11/26/2017 TRANSLATINGINSTITUTIONSAND'IDIOMATIC'TRANSLATION

TRANSLATINGINSTITUTIONSAND'IDIOMATIC'TRANSLATION

[Thisisarevisedversion,writtenin1990,ofanarticleoriginallywrittenin1987andpublished,unrevised,
inMETAin1990.]

BrianMossop

Thisarticleconsiderstheroleoftranslatinginstitutions(companies,governments,newspapers,churches,
literarypublishers)indetermininghowatranslationisdonewhetheritwillberelatively'literal'orrelatively
'free',whetherthelanguagewillbeidiomaticorinnovative,whethertherewillbeachangeinlevelof
language,andsoforth.AttendingtotheroleoftheinstitutioninwhoseservicethetranslatorworkscanI
thinkcastfreshlightoncertainquestionsandcertaincommonassumptionsabouttranslation:Whatisa
mistranslation?Isthedefiningcharacteristicoftranslationthatitpreservesmeaningduringachangeof
language?Isthefunctionoftranslationtopromotecommunication?

Iwillbeparticularlyconcernedwiththenotionthattranslationsshouldbeidiomatic.By'idiomatic',Imean
thatthewordingsinthetargetlanguagearestatisticallynormalforthegenreoftext.Thusifoneistranslating
arecipe,oneusestheterms,phraseology,syntacticstructures,leveloflanguageandlayoutthataretypicalof
recipesinthetargetculture:languagethatwillbefamiliarandimmediatelycomprehensibletothereaders.0I
willsuggestwhytheidiomaticapproachtotranslationhascometobeusedinaninstitutionalsettingwith
whichIamfamiliartheCanadianGovernment'stranslationserviceandIwilllookatsometheoretical
implicationsofan'institutional'understandingofthetranslationprocess.

1.TheInstitutionalNatureofTranslation

1.1'BadTranslation'inNewspapers

Unidiomaticlanguage,arisingeitherfromtranslationorfromfailuretoeditquotationsofwordsspokenin
EnglishbypeoplewhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglish,isfrequentlyfoundindailynewspapersinCanada.
HerearesomeexamplesfromtheTorontoGlobeandMail:

(1)Yesterday,MrLaSalledeniedaccusationsfromcallersthatheisanopportunist,hadtakenpartin
"tractations"withQuebecJusticeMInisterMarcAndrBdard,andisrunningjusttokeepthePQinpower.
(14January1981)

(2)"The12jurorslistenedtotheproof,informedthemselvesofthefactsandwithstoodahailofemotion.I
amveryhappyformyclients."
(22October1984)

(3)ButtheQuebecpeople"mightnot,forreasonsmanyofwhichareconjunctional,wanttotakethatstep.
...It'snot,becauseQuebeckerswouldnotwanttopronouncethemselvesonthesovereigntyissue,thatit
(Quebec)isnotadistinctsociety,orapeople".(storyonaspeechbyformerQuebecJusticeMinisterPierre
MarcJohnsontoaUniversityofTorontoaudience,dateuncertain,punctuationasprintedintheTheGlobe)

(4)HisletterquotesMrsSauv...assayinginoneinterview:"Therewerepersonswhohadneitherthe
capacitynorthewillingnesstoadapttochange.Wethereforehadtodepartourselvesofthem".(19
December1980)

TheitemsIhaveitalicizedincludesomeratherextremeexamplesofunidiomaticlanguage:
(a)nonexistentwordsandexpressions:departourselvesofin(4)tractationsin(1),
(b)wordswhichexistbutarenonsensicalasused:conjunctionalin(3),

aswellassomelessextremecases:
(c)'fauxamis':proofin(2),afauxamiofFrenchpreuve,
(d)directrenderingsofFrenchsyntax:it'snotbecause...thatin(3),asyntacticcalqueofFrenchcen'estpas
parceque...que.
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Professionaltranslatorsareextremelyfondofcitingexamplesoftheformer,moreextremetype(which
obviouslycangiverisetoacompletebreakdownofcommunication),buttheywillalsorejectthesecond
type,evenifitdoesnotpresentanygreatdifficultyforreaders.Journalistswillbechargedwith'translating
thewords'ratherthanrenderingtheideasinidiomaticEnglishtheapproachthatisnowsoestablishedas
thecorrectwaytotranslate,ingovernmentandbusiness,andinschoolsoftranslation,thatitappearstobe
natural.Otherwaysoftranslatingareseenastheproductsofunenlightenedminds.

Ithinkmuchcanbelearnedif,insteadofsimplylabellingsuchexamples'badtranslation',weinsteadask:
whywasthetranslationdonethisway?Insomecasesanadequateanswerwillbethatthetranslatorwas
carelessorunqualified,orwasnotgivenenoughtime,orhadinadequatedocumentation.Butoftenitwillbe
necessarytolookdeeper,becauseinfactthereisnothingnaturalaboutidiomatictranslation,evenifweare
consideringonlysocalled'pragmatic'texts(thosenotreceivedinthecultureas'literary').Wetendtoseeas
naturalthatmodeoftranslationwhichhasbeenselectedbytheinstitutionwithinwhichwework.

Translationisoftendescribedasaformofcommunicationbetweenthesourcetextauthororthetranslator
andthereaderofthetranslation,butinactualitythetranslationofwrittentextsisnotprimarilyamatterof
communicationbetweenindividualsassuch,orevenindividualsasrepresentativesofcultures.WhenI
translateatext,itisnotsimplymepersonallyconveyingtoareaderwhatsomeoneelsewroteinFrench.
Translation,likemostotherformsofwriting,takesplacewithinaninstitutionalsettingandcanonlybe
understoodwithinthatsetting(Williams1981ch.2Mossop1988).

Itmayappearthatthelevelofformalityortechnicalityofthelanguageinatranslationisdecidedbythe
translator,afteranexaminationoftheleveloflanguageinthesourcetextandadeterminationofwhothe
readerswillbeandtheusetowhichthetranslationwillbeput.Butacasecanbemadethatsuchdecisions
aretoagreatextentpredeterminedbythegoalsoftheinstitutionwithinwhichthetranslatorworks.

Injournalistictranslation,someofwhatislabelled'badtranslation'isindeedaresultofbadtechnique
(failingtoconsiderthelargerpatternofmeaningwhenworkingonaparticularwordorphrase).Bad
translationinnewspapersisalsoinpartamanifestationofalargercarelessnessinjournalisticwritingtoday
thatinvolveseverythingfrompunctuation,spelling,wordchoiceandsentencestructuretobackground
researchandthepresentationofacoherentnarrativeorargument.0Butnotall'badtranslation'in
newspapersarisesfromcarelessnessoruntrainedtechnique.Someofitmerelyoffendsthedoctrineof
idiomatictranslation,adoctrinewhichmaynotbesuitedtothegoalsofthenewspaper.

ConsiderthefollowingpassagefromformerQuebecPremierRenLvesque'sresignationletter,andthe
TorontoGlobeandMail'srenderingofit:

Jevoussauraisgrdetransmettrepourmoiau
conseilnationalcesimplemessage:mercidufond
ducoeur,merciBvouscommeBtousceuxetcelles
quisereconnatront,etquin'ontcessdepuistant
d'annesdepayerdeleurpersonneetdeleur
portefeuillepourbtir,enraciner,maintenirceprojet
sisainetdmocratiquequenousavonsdessin
ensemblepournotrepeuple.
Iwouldappreciateitifyoucouldtransmitformetothe
nationalcouncilthissimplemessage:thankyoufromthe
bottomofmyheart,thankstoyouandtoallthose,whowill
recognizethemselves,andwhohavenotstoppedforso
manyyearspayingwiththeirpersonallivesandwiththeir
pocketbooksinordertobuild,establish,maintainthis
projectwhichissohealthyanddemocraticandwhichwe
havedesignedtogetherforourpeople.

Leavingasidetheconsiderationthatmanyreadersactuallyexpecttranslationsespeciallytranslationsof
quotationstobeunidiomatic,onecanarguethatthistranslationachievesaparticularjournalisticgoalbetter

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thananidiomatictranslation0.Certainlyithasitsflaws,includingthefailuretorenderceuxetcellesand
enraciner,andtheconfusingexpressionwhowillrecognizethemselves.Howevertheunidiomaticpaying
withtheirpersonallivesisnotaflawdespitetheoddimplicationofpeoplepayingwiththeirlives.Neitheris
therenderingoftransmettrepourmoibytransmitforme,despitetheungrammaticalpositionofformeand
thetelecommunicationsconnotationoftransmit.Theserenderingscontributetotheoverallgoalofthe
translation.

Thatgoal,whetherconsciouslyformulatedbytheGlobeornot,mightbedescribedasthatofidentifyingthe
voice'heard'bythereaderofthetranslation0asavoiceexternaltoEnglishCanada.Thisistosomeextent
necessaryforpurelytechnicalreasons:anidiomaticrenderingatranslationwhichmadeLvesquesound,
incongruously,likethepremierofanEnglishspeakingprovincewouldclashwithhistelevisionEnglish.
Butmoreimportantisthepoliticaleffect.TheunidiomaticGlobetranslationcreatesanawarenessofthe
'otherness'ofthetext(itsorigininadistinctsocietythathasitsowngoals),whileatthesametimereducing
thelegitimacyofLvesque,partlybecausereaders(Anglophonesatanyrate)tendtograntthehighestlevel
ofcredibilitytowordsthatappeartoemanatefromtheirownculture,andpartlybecauseunidiomatic
translationssoundliketheyarenotaddressedtothetargetlanguagereaders(thereaderhastheimpression,
instead,of'overhearing'wordswrittentoothers).

1.2Mis(?)translatingFreudandtheBible

Thenotionthattranslatorsmayintentionallyproducefortheirreadersaneffectdifferentfromthatofthe
sourcetextisnowfairlycommonplaceinwritingon'literary'translation.Unfortunatelythediscussionis
oftennotdescriptivebutnormative,withtheemphasisoncondemningerror0.Twofairlywellknown
examplesareBrunoBettelheim'scriticismoftheStracheytranslationofFreud(Bettelheim1984)andHenri
Meschonnic'scriticismofEugeneNida'sapproachtoBibletranslation(Meschonnic1973).

BettelheimcomplainsthatthestandardEnglishtranslationofFreuderrsinsubstitutingGrecoLatin
'scientific'wordsforFreud'severydayGerman.Why,heasks(p.53),isdasEsrenderedastheIdratherthan
theIt(Esbeingthesingularneuterthirdpersonpronoun)?Whyisthesameapproachnotusedasinthe
FrenchrenderingleCa?

LetusassumeforthesakeofargumentthatBettelheim'sunderstandingofFreudasaliteraryhumanistrather
thanascientistiscorrect.Dowethenhaveacaseofmistranslationanerrorintheleveloftechnicalityof
thelanguage?Theanswerdependsonhowtheroleoftranslationisseen.Onecommonunderstandingisthat
translationpreservesmeaningexceptforcertainnecessaryculturaladaptationsandtheneedtoselectcertain
aspectsofmeaningaspertinent(sincenotallaspectscanbepreservedforexample,ametaphormayhaveto
beeliminatedinordertopreservecognitivemeaning).Inthisview,theIdisamistranslationbecausethereis
noneedtochangetheleveloftechnicalityinthiscase:itcouldhavebeenpreservedinEnglishjustasithas
beeninFrench.

Howeverinan'institutional'understandingoftranslation,translationsareseenaspreservingmeaningonly
withinthelimitationsofinstitutionalpurpose.Fromthepointofviewofthetranslatinginstitution,the
'unnecessary'changesinmeaningareasimportantasthepreservedmeaning,perhapsevenmoreimportant.

TheStracheysverylikelyperceivedthatFreudcouldhaveselectedGermanwordsofGreekandLatinorigin,
andthatthereforetheselectionofeverydayGermanwordswassignificant.(GreekandLatinwordswere
certainlyusedinscientificGerman,andinmanysciences,everydaywordshavealwaysbeenusedas
technicaltermsinEnglish.)ButFreudiansintheEnglishspeakingworldwereconsciouslytryingto
constructa'scienceofpsychoanalysis'asthefoundationforpaidprofessionaltherapeuticpractice.They
thereforeneededatranslationthatsoundedscientific.IfFreudwasinfactaliteraryhumanist,thatwas
simplyirrelevanttotheirpurposes.

WastheleveloflanguagechangeperhapsanecessaryadaptationtotheEnglishspeakingreadershipofthe
time?Thisiscertainlyapossibility.Onlyahistoricalinvestigationcoulddeterminewhetherthetranslation
wouldhavebeen'unreceivable'intheEnglishspeakingworldwithoutthechange.Howeverweshouldnot
assumethistobethecase.Intheinstitutionalapproachtotranslationbeingadvocatedhere,theassumption

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wouldbethateithera'literary'ora'scientific'translationwouldhavebeenreceivable(thoughperhapsby
differentaudiences),andthataconsciouschoicewasmade.

Thetranslationwasdirectedataparticularreadership.Forotherpossiblereadershipstheresultwas
'unreadable'.Transculturalcommunicationdidindeedtakeplace,butinaverylimitedway,asFreud'stext
was'communicated'fromtheGermanspeakingworldintoaveryrestrictedsegmentoftheEnglishspeaking
world.

Whatwenowperceivetobeaterminologicalequivalence(Es=Id)wasthusnotadiscoverybutamotivated
invention.Forastudenttranslatingapsychoanalytictext,itisnowjustaneutraltechnicalmatterof
terminologicalresearch.AtranslationteacherwillbetechnicallycorrectincallingtheItamistranslationof
leCa,butagoodteacherwillpointoutthatitisanerrorbecauseitdoesnotconformtoanoriginal
institutionaldecision.

AsforBettelheim'sviewthattheIdisamistranslation,Iwouldfirstofallsuggestthatanotherterm'non
translation'beusedforcaseswhereasignificantsourcetextfeaturewhichcouldhavebeenpreservedhas
notbeen,inordertoservesomeinstitutionalgoal.'Mistranslation'couldthenbereservedforcaseswherea
significantsourcetextfeaturewhichcouldhavebeenpreservedhasnotbeen,forwhatmightbecalled
technicalreasons:thetranslatorhasbeencareless,orlackslanguage,terminologyorsubjectmatter
knowledge,orlacksbasictranslationtrainingsothatinformationislostthroughundertranslation,orthrough
translationofunitssmallerthantheunitswithinwhichmeaningisgeneratedinthesourcetext.

Thislatterproblem,doubtlessthemajorsourceofmistranslation,isdescribedindetailinFolkart(1989).A
verysimpleexamplewouldbethatoftranslatingatwordlevelwhenmeaningisbeinggeneratedatphrase
level,aswhenexerciced'vacuationisrenderedbyevacuationexerciseinsteadoffiredrill.Thissortof
technicaldefectdoesplaysomeroleintheGlobetranslationdiscussedinsection1.1,butthelackof
idiomaticityisprincipallyaresultoftheinstitutionalgoalofidentifyingthetextasexternaltothetarget
culture.ThustheGlobe'srenderinginvolveswhatmightbecalledmotivatedmistranslationwhere
technicallynecessarychanges(transmettre:passon,ratherthantransmit)havenotbeenmade,intheservice
ofsomeinstitutionalgoal.

Second,Bettelheimdoesrefertotheinstitutionalpurposeofcreatinga'scienceofpsychoanalysis'(p.32),
butappearstodeemthisirrelevanttothequestionofwhatconstitutesmistranslation.Hisargumentseemsto
bethatchangingtheleveloflanguageisbydefinitionmistranslation.Thisisproblematicbecauseitsuggests
thattranslatingcouldsomehowbecarriedoninsomepurestateuncontaminatedbythegoalsoftranslating
institutions.Butifweagreethatitcannot,doesitfollowthatwecannotmakeajudgmentaboutthe
translationofFreud?No,itsimplymeansthatwhathastobejudgedistheinstitutionalgoalitself.

Wasitagoodthingtocreatea'scienceofpsychoanalysis',ratherthanpresentFreudasaguidetohuman
selfknowledge,asBettelheimurges?Whoseinterestdidthisserve?Thesearequestionsofanethicaland
politicalnature,andtranslatorscannotavoidthemonthegroundthattheyareperformingamerelytechnical
service.Thechangestheymakeinmeaningmayormaynotbeagoodthing.

Bibletranslationisafieldinwhichtherehasbeenaconsiderableamountofethicalandpoliticaldebate.Ina
critiqueofEugeneNida'sapproachtotranslatingtheBible,Meschonnic(1973pp.328ff)suggeststhatas
onestripsawaytheoriginalmetaphorsandthereferencestoJewishandearlyChristiancultures,inorderto
maketheBibleunderstandabletocertainmodernreaders,theBibleceasestobealiterary,cultural,
theologicalandhistoricaltextandisreducedtoasetofmorallessons.

TheBibletranslatinginstitutionswithwhichNidaisassociatedhavebeencriticizedfortheirtranslations
intobothThirdWorldand'FirstWorld'languages.ThusPrickett(1979p.263)respondstotheprefaceofthe
GoodNewsBible("everyefforthasbeenmadetouselanguagethatisnatural,clear,simpleand
unambiguous")bysayingthat"religionisnotaboutthingsthatarenatural,clear,simpleandunambiguous".
Meschonnic(1973pp.339,348)saysthatNida'smethodissuitedtoexporting0acertainversionof
AmericanProtestantmoralitytotheThirdWorld.Giventhisinstitutionalgoal,thepoeticlanguage,the
historicalcontextandevensomeofthetheologicalcontentmayappearirrelevanttothetranslator.Inthe
viewbeingproposedhere,thereisnoquestionofmistranslationinthesensedefinedabove,butthereare

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certainlyethicalandpoliticalproblems:istheevangelicalgoalaworthyone,andwhoseinterestdoesit
serve?

Ifitisgrantedthatthereisapoliticstothemethodoftranslationinthecasesdiscussedsofar,thequestion
ariseswhethertheinstitutionalapproachhasamoregeneralrelevance.Surely,itwillbesaid,thereisno
politicstothetranslationofanaccidentreport,astudyofwaterpollution,oralettercomplainingaboutthe
waythewriterisbeingtreatedbytheunemploymentinsuranceauthorities.Todemonstratethatthereis
indeedsuchapolitics,IwantnowtolookattheGovernmentofCanadaasatranslatinginstitution.

2.FrenchtoEnglishTranslationbytheCanadianFederalGovernment

Thefederalgovernment's'translationdoctrine'statesthatoneshouldrender"notthewordsorthestructures
ofthesourcetextbutratherthemessageor,inotherwords,theauthor'sintention"(TranslationBureau1984
p.3).Thisstatement,preparedforthegovernment'sfreelancetranslators,isbasedona1978documentwith
theinterestinginstitutionorientedtitle"Latraductionauservicedel'tatetdupays".Andindeed,aswe
shallsee,notonlythefactoftranslationbutalsothemethodoftranslationaredesignedtoservestatepolicy.

Afurtherdocument(TranslationBureau1985p.I4)saysthatoneshouldrender"notjustwordsbutideas,so
astoconveythemessageclearly,withoutkeepingslavishlytotheexpressionsandstructureschosenbythe
author".Theformulations"notjustwordsbutideas"and"withoutkeepingslavishly"reflectdifferencesof
opinionregardingthedegreetowhichthesourcetextauthor'swordingmustberespected.Onbalance,
though,thestatementcomesdownonthesideofthemoderndoctrineoftranslating'ideas',conceivedas(in
themain)culturallyneutralandthusexpressibleidiomaticallyinthetargetlanguage.

Thegovernment'sapproachtotranslationwasdevelopedforEnglishtoFrenchtranslation.Ithasbeen
pointedout(forexamplebyJuhel1982pp.55ff)thatEnglishisoverwhelminglythetranslatedlanguagein
Canada,andFrenchthetranslatinglanguage.NotonlyistranslationinCanadaaformofcommunication
thatgoesmainlyinonedirection(90%ofthefederalgovernment'sofficiallanguagetranslationworkisinto
French,10%intoEnglish),butalsotranslationformsarelativelyhighpercentageofwhatQuebeckersread,
asopposedtooriginalFrenchwriting.Itisthereforearguedthatifthetranslationsarenotidiomatic,the
Frenchlanguagewillceasetobeaninstrumentofculturalidentityand,ultimately,politicalsurvival.

TranslationisseenbyFrenchCanadianlanguageprofessionalsasamajorformofwritinginFrench:the
distinctionbetweenthetraducteurandtherdacteurisblurred.ThefocusoftranslationintoFrenchis
'therapeutic'thepreservationofanauthenticFrenchvoice.MessagesfromEnglishCanadaareofcourse
conveyedinthetranslations,butthegoalisnottoconveyinformationaboutEnglishCanadaandEnglish
Canadians.

Perhapsthemostimportantaspectofthegovernment'stranslationdoctrine,then,isthattranslationsaretobe
'authentic':"Authenticityistheimpressionconveyedbyatranslationthatisisnot,infact,atranslation,that
itwascomposedinthetargetlanguagefromtheoutset,thatitisanoriginalpieceofwriting"(Translation
Bureau1984p.6).

Nowonecouldarguethatauthenticitycanserve,justasmuchasitslack,asavehicleforintroducingthe
cultureofEnglishspeakingNorthAmericaintoQuebec.Languageandthoughtarenotcompletelyidentical,
anditissurelypossibletoexpressaspectsofAnglophonecultureinidiomaticFrench,andthusmakethem
more'receivable'preciselybecausetheyaredisguisedasFrenchoriginals.Howeverthatmaybe,authentic
(idiomatic)Frenchtranslationsdodoubtlessperformusefulfunctionssuchasmakingiteasyfor
Francophones0toreadincometaxinstructionsoriginallydraftedinEnglish.Buttheyalsoconveythefalse
impressionthatthefederaltaxationauthoritiesaresomehow'French'.

IdiomaticFrenchtranslationbyitsnatureconjuresupinthemindofthereaderacertainimageofthestate
whichdoesnotcorrespondtorealitysince,giventhedemographicsofCanada,thefederalpublicserviceand
thefederallawmakingandregulatoryagenciesare,andarelikelytoremain,predominantlyinthehandsof
AnglophonesevenifFrancophonesarerepresentedinproportiontotheirnumbers(slightlylessthana
quarterofthepopulation).

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TurningnowtoFrenchEnglishtranslation,acertainamounthasbeenwrittenabouttheimpactofdifferent
translatingmethodsononeofthemainrolesofliterarytranslationintoEnglish:conveying(orfailingto
convey)informationaboutFrenchCanadatoEnglishCanadians0.ButinthisarticleIwanttodiscussnon
literarytranslation,andIwanttofocusonthechoicesmadebyaninstitutionratherthanbyindividual
translators.

Beginninginthe1960s,largenumbersofFrancophoneswereattractedtoworkinfederalinstitutions(inthe
federalcapitalOttawa,andintheQuebecregionalofficesoffederaldepartments).Thepolicyofbilingualism
gavethemtherighttoworkinFrench.Itthereforebecamenecessarytotranslatewhattheywroteinto
English.Whilesomeofthetranslationsarepublishedforreadersoutsidethepublicservice(international
scientificaudiences,andtheAnglophoneminoritywithinQuebec),averylargepartofthedemandisforthe
informationofAnglophonepublicservantswhodonothaveanadequatereadingknowledgeoftheother
officiallanguage,despitelanguagetrainingprograms.

ThusonefunctionofFrenchtoEnglishtranslationistoactasasubstituteforsecondlanguagelearning,and
theotheristoassistinasmallwaywiththepreservationofFrenchsincetranslationenablesFrancophone
governmentresearchers,forexample,towritetheirarticlesinFrench.Thismaterialforaninternational
audienceneedstobeidiomaticinordertogaintheconfidenceofthereadership.Butitisnotimmediately
clearwhythetranslationspreparedfortheinformationofAnglophonepublicservants,oreventheEnglish
Canadianpublic,shouldbeidiomatic,sincethereisnoneed,eitherinsideoroutsideQuebec,foranyspecial
efforttopreserveEnglish.

TranslationintoEnglishwouldcertainlybemucheasierifonecoulduseinnovative,unidiomaticlanguage.
Averyinterestingexampleoftheworkentailedbytherequirementofidiomaticityisdescribedinanarticle
entitled"Animationandanimateur:atranslator'snightmare"(Hutcheson&Adshead1983).Thearticle
demonstratestheneedtousesomefifteendifferentEnglishwordsorexpressionstoconveycommon
meaningsofanimateur(host,DJ,leader,facilitator,moderator,communityworker)andanotherfifteenorso
foranimation(communitydevelopment,chairing,motivation,grouptraining,leadership).

Why,wemayask,cannottheverbanimerberenderedbyits'fauxami',theEnglishverbanimate?The
answer,fromthepointofviewofthedoctrineofidiomatictranslation,isthatitwouldhindercommunication
becauseEnglishanimerhasamuchmorerestrictedmeaningthanitsFrenchcognate.Accordingtothisview,
aunilingualAnglophonewillalwaystakeasentencelikeSheanimatesthemeetingstomeanShemakesthe
meetingslively.Surelythisisfalse.Giventherightcontext,itcouldbeclearthattheintendedmeaningisShe
chairsthemeetings.Ifthepureidiomatictheoryweretrue,linguisticinnovationwouldalwayscreatechaos
inalanguagecommunity,butclearlyitdoesnot.

NowsomemightbepreparedtoadmitanimateonthegroundthatitfillsalexicalgapinEnglish(thereisno
otherwordwiththegeneralityofFrenchanimer).ButIwanttoposemyquestioninamoregeneralway:
whycannotthespeechhabitmanyAngloQuebeckershaveofadoptingfauxamisandcalquesofFrench
grammaticalstructures(regardlessofwhethertheyfillagap)simplybetakenoverandusedwithcare0in
thewrittenEnglishoffederaltranslators?Inotherwords,whycannotthetranslatinginstitution(the
TranslationBureau,actingonbehalfofthefederalgovernment)producetranslationsthatcontainsomeofthe
featuresoftheGlobe'srenderingoftheLvesqueletter?

Theanswer,Ithink,liesintheideologyofthefederalgovernment'spolicyofbilingualism.Thepolicy
reflectsaliberal/cosmopolitanoutlookthatisoftenassociatedwiththeformerprimeministerPierreTrudeau.
Inonecommonunderstandingofhisthought,thespecificityandseparatenessoflocalandnational
communitiesareathingofthepast.Whatisimportantisthateveryindividualhaveanequalopportunityto
participateinthepublicworldsoflaw,business,administration,scienceandtechnology.IntheCanadian
context,thismeansequalityregardlessofmothertongue.

Thepurposeoftranslationisthustoletscientifictechnical,adminstrative,legalandcommercialmessages
passbetweenFrenchandEnglishindividuals,nottocreatebridgesbetweenthetwocommunities.Idiomatic
FrenchEnglishtranslationinthepublicserviceiswellsuitedtothispurposebecauseiterasesthe'local
colour'ofthesourcetext(themarkswithinthetextofitsauthor'sFrenchorigin),anditsnaturalsounding

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languageletsthe'universal'administrativeortechnicalcontentcomeacrossmoreeasilytotheunilingual
anglophonereader.

Unfortunately,sincethelanguageofanyidiomatictranslationisnecessarilyalocallanguagenotsometruly
universaltranslationlanguagemadeupofelementsofalllanguagesthe'universality'oftheresulttakesa
strangeform:itappearstothereadersofthetranslationsthattheirlanguage,English,isnotlocalbut
universal.FrenchCanadiansarenotreallyadistinctpeople:theysoundjustlikeEnglishCanadians!

Idiomatictranslationisthusaparadox.Ontheonehand,itpromotescommunicationinthesensethat
FrancophonepublicservantscanworkinFrenchyetstillgettheiradministrativeortechnicalmessages
acrosstotheirAnglophonecolleaguesinaveryreadablemanner.Ontheotherhand,ithinders
communicationbecauseitmakestheFrancophonepresencevanish:thereaderhastheimpressionofbeing
addressedbyanotherAnglophonedespitethesignatureattheendofthedocument.Thereadermaybe
intellectuallyawarethattheoriginatorisaQubcois,butthisknowledgewillbesomewhatabstract,
especiallyifthereaderhasnevermettheauthororlivedintheauthor'shomemilieu.Onceagain,assooften
inCanadianhistory,thetwosolitudesfailtotouch.

Supposetranslatorscouldwriteunidiomatically,withcarefullyselectedfauxamisandsyntacticcalques(like
transmitformeinthecaseoftheLvesqueletter).Readerswouldthenberemindedofthe'otherness'ofthe
personwhowrotethedocument.Ortranslatorscouldgoevenfurtherandtrytoconveysomethingofthe
natureofthatotherness.Forexample,inadministrativetextswritteninQuebecthereissometimesacertain
chummyinformalitythatiscombinedinvaryingdegrees(andsometimesincongruously)withtheelegant
(nottosayprecious)formalityassociatedwithtextsfromFrance.Butintheprevailingdoctrineof
translation,allsuchinformationaboutthewriterisnotdeemed'pertinent'foradministrative/technicaltexts.

IhavearguedthataslightlygallicizedFrenchwouldbeperfectlyunderstandabletounilingualAnglophones.
Ofcourse,onecouldbeevenmoreconfidentaboutusinganimationintheFrenchsenseifwidespread
learningofFrenchwereunderwayandtranslationwerefunctioningasasupplementtoratherthana
substituteforlanguagelearning.0Certaintypesofunidiomatictranslationwouldthenbereceivableasa
linguisticmanifestationofabroaderintercommunitydialoguerangingfarbeyondthepresenttinygroupof
proficientbilinguals.Butthefocusofthefederalbilingualismpolicyisonindividualequalityratherthan
intercommunitydialogue.

Indeed,intheactuallyexistingsituationofongoingantagonismbetweenQuebecandEnglishCanada,
arisingfromconflictingvisionsofwhatCanadais,unidiomatictranslationcouldevenbeinterpretedwithin
EnglishCanadaasevidenceofFrench'infecting'English,andcouldgiverisetosuspicionsofthesortwhose
mostextremeformisregularmanifestedincriesaboutanimminent'Frenchtakeover'ofthepublicserviceor
thefederalgovernment.

Tosumup:Anidiomatictranslation,evenifitistechnicallycorrectandavoidsmistranslation,can
neverthelessconveyaninstitutionalmeaning,inthiscasesomethinglike'EnglishandFrenchCanadiansare
essentiallythesame.'Forfurtherdiscussionofproblemsarisingfromtheidiomaticapproachtothe
translationofpragmatictexts,seeMossop(1989).

3.TranslatingInstitutionsandTranslatingTheory

Iwouldliketoconcludebypointingoutsomeimplicationsfortranslationtheoryoftheinstitutionalnatureof
translation.

3.1Equivalence,pertinence,communication

MauricePergnierwritesthat:

Uneapprochethoriquedelatraductiondoit...faireporterl'accentsurladfinitiondecequiestBtraduire,
c'estBdirelemessage....Seul,eneffet,viseBresterconstantdanslechangementdelanguequiconstituela
traduction,lemessageentantquecontenud'information.(1980p.27)

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Iln'estpasdouteuxquetoutetraductionvisel'quivalence,auniveauducontenuinformatif,d'untexte
traduitavecuntexteoriginal.(p.47)

Surelyitnotthecasethateverytranslationaimsatequivalence.Translatorsasindividualsmaywellbelieve
theyareseekingequivalence(seeneitherasequivalenceofeffect,oraspreservingfunctionallypertinent
'information'),butthisisbesidethepoint.Institutionsfrequentlydonotseekequivalence,andevenifthey
do,thatisasmuchachoiceasthedecisionnotto.Itistheinstitutionthatdecideswhichaspectsofmeaning
arepertinentitistheinstitutionthatdecideswhethertodisguisethetranslationasanoriginalitisthe
institutionthatdecidesonthedegreetowhichthevoiceofthesourcetextwillbeallowedtoaddressthe
readersofthetranslation,andthedegreeofadaptationtothetargetcultureortheparticularreadership.

Atranslationtheoristorteachermayadvocatederivingthemethodoftranslationfromcertainfeaturesofthe
sourcetext,orthetargetculture,orthereadership,butthetranslatorcanonlyimplementtheadvocated
methodtotheextentthatitdoesnotconflictwiththeinstitution'sgoals.

Pergnieriscertainlyrighttowanttranslationtheorytofocusonthemessagebeingdirectedatthereader,
withits'information'(inthebroadsenseofthistermthatincludescognitive,expressive,socialandother
aspects).Communicativeandsociolinguisticmodelsoftranslationhavecertainlybeenusefulinpointingto
thefactthattherealactivityoftranslationislessamatterofrelatinglanguagesthanrelatingusersof
language.

Howevertheusualcommunicativemodels,inwhichinformationmovesalongamoreorlesscomplexroute,
fromasenderincultureXtoareceiverincultureY,aretooabstract.Thesocialcharacteristicsofthevarious
partiesinvolvedtendtobeoverlooked:

Thereader:Noncommunicationoftheoriginal'information'mayoccurnotfortechnicalreasons(egfrom
thecommonhabitofundertranslationfromfailuretodoresearchfromfailuretorevise)butbecausethe
translatinginstitutionwishesonlycertaininformationtobepassedontocertainreadersinthetargetculture,
withotherreadersexcluded.Differentreadershipsconstitutedifferentsubcultures.Translationtheoristsoften
speakof'the'targetculturebutperhapsitwouldbebettertosaythatthetranslatinginstitution,inits
approachtosuchmattersastextselection,languageguardianshipandinformationselection,respondsin
differentwaystotherealorperceivedneedsofeachofthedifferentsubculturesthatmakeupasociety.

Thetranslator:Communicativemodelsbearthemarksofthecommunicationsengineeringtheoryfrom
whichtheyemerged,inthatthetranslatorappearsasabenign,technicalmedium(likearelaystationina
telecommunicationsnetwork).Inactuality,thereisnoneutral,selfeffacingstrategyavailabletothe
translator,whomustselectfromamongmanyoptionsinordertomeetinstitutionalgoals.

Communicativeapproachestotranslationtheoryalsobetraytheir'engineering'originsintheirfocusonthe
effectiveandefficienttransmissionofinformation,on'gettingthemessageacross'tothetargettedreaders:

Efficiency:Translationsareseenasefficientifthereisminimallossof'pertinent'information.Pertinenceis
sometimesdescribedintermsofthereader'sneeds,andsometimesasifitwereobjectivelydeterminable(if
thetextisamemoonacidrain,thenonlytheadministrativeandscientificcontentispertinent).But
communicativetheoriesneverdescribepertinenceintermsof"whatwewanttogetacrosstothereader".In
aninstitutionalapproach,thequantityofpertinentinformationwhichislostisofnointerestinitself.Whatis
ofinterestiscertainspecificlossesofinformation,whetherornottheinstitutiondefinesthemaspertinent:
thequestioniswhethertheyaresignificantfromtheviewpointofthesourcetext.

Effectiveness:Incommunicativetheories,translationsareseenaseffectiveiftheyareidiomatic.Inan
institutionalapproach,idiomaticityisseenasachoice.Anonidiomatictranslationcanbeveryeffectivein
achievinganinstitution'sgoals.Acentralpurposeofaninstitutionaltheoryoftranslationispreciselyto
explainwhytranslationshavebeentranslatedonewayratherthananother.

Gettingthemessageacross:Theoriesoftranslationasaformofcommunicationfocusonthetargetreader.
Thetranslatorisseenasseekingthemostreceivable(iethemostidiomatic)wayofexpressingthepertinent
informationwhichheorshehasferretedoutofthesourcetext.PeterNewmarkhasbeenmakingthepoint
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forseveralyearsthatcommunicativemodelsoftranslationprivilegereceivabilityoveraccuracywhenever
thereisaconflictbetweenthetwo.Thustheycanserveasmodelsforonlysomeoftheinstitutionalpractices
thataretobefoundinthehistoryoftranslation.

Tosumup:Unlikeatheorythatfocussesonthetransmissionofmessages,aninstitutionaltheorywillfocus
onthemomentofproductionofthetranslationthewayinwhichthetranslationisdesignedsothatitwill
latergiverisetocertainkeymeaningsinthemindsofthereaders.

3.2Translationtheory,institutionalpractice

Translatinginstitutionsdonotjustproducetranslationssometimestheyalsoproducetranslationtheories.
Thesetheoriesmaybecontainedwithinstatementsbyinstitutionsoftheirtranslationdoctrine(instructions
fortranslators),ortheymaybeelaborated,perhapsforasetofsimilarinstitutions,inindependentwritings
bytranslatorsorbyrepresentativesofvariousacademicdisciplines.

Thereisasyetnogeneraltheoryoftranslation.Whatexistsarerestrictedtheoriesthatcanbeseentobe
rootedintheactivitiesofparticulartranslatinginstitutions:conferenceinterpretationinvolvingthelanguages
oftheEuropeanCommunityRussianEnglishmachinetranslationofscientifictextsfortheU.S.armed
forcestranslationoftheBiblefromAncientGreekandHebrewintonativelanguagesofLatinAmerica,and
soon.

Itisoftensaidthattranslationtheoryandpracticeneedtobebroughtclosertogether.Buthavetheyever
beenapart?Indeed,aretheynottoocloselyintertwined?Muchofwhatwecalltranslationtheoryconsistsin
moreorlesselaborateandmoreorlessabstractformulationsofthepracticesoftheinstitutionswithwhich
thetheoreticiansareassociated.Valuableassuchformulationsare,theyinevitablytendtowardadvocacyof
institutionaltranslationmethods.Theyalsobyandlargelackcriticaldistancefrominstitutionalpractices,
andthisinevitablyreducestheinsighttheyachieve.

Thetheorythattranslatingliterarytextsandtranslatingpragmatictextsaretwofundamentallydifferent
operationsisperhapslessareflectionofdifferencesbetweentexttypesthanareflectionofthefactthat
literaryandnonliterarytranslatorsworkwithinstarklydifferentinstitutionalarrangements.

Thelimitationsofpurelylinguistictheoriesoftranslationcannowbeseentolie,atleastinpart,inthe
purelylinguisticnatureofthemachinetranslationexperimentsalongsidewhichthesetheoriesarose.

Nida'stheorythatthetranslationof'meaning'canbeseparatedfromthetranslationof'form'canbeseenas
acounterparttoaparticularpracticeofBibletranslation(Simon1989).

AcasecanbemadethatDanicaSeleskovitch'swellknowninterpretivetheoryoftranslationismore
applicabletoconferenceinterpretationthantothetranslationofwrittentexts.

Thetheoryoftranslationasrdaction(Flamand1983),orasanexerciseincomparativestylistics(Vinay
&Darbelnet1958),canbeseenasareflectionofacentralgoalofthetranslatinginstitutionsofFrench
CanadacreatingorpreservinganauthenticFrenchvoice.

Lastly,thetheorythattranslationiscommunicationisaprevalentonebecausethebiggesttranslating
institutionsatpresentareconcernedpreciselywith'gettingthemessageacross'effectivelyandefficiently.


ConcludingRemark

Bymakingthetranslatinginstitutionitselfthecentralfocus,theapproachtotranslationtheorysuggested
hereaimstoachievecriticaldistancefromanyoneinstitution,aswellasacertainamountofgenerality(by
encompassingallinstitutions).Howeveraninstitutionalapproachassketchedherecouldnotbyitself
constituteasatisfactorytheoryoftranslation.

First,itdoesnotdealwiththesuccessoftheinstitutioninachievingitsgoals.Thatis,itdoesnotcoverthe
activityofthereaderinterpretingthetranslation(readers,unlikewriters,aregenerallynotactingonbehalfof
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institutions).Anditsaysnothingaboutthereceptionofthetranslationinthetargetculture(forexample,if
thetextisknowntobeatranslation,itmaybejudgedagainsttranslationalnormsofthetargetculture).

Second,theinstitutionalapproachisessentiallyaboutwhatIhavecallednontranslation,andsoitwould
havetobesupplementedbyageneraltheoryofmistranslation,suchasisprovided(thoughshedoesnot
presentitassuch)byBarbaraFolkart(1989).

ThedistinctionbetweenmistranslationandnontranslationIhopetoelaborateatalatertime.Essentially,
avoidingmistranslationmeansconveyingtothereaderthepatternofsignificantmeaningsborneinthe
linguisticandrhetoricalstructuresofthesourcetext,withsignificancedefinedfromthevantagepointofthat
text.Thiscanalmostneverbeaccomplishedthroughuseoflexicalandgrammaticalmaterialthatdirectly
correspondstothematerialofthesourcetext.Varyingdegreesoftransformationarecalledfor,includingthe
correctionofcarelesswritinginthesourcetext.(Butanidiomatic,easilyreadabletranslationwillconstitute
mistranslationifthepresenceofinnovativeordifficultlanguageinthesourcetextissignificant.)

Sometimes,significantmeaningsarenotconveyable,aswhenareligiousconceptoragenreisnotknownto
thetargetculture.Itisthennecessarytoresorttowhatmightbecalled'necessarymistranslation':theuseof
'equivalents'orexplanatoryovertranslations(presentedassuchornot).Beyondthis,onefindsnon
translation:transformationsaremadethatarenotnecessarytoconveyingthepatternofsignificantmeanings
ofthesourcetext.Nontranslationmaysometimesbeunavoidable,givenaparticulartargettedreadership,
butthisdoesnotaccountforallofwhatgoesonundertheheading'adaptationtothereadership'.Institutions
mayunderstandtheirnontranslationpracticesasadaptationforthereader,butwhatisoftenhappeningis
thattheinstitutionisconveyingitsownmeaningstothereaderratherthanthemeaningsofthesourcetext.

REFERENCES

BETTELHEIM,B.([1982],1984):FreudandMan'sSoul,NewYork,Random.
FLAMAND,J.(1983):Ecrireettraduire,Ottawa,EditionsduVermillon.
FOLKART,B.(1989):"TranslationandtheArrowofTime",inTTRvol.2nM1,pp.1950.
HERMANS,T.(1985):TheManipulationofLiterature:StudiesinLiteraryTranslation,London,Croom
Helm.
HUTCHESON,H.&M.Adshead(1983):"'Animation'and'animateur'atranslator'snightmare",in
TerminologyUpdatevol.16nM1,pp.16.
JUHEL,D.(1982):BilinguismeettraductionauCanada:Rlesociolinguistiquedutraducteur,QuebecCity,
Centreint'ldurecherchesurlebilinguisme.
MESCHONNIC,H.(1973):PourlapotiqueII,Paris,Gallimard.
MEZEI,K.(1988):"SpeakingWhite:LiteraryTranslationasaVehicleofAssimilationinQuebec",in
CanadianLiterature117(Summer),pp.1123.
MOSSOP,B.(1987):"WhoisAddressingUsWhenWeReadaTranslation?",inTextContTextvol.2nM1,
pp.122.
MOSSOP,B.(1988):"Translatinginstitutionsamissingfactorintranslationtheory",inTTRvol.1nM2,
pp.6571.
MOSSOP,B.(1989):"'WriteIdiomaticallyandTranslateIdeasnotWords':ThreeDefectsofthePrevailing
DoctrineofTranslation",inC.Sguinot(ed.),TheTranslationProcess,Toronto,H.G.Publications,School
ofTranslation,YorkUniversity,pp.720.
NEWMARK,P.(1988):ATextbookofTranslation,London,PrenticeHall.
PERGNIER,M.([1978],1980):Lesfondementssociolinguistiquesdelatraduction,Paris,Honor
Champion.
PRICKETT,S.(1979):"Whatdothetranslatorsthinktheyareupto?"inNewUniversitiesQuarterlySpring
1979,pp.257268.
SGUINOT,C.(1988):"Translatingtheideologyofscience:theexampleoftheworkofAlfredTomatis",in
TTRvol.1nM1,pp.103112.
SIMON,S.(1987):"DlivrerlaBible:LaThoried'EugPneNida"inMETA32(4),pp.429437.
TRANSLATIONBUREAU(1984):Contractor'sGuideTranslation,Ottawa,DepartmentoftheSecretary
ofState.
TRANSLATIONBUREAU(1985):Reviser'sHandbook,Ottawa,Supplyand
ServicesCanada.
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VINAY,J.P.andJ.Darbelnet(1958):Stylistiquecomparedufranaisetdel'anglais,Paris,Beauchemin.
WILLIAMS,R.(1981):Culture,Glasgow,Fontana.

0.1.ThisisroughlywhatNewmark(1988p24)calls'natural'language.Heuses'idiomatic'torefertotranslationsthatusecatchy
language,aswhenfondsquiseraientutilissspecifiquementpourisrenderedasfundsthatwouldbeearmarkedfor.Iamnotusingthe
term'idiomatic'inthisnarrowersense,orinthenarrowersenseofPergnier(1978ch.VIII),accordingtowhichatranslationisidiomatic
if,outofallthewordcombinationswhicharestructurallyallowedbythegrammarofthetargetlanguage,itusedonlythosewhicharein
facthabituallyemployedinthelanguageasawhole(egexerciced'vacuationcomesoutasfiredrillnotevacuationexercise).An
idiomatictranslation,inthesenseofthisarticle,isonewhoselanguageisidiomaticinthebroadersenseofbeingappropriatetoagenre.
Thus,totakeaclassicexample,nastydog(forchienmchant)wouldbeperfectlyidiomaticEnglishinthenarrowersense,butisnot
appropriatetothegenreoflawnsigns.

0.2.Heretheargumentmovesintothesocioeconomicsofwriting.Dailypapersdonotdemandorprovidetranslationtrainingbecause
evenbadwritingenablesthemtocarryouttheirfunctions.Inearliertimes,languagequalityhadtobehigherbecausethearticleshadan
importantinformativeandanalyticalfunctionandweremorecentralthanthepictures,headlinesandads.Butnow,thenewsreporting,
newsanalyzingandlanguageregulatingfunctionsofdailypapers(unlikecertainmorespecializedpublications)arelessimportantthan
theadvertisingfunctionandtheideologicalfunction(callingonthereaderto'defendtheWest'or'opposeTerrorismandDrugs'or'support
theFamily').Badwritingservestofillupthespacebetweenadswithsomethingvaguelyintelligible,givesthereadersomethingtopass
thetimewithonthewaytowork,andiseasyforthejournalisttoproducequickly.

0.3.Hereisapossibleidiomaticrenderingofthepassage:"IwouldappreciateitifyoucouldpassonthismessagetotheProvincial
Councilforme.Iwouldliketosaythankyoufromthebottomofmyheart.Mythankstoyoupersonallyandtoallthosemenandwomen
theyknowwhotheyarewhohavebeenmakingpersonalandfinancialsacrificesforsomanyyearsinordertobuildandmaintaina
healthy,democraticpathtothefuture,apathwhichtogetherwehavelaidoutforthepeopleofQuebec."Notehowthesyntaxhasbeen
normalized(buildandmaintaininsteadofbuild,establish,maintain),theemotionalimpacthasbeenflattened(cfourpeople,sohealthy
intheGlobe),andthepoliticshasbeenalteredbyuseoftheinstitutionalequivalentProvincialCouncil.(NonCanadianreadersshould
realizethatFrenchCanadiansregularlyusetheword'national'inreferencetoQuebecinstitutions,whereasEnglishCanadiansnormally
useitonlytorefertofederalorpanCanadianinstitutions.NationalAssemblyisusedastheEnglishnameoftheQuebeclegislature,
howeveraninterestingexampleofanunidiomatictranslationthathasbecomeconventionalizedEnglishCanadianswouldnormally
refertothisisaprovinciallegislature.)

0.4.Inselectingamethodoftranslation,theinstitution,throughitstranslators,createsadistinctive'voice',andthereaderslater
constructforthemselvesanimageofthevoicewhichtheysenseas'addressing'them(Mossop1987).Theinstitutioncandecidewhether
ornotitisgoingtomakethereadersawareofthefactthattheyarereadingatranslation,bycreatinganaliensoundingorafamiliar
voice.Eveninatextwithanidentifiedauthorwhoisknownbythetargettedreaderstobeoutsidetheirculture,theinstitutioncanseek,
byitstranslationmethod,toplayupthisoutsideness,orplayitdown(asisillustratedbythetwotranslationsoftheLvesqueletter
givenabove).

0.5.SeeHermans(1985)foradescriptiveapproachwhichdoesnotseekto"provideguidelinesforthenexttranslationtobemade"or
"passjudgementonanynumberofexistingones"but"takesthetranslatedtextasitisandtriestodeterminethevariousfactorsthatmay
accountforitsparticularnature",lookingatthe"constraintsandassumptionsthatmayhaveinfluencedthemethodoftranslating"(p.12
13)

0.6.Adistinctionworthyoffutherstudyisthatbetweeninstitutionswhichexporttranslationsandthosewhichimportthem.The
StracheyswereimportingFreudtotheEnglishspeakingworld,whereasinthecaseofNida,theBiblicaltextisbeingexported.

0.
7.Thenoun'Francophone'isusedhere,followingCanadianusage,tomeansomeonewhosefirstlanguage,orwhosesoleormainlanguage
ofeverydaylife,isFrench.Itdoesnotmean'someonewhocanspeakFench'(nomatterhowwell).Inthisarticle,'Francophone','French
Canadian',and'Frenchspeaking'areusedinterchangeably.'Anglophone'istobeinterpretedinlikemanner.

0.8.SeeMezei(1988).Sguinot(1988)isarareexampleofadiscussionoftheimpactofdifferentmethodsoftranslatingnonliterary(in
thiscasescientific)texts.

0.9.Certainlyreadersoftranslationsneedprotectionagainstunthinking'translationese'.Englishnowhasmorenonnativeusers
worldwidethannativeusers,andthesenonnativeusersoftenactingonbehalfoflargecorporationsandgovernmentsaregenerating
largeamountsofunidiomaticEnglishthatishighlyreminiscentoftranslationese.Inthissense,Englishdoesindeedneedprotection.

0.10.ItisquitepossiblethatthereisatrendunderwaytowardincreasedEnglishunilingualismoutsideQuebec,despiteEnglishspeaking
childrengoingto'Frenchimmersion'schools.Accordingtothe1989AnnualReportoftheCommissionerofOfficialLanguages,only6%
ofAnglophonesoutsideQuebec(ascomparedto59%insideQuebec)reportedtothecensustakersin1986thattheycouldcarryona

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conversationinFrenchupfrom3.5%in1971butstillaverysmallpercentage,andthereisnowayofknowingfromthecensuswhat
levelofproficiencyrespondentsareclaiming.About6%ofallelementaryandsecondarystudentsoutsideQuebecwereenrolledin
Frenchimmersionin1988/89,upfrom0.5%in77/78.ThismayleadtoamodestincreaseinthesmalleliteofAnglophoneswithhigh
proficiencyinFrench.Butitisnotclearatallwhetherthereisanytrendtowardmoreindividualshavingatleastasmalldegreeof
proficiency.ParticipationinFrenchinstructionattheelementaryleveloutsideQuebecstoodat56.2%in88/89,upfrom41.6%in77/78,
butparticipationatthesecondarylevelwaslowerat46.7%,anduponlyslightlyfrom40%in77/78.Takingthesefigures,alongwiththe
factthatfarfewerpostsecondaryinstitutionsinEnglishCanadarequireasecondlanguagethanhadsucharequirementbeforethe
bilingualismpolicywasinstitutedinthelate1960s,andthereiscertainlynoclearprospectthattranslationmightbecomeasupplement
tolanguagelearning.

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