6-28) in checking the adequacy of the cross section dimensions.
EC2-04) The following relationship between the strength of
concrete struts under torsion is satisfied
TEd uk cot q 705 106 5486 cot q
SAs SAs
2 Ak f yd 2 1.8 106 365 TEd V
+ Ed 1
TRd , max VRd , max
For
9.5.3.6.6 Arrangement of reinforcing barsTotal rein- The superimposed dead weight (with a load factor of 1.25)
forcement of the member with a hollow cross section under is calculated by
combined loading of prestressing, torsion, shear, flexure,
and axial force is depicted in detail in Fig. 9.5.3.6.6. wu,s = 1.25 12.8 = 16.0 kN/mm (1.10 kip/ft)
9.5.4 Design solution using CSA-A23.3-04 codeLoad
factors of the CSA-A23.3-04 code are used here to establish Factored shear, torque, and bending moment
the forces due to factored loads. These factors are 1.25 for At distance 0.3L from support, the following values are
dead loads and 1.50 for live loads. The cross-sectional area obtained
of the prestressing strands (fpu = 1860 MPa [270 ksi]) is 6336
mm2 (9.82 in.2), the effective prestressing force is 6076 kN Vu = (43.0 + 16.0)(0.2 24.00) + 2 385 = 1053 kN (237 kip)
(1366 kip), and the average prestress is 3.99 MPa (589 psi).
The concrete strength is 48.0 MPa (7000 psi), and the yield Tu = 2 352.3 = 705 kNm (520 ft-kip)
strength of the non-prestressed reinforcement is 420 MPa
(60,000 psi). Mu = 0.5(43.0 + 16.0)(24.00 7.2)7.2 + 2 385 7.2
= 9112 kNm (6759 ft-kip)
1. Determine the factored forces (CSA-A23.3-04, Annex C).
Factored dead and live loads
2. Determine if torsion effects can be disregarded (CSA-
The derailment load per axle is calculated by
A23.3-04, Section 11.2.9.1).
Threshold torque
513.8 For a hollow section with a wall thickness of less than
Pu,L = 1.5
4
2 = 385 kN/axle (86.6 ft/axle)
0.75Ac/pc (= 281 mm > 178 mm), torsion must be considered
if the torque due to factored loads, Tf, exceeds 0.25Tcr
The derailment torque per axle is determined by
(1.5 A )
2
g f p fcp
513.8 Tcr = 0.38lfc fc 1 +
Tu,L = 1.5 pc 0.38lfc fc
4
(2 0.914) = 352 kNm (259.8 ft-kip)
fc = resistance factor for concrete = 0.70 for precast The angle of inclination of the diagonal compression strut
concrete is given by the expression (Eq. (11-12) in CSA-A23.3-04)
fp = resistance factor for prestressing reinforcement =
0.90 q = 29 + 7000ex
fc = specified compressive strength of concrete = 48.0
MPa (7.0 ksi) In the absence of an axial load normal to the cross section,
fcp = compression stress in concrete due to effective the strain at mid-depth of the section is defined by (Eq.
prestress = 3.99 MPa (0.6 ksi) (11-13) in CSA-A23.3-04)
With this information, the following calculation can be made
2
Mf 0.9 ph T f
(1.5 1.20 10 ) 0.9 3.99 + (V f Vp )2 + Ap f po
2 Ao
6 2
Tcr = 0.38 0.70 48.0 1 + dv
6185 0.38 0.70 48.0 ex =
2[ Es As + E p Ap ]
= 1658 kNm (1216 ft-kip)
Because 0.25Tcr = 415 kNm (304 ft-kip) < 705 kNm (520 The terms not defined above are
ft-kip), torsion must be considered in the design. Mf = Mu = moment due to factored loads = 9166 kNm
3. Determine if dimensions of the cross section are adequate. (6761 ft-kip)
Check cross-sectional dimensions (CSA-A23.3-04, Section Ao = 0.85Aoh = 0.85 2.04 106 mm2 = 1.74 106 mm2
11.3.10.4) (2697 in.2)
For box sections with a wall thickness of less than Aoh/ph, Ap = area of prestressing reinforcement = 6336 mm2
the cross-sectional dimensions must satisfy the following (9.8 in.2)
criterion (Eq. (11-19) in CSA-A23.3-04) fpo = stress in prestressing tendons (may be taken as
0.7fpu = 1302 MPa [189.0 ksi])
V f Vp Tf Es = 200,000 MPa (29,000 ksi)
+ 0.25fc fc As = area of non-prestressed reinforcement in tension
bw dv 1.7 Aoh t
zone (assume fourteen 15M bars with 2800 mm2
(4.34 in.2)
where Ep = 190,000 MPa (28,000 ksi)
Vf = Vu = shear force due to factored loads = 1054 kN With this information, the following calculation can be
(237.2 kip) made
Vp = shear force due to prestressing factored by fp
= 0.9(6076)508/9754 = 284 kN (64.0 kip) 9112 106
2
0.9 5801 705 106
+ [(1054 284) 103 ]2 + 1302 6336
Aoh = [(1854 + 1791)/2 2 48)](1270 2 48) = 2.03 914 2 1.74 106
ex = = 0.00086
2(200, 000 2800 + 190, 000 6336)
106 mm2 (3142 in.2)
ph = (1854 96) + (1791 96) + 2(1270 96) = 5801
mm (228.4 in.) Therefore
Aoh/ph = 350 mm (13.8 in) > 178 mm (7.0 in.) for bottom
flange q = 29 + 7000 0.00086 = 35.0
> 235 mm (9.25 in.) for web
> 203 mm (8 in.) for top flange The shear force resisted by the concrete is (Eq. (11-6) in
dv = larger of 0.9d = 0.9 1016 = 914 mm and 0.72h = CSA-A23.3-04)
0.72 1270 = 914 mm (36 in.)
t = minimum wall thickness = 178 mm (7.0 in.) Vc = fc lb fcbw dv
Tu = torque due to factored loads = 705 kNm (520 ft-kip)
Therefore,
where (Eq. (11-11) in CSA-A23.3-04)
(1054 284) 103 705 106
+ 0.40 1300
235 2 914 1.7 2.03 106 235 b=
1 + 1500 e x 1000 + sze
= 2.66 MPa (386 psi) < 0.25 0.70 48.0 = 8.40 MPa
(1223 psi) OK
Because minimum transverse reinforcement is provided,
Because the web governs design, the above equation sze = 300 mm (12 in.)
was the web thickness t = 235 mm, not the bottom flange Therefore
thickness.
4. Calculate q and b (CSA-A23.3-04, Section 11.3.6.4). b=
0.40
1300
= 0.175
Angle of diagonal compression strut and shear resistance 1 + 1500(0.00086) 1000 + 300
of concrete
dv 2 Ao
Av Vs 405 103
= =
s f s f y dv cot q 0.85 420 914 cot 35.0 9112 106 405
2
0.45 5801 705 106
2
Design of transverse reinforcement for torsion (CSA- = 9969 + 1108 = 11,077 kN (2503 kip)
A23.3-04, Section 11.3.10.3)
The required transverse reinforcement for torsion is given Factored tension resistance provided by the prestressing
by (Eq. 11-17 in CSA-A23.3-04) reinforcement with fpr = 0.96fpu = 1786 MPa (259 ksi) (CSA-
A23.3-04, Section 18.6.2)
At Tu 705 106
= = F tr = f p Ap f pr = 0.9 6336 1786 10 3
s 2 Ao f s f y cot q 2 1.74 106 0.85 420 cot 35.0
= 10,184 kN (2290 kips)
= 0.40 mm2/mm (0.0160 in.2/in.)
The non-prestressed reinforcement required in tension
This amount of transverse reinforcement must be provided
zone is calculated by
in the top and bottom slabs.
Total transverse reinforcement in one web is calculated as
(11, 077 10,184)(103 )
As = = 2501 mm2 (4.26 in.2)
0.85 420
At Av = 0.40 + 0.87/2 = 0.835 mm2/mm (0.0338 in.2/in.)
+ These calculations indicate that fourteen 15M bars are
s 2s
required, providing As = 2800 mm2. This reinforcement is to
be distributed in the tension zone.
Because the compression due to moment is much greater
The selection of two 10M bars (Abar = 100 mm2) per web
than the tension due to torsion and shear, there is no need to
yields the following bar spacing
check the tension reinforcement required in the compres-
s = 2(100)/0.835 = 240 mm; select s = 225 mm (9.17 in.) sion zone.
9.5.5 Comparison of design solutions according to ACI
Minimum transverse reinforcement (CSA-A23.3-04, 318, CSA-A23.3-04, and EC2-04The required longitu-
Section 11.2.8.2) dinal and transverse reinforcement calculated using ACI
The minimum transverse reinforcement is established 318, CSA-A23.3-04, and EC2-04 is shown in Table 9.5.5.
with the maximum web thickness at the top of the web, bw = The longitudinal reinforcement (L Bars) given is the total
534 mm (21.0 in.) amount required for the entire cross section. The required
transverse reinforcement is given for the top wall (T-1
Bars), side walls (T-2 Bars), and bottom walls (T-3
min Av b 534
= 0.06 fc w = 0.06 48.0
420
Bars). The transverse reinforcement in the top wall should
s fy be added to the flexural reinforcement required in the top
= 0.528 mm2/mm (0.0212 in.2/in.) wall acting as a transverse continuous slab.
< 0.835 mm2/mm (0.0338 in.2/in.) Arrangement of reinforcing bars
Arrangement of the reinforcing bars for torsion and shear
For Tf > 0.25Tcr, max s = 0.35dv = 0.35(914) = 320 mm is shown in Fig. 9.5.5 and summarized in Table 9.5.5.
(12.6 in.) > 225 mm. (9.17 in.) OK The general location of longitudinal and transverse rein-
6. Calculate the longitudinal reinforcement. forcement in the section, which is shown in Fig. 9.5.5, is
based on all three design codes.
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