Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

www.elsevier.com/locate/carbpol

Banana starch: production, physicochemical properties,

and digestibilitya review*
Pingyi Zhang, Roy L. Whistler, James N. BeMiller, Bruce R. Hamaker*
Whistler Center for Carbohydrate Research and Department of Food Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette IN 47907-2009, USA
Received 25 August 2004; accepted 27 October 2004
Available online 15 December 2004

Abstract
The large quantity of green cull bananas has the potential of being used industrially and, thereby, to improve banana economics and
eliminate the large environmental problem presented by banana waste. This review summarizes the present knowledge of the composition,
structure, physiochemical properties, modifications, and digestibility of banana starches and provides suggestions for needed research to
improve the utilization of green cull bananas.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Banana; Starch; Structure; Physicochemical properties; Modifications; Digestibility

1. Introduction Bananas are produced in large quantities in tropical and

Banana is a general term embracing a number of species or
hybrids in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae. Almost
all of the known edible-fruited cultivars arose from two
diploid species, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana,
which are native to southeast Asia. There are diploid,
triploid and tetraploid hybrids composing subspecies of
M. acuminata, and between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana
(Robinson, 1996; Stover & Simmonds, 1987). Convention-
ally, the haploid contributions of the respective species to the
cultivars are noted with the letters A and B. Cavendish
subgroup banana cultivars (M. cavendishii), which are the
mainstays of the export trades are pure triploid acuminata
(AAA group). The two Linnaean epithets, M. paradisiaca
and M. sapientum, are members of the AAB group (Stover &
Simmonds, 1987). Plantains are generally the larger, more
angular starchy fruits of hybrid triploid cultivars in the
banana family intended for cooking, but also edible raw when
fully ripe (Robinson, 1996).
*
Paper No. 17432 from the Purdue Agricultural Experiment Station.
* Corresponding author. Address: Department of Food Science, Purdue
University, Food Science Building, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2009, USA.
Fax: C1 765 494 7953.
E-mail address: hamakerb@purdue.edu (B.R. Hamaker).
0144-8617/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.carbpol.2004.10.014
subtropical areas. World production of Musa in 2003 was
estimated at 102 million MT of which about 68% was
classified as bananas and 32% as plantains (FAO, 2003).
The crop is of major importance to the people in the growing
areas as it forms a major portion of the annual income and a
source of food. As is the case for most tropical products, due
to the special climatic conditions needed to grow bananas,
they are mainly produced in developing countries. Devel-
oped countries are the usual destination for export bananas.
Production, as well as exports and imports of bananas, are
highly concentrated in a few countries. Ten major banana-
producing countries accounted for about 75% of total
production in 2003 with India, Ecuador, Brazil, and China
accounting for half of the total (Table 1). Latin America and
the Caribbean islands supplied more than 80% of world total
exports (ca. 15 million MT), with the four leading banana
exporter countries (Ecuador, Costa Rica, Philippines and
Colombia) accounting for about two-thirds of world exports
(FAO, 2003).
About one-fifth of all bananas harvested become culls.
When banana bunches arrive at central collection stations,
bananas too small for shipping are removed, along with
those that have damaged or spoiled areas that could cause
microbial contamination of the bunch. Rejected bananas are
normally disposed of improperly. Attempts are made to use
444 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

Table 1 the resistance was largely overcome by cooking to

World production statistics of banana and plantain in 2003 (Source: FAO, gelatinize the starch, other studies showed that the easily
2003)
hydrolysable starch fraction of cooked banana starch was
Country Production Country Production as low as 47% and was comparable to the known low-
(!1000 MT) (!1000 MT) digestible cooked yam starch (40%) (Cerning-Beroard & le
Asia 37,140 Central Amer- 8519 Dividich, 1976; Lozano, Cabrera, & Salazar, 1973). While
ica and Carib- there is limited commercial use for raw starch in foods, there
bean
is substantial application for such a trait in cooked starch.
India 16,450 Mexico 2027
China 5827 Costa Rica 1863 The value of slowly digestible and low-glycemic-index
Philippines 5500 Guatemala 1000 starch is embodied in the current diet craze of low carb
Indonesia 4312 Honduras 965 foods.
Thailand 1800 South America 15,152 In conclusion, banana starch has potential, both from its
Viet Nam 1220 Brazil 6518
digestion properties and functional properties, to have
Bangladesh 654 Ecuador 5609
Africa 6813 Colombia 1450 application in processed foods and become a commercially
Burundi 1600 Europe 441 viable starch product. Use of culls for production of starch
Egypt 850 Spain 405 would provide a starch that might be competitive in the
Cameroon 689 Oceania 1174 world starch market, improve banana economics, and
Uganda 615 Papua New 870
eliminate a large environmental problem presented by cull
Guinea
Total banana 69,286 bananas.
Africa 23,308 South America 6362
Uganda 10,000 Colombia 2925
Rwanda 2408 Peru 1600
Ghana 2300 Ecuador 860
2. Occurrence and transformation of banana starch
Nigeria 2110 Venezuela 760
Cote dIvoire 1420 Central Amer- 2261
ica and Carib- The composition of bananas changes dramatically during
bean ripening. von Loesecke (1950) classified banana ripening
Congo 1250 Cuba 797 into eight stages according to peel color. Starch is the
Cameroon 1200 Asia 1040
principal component of green bananas, which undergoes
Kenya 830 Sri Lanka 610
Total plantain 32,974 important changes during ripening. The average starch
content drops from 70 to 80% in the pre-climacteric (prior to
starch breakdown) period to less than 1% at the end of the
these culled bananas in animal feed and products such as climacteric period, while sugars, mainly sucrose, accumu-
late to more than 10% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Total
chips, flakes and powders, but they are used only to a limited
soluble sugar content can reach 16% or higher of the fruit
extent for these purposes due to the low value of such
fresh weight (about 80% water content), indicating a high
products. Therefore, in countries such as Costa Rica,
rate of conversion (Cordenunsi & Lajolo, 1995). Amylases
dumping of the rejected bananas into rivers is a common
participate in starch hydrolysis, but they are probably not
practice. The high carbohydrate content of the crop creates
linked to sucrose synthesis. Starchsucrose transformation
high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the rivers and,
during ripening of bananas involves several enzymes and
hence, reduces aquatic animal populations. more than one pathway. In spite of the importance of this
A successful industrial use of the culled bananas would transformation in terms of fruit physiology, little is known
alleviate the problem while offering employment and about the mechanisms involved.
financial return to the inhabitants. Most likely, the first Lii, Chang, and Young (1982) investigated changes
practical application of culled bananas would be use of the during ripening of dessert bananas with respect to physical
pulp for starch production or production of a low-cost and chemical properties of their starch and their content of
banana flour ingredient. Banana starch has the potential to reducing sugars and sucrose (shown in Table 2). Terra,
be a commodity starch because of its specific properties and Garcia, and Lajolo (1983) followed starch, sucrose, glucose,
its potential production from low-cost, cull bananas. Green and fructose concentrations and activity of some enzymes of
banana pulp contains up to 7080% starch on a dry weight sucrose synthesis during ripening of pre-climacteric (prior
basis, a percentage comparable to that in the endosperm of to starch breakdown) bananas (M. acuminata). As starch
corn grain and the pulp of white potato. was degraded, sucrose content increased and preceded
Native raw banana starch is known to be resistant to the accumulation of glucose and fructose. UDPglucose
attack of a-amylase and glucoamylase, with in vivo results pyrophosphorylase activity remained constant, while the
showing that 7584% of the starch granules ingested activity of sucrose synthase and invertase increased. The
reached the terminal ileum (Englyst & Cummings, 1986; observed sugar and enzyme changes indicated that starch
Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995). Although it was found that to sucrose transformation via glucose 1-phosphate
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
Table 2
Proximate compositions of the edible portion of banana at different stages as classified by the color of banana peel (Lii et al., 1982)
Stage Peel color Starch (%)
1 Green 61.7
2 Green 58.6
3 Green/a trace of yellow 42.4
4 More green than yellow 39.8
5 More yellow than green 37.6
6 Yellow with a green tip 9.7
7 All yellow 6.3
8 Yellow/a few brown spots 3.3
9 Yellow/many brown spots 2.6
and UDPglucose might be the mechanism for starch
disappearance during ripening.
Garcia and Lajolo (1988) detected activities of three a-
and four b-amylases and a-1,4- and a-1,6-glucosidase
activities at all stages of fruit ripening. They observed that
their activities increased significantly, but only at the
climacteric peak when much of the starch had already
disappeared. Only b-amylase activity increased before onset
of the respiration increase, and its activity paralleled starch
decrease. Konishi, Kitazato, and Nakatani (1992) purified
and partially characterized one acid a-glucosidase and two
neutral isoforms of a-glucosidase from pre-climacteric
banana pulp tissue. The acid a-glucosidase was determined
to be a typical maltase, while the neutral isoforms of
a-glucosidase were 50 times less active on maltose. The
authors concluded that the acid a-glucosidase is the enzyme
responsible for the hydrolysis of maltose and the malto-
oligosaccharides formed by the combined action of a- and
b-amylases. Only trace amounts of maltose were found in
ripening banana tissue.
Changes in sucrose synthase (SS) and sucrose phosphate
synthase (SPS) activities during development and ripening
of bananas and the carbohydrate changes in fruit that was
left to ripen on the tree, as compared to fruit that was
harvested green, were studied by a Brazilian group
(Cordenunsi & Lajolo, 1995; Do Nascimento, Cordenunsi,
& Lajolo, 2000; Do Nascimento, Cordenunsi, Lajolo, &
Alcocer, 1997). Starch contents, respiration rates, SS
activity, and SPS activity in crude extracts and in partially
purified preparations were followed during fruit develop-
ment and ripening in both attached and detached bananas.
During development of the fruit, SPS was present, but at a
very low activity level, while SS activity was high and
remained constant during the entire starch synthesis phase,
followed by a reduction during starch breakdown (climac-
teric) and then disappearance (post-climacteric). Data
showed that, while SS activity was almost abolished during
ripening, SPS activity increased concomitantly to starch
disappearance and sugar accumulation. The process was
slower for attached fruits (final sucrose content 6%, SS
activity 5 units, and SPS activity 33 units) when compared
to detached fruits (final sucrose content 12%, no SS activity,
and SPS activity 50 units).
445
Reducing sugar (%) Sucrose (%) Gelatinization temperature (8C)
0.2 1.2 7481
1.3 6.0 7580
10.8 18.4 7781
11.5 21.4 7578
12.4 27.9 7681
15.0 53.1 7680
31.2 51.9 7683
33.8 52.0 7983
33.6 53.2
An ethylene burst is the trigger of the banana ripening
process. Indole-3-acetic acid appeared to play a role in
carbohydrate metabolism in unripe bananas (M. acuminata,
AAA group, cv. Nanicao) via delaying starch degradation,
possibly by affecting the activity of hydrolytic enzymes
such as b-amylase (Purgatto, Lajolo, Oliveira do Nasci-
mento, & Cordenunsi, 2001). Also, Rossetto, Purgatto,
Oliveira do Nascimento, Lajolo, and Cordenunsi (2003)
reported that gibberellins play a role in starch-to-sucrose
conversion in bananas, reinforcing the idea of multiple
regulatory components acting in this metabolic pathway and
its dependence on the equilibrium between several hormo-
nal and metabolic signals.
The disappearance of the starch reserve during banana
ripening appears to be relatively rapid because of the
activities of several enzymes acting together (Cordenunsi &
Lajolo, 1995; Glass & Rand, 1982; Gomes & Lajolo, 1981;
Mao & Kinsella, 1981; Marriott, Robinson, & Karikari,
1981). It is, therefore, necessary to process the green
bananas for starch production soon after harvest.
3. Technologies of banana starch production
3.1. Alkaline extraction
A wet-milling process is suitable for banana starch
isolation due to the low level of impurities (Bello-Perez,
Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000). Lii et al. (1982) reported a
starch isolation technique from green Taiwan dessert
bananas that involved cutting them and macerating the
pulp in a sodium hydroxide solution of concentration of
0.1 M or less. The slurry was filtered first through cheese-
cloth, then bolting cloth. The starch was washed with water
and dried. They found that green banana pulp contained
0.24% reducing sugars, 1.23% sucrose, 5.30% protein,
0.78% fat, 0.49% fiber, 62% starch, and 3.27% ash, while
fully ripe banana pulp contained 33.6% reducing sugars,
53.2% sucrose, 5.52% protein, 0.68% fat, 0.30% fiber,
2.58% starch and 4.09% ash. These results are in
approximate agreement with those of other workers
analyzing different bananas. Ling, Osman, Fernandes, and
Reilly (1982) reported that the starch of green Cavendish
446 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

bananas could be isolated easily by extraction of the pulp obtained from a wholesale warehouse were 2060%,
with 1% sodium hydroxide solution. depending on banana ripeness.
Chiang, Chu, and Chu (1987) appear to have been the In other approaches, Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo,
first to produce banana starch on a pilot-plant scale. Taiwan Sanchez-Hernandez, and Paredes-Lopez (1999) reported
bananas (M. sapientum) were collected (green) 112116 yields of starch from Macho and Criollo banana
days after petal fall. They weighed an average of 82 g per (M. paradisiacal) as 43.8 and 11.8%, respectively. A high
finger, had a pulp to peel ratio of 1.1, a pulp weight basis of yield (80.5%) of starch from commercial green bananas was
30% of the total solids, and a pulp starch content of 81% also reported (Bello-Perez, Pano de Leon, Agama-Acevedo,
(db); the pulp also contained, on a dry weight basis, 6.4% & Paredes-Lopez, 1998). Waliszewski, Aparicio, Bello, and
protein, 8.5% fiber and 2.5% pectin. Peeled bananas were Monroy (2003) reported a 33.8% dry basis yield of starch
sliced and milled with 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution from Valery bananas.
using a stone mill. The starch was washed on a shaker, Different ripening stages and different banana species are
collected by centrifugation, and then dried at 50 8C. The likely the main factors behind the yield differences.
peel contained 5% pectin and 21% fiber. Peel removal was
reported to be necessary for efficient handling. Immersion of
3.3. Production of dietary fiber from bananas
fresh bananas in 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution was
deemed necessary for proper handling of the pulp and to
While starch production could alone produce a creditable
obtain a 70% yield of starch with a purity of ca. 94%.
outlet for cull bananas, there is also a possibility of
Fichtali, Owusu-Ansah, and Chang (1999) developed a
commercial markets for other constituents of the pomace
process to extract starch from green, un-gassed reject
remaining after starch production. The peel of culled
bananas that were diced and disintegrated in a Fitzpatrick
bananas could be a rich, low-cost source of dietary fiber
comminuting mill in a 0.05 M solution of sodium
(mainly hemicelluloses and pectic polysaccharides).
hydroxide. The milled banana slurry was sequentially
Although little is known of the hemicelluloses of banana
screened to pass 60-, 80-, and 200-mesh screens to remove
peel, there is a great likelihood, from initial investigations,
peel fibers and pomace. Crude starch was concentrated,
that the hemicelluloses (constituting ca. 20% of the peel)
counter-current washed with water, and then dewatered to a
will have solution properties, or can be given solution
solids content of 55%. Starch thus obtained had a brownish
properties, that would make them valuable additions as
color and was re-slurried in water for washing in a nozzle
gums/hydrocolloids in the food and non-food industries.
bowl centrifuge. The slurry was further centrifuged in a
basket centrifuge and dried to a moisture content of 9.2%.
Obtained starch (white in color) had a purity of more than
95%, less than 1% protein, and less than 0.07% ash.

3.2. Non-alkaline extraction

Kayisu, Hood, and Vansoest (1981) studied the extrac-

tion of starch from green bananas with water. Sliced
bananas were disintegrated in a Waring blender at low
speed. The mixture was centrifuged, and the dark material
on the top of the pellet was scraped off. Crude starch was
washed with water. The starch-containing suspension was
decanted and allowed to stand 15 min for the starch to settle.
The purity of the thus-obtained starch was 99.5%.
Whistler (1998) developed a cost-efficient process for
producing starch from cull bananas. This process uses a
minimum amount of processing chemicals, machinery, and
processing time. Banana pulp was steeped in aqueous
sodium bisulfite solution at pH of 3.55.5 for 28 h, more
preferably for about 4 h, at ambient to slightly elevated
temperatures. During this steeping period, the endogenous
banana enzymes, such as pectinase and polygalacturonase,
disintegrate the cell walls, allowing starch granules to be
released into the aqueous steeping solution. The mixture
was passed through wire screens to remove cell walls and
other non-starch pulp-mass material, then centrifuged. Fig. 1. Photograph of starch granules from green plantains (Zhang &
Yields of dried starch (white in color) from green bananas Whistler, 2002).
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 447

Zhang and Whistler (2002) investigated isolation and

characterization of hemicellulose from banana peel remain-
ing after starch production. The ability of banana peel
hemicelluloses to activate a macrophage cell line as an
indicator of immune stimulation was determined, indicating
that they have the potential to be used as a health-promoting
dietary supplement (Zhang et al., 2004).
If banana starch is deemed to have potential in the world
starch market, examination of its useful properties would be
undertaken first, followed by a pilot-plant production. In
addition, research emphasis should include realization of
value from residual peels and pomace.

4. Starch granule size and microscopic appearance

In general, starch granules from various banana types,

while being irregular in shape, appear microscopically as
elongated ovals with ridges (Eggleston, Swennen, & Akoni,
1992; Jane, Kasemsuwan, Leas, Zobel, & Robyt, 1994; Lii
et al., 1982; Ling et al., 1982; Kayisu et al., 1981; Zhang &
Whistler, 2002) (Figs. 13). Major axes range from 6 to
80 mm, mostly between 20 and 60 mm. Eccentric birefrin-
gence was observed under polarized light (Fig. 2B) in starch
granules of green Taiwan bananas. The growth rings do not
appear to be elliptical around the hilum (Fig. 1) as they are Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of starch granules from green (A)
and ripe (B) Valery bananas (Kayisu et al., 1981), reproduced with
permission of the Institute of Food Technologists.

in most granules. Cavendish banana starch was highly

irregular in shape and size (Ling et al., 1982). Scanning
electron micrographs of Valery banana starch revealed
irregularly shaped granules among the elongated
and spheroid forms. The spheroid forms varied from 15 to
40 mm in diameter. Elongated granules were 725 mm in
width and 2050 mm in length. The surface of green banana
starch granules appeared smooth, while that of ripe banana
granules had parallel striations (Fig. 3) (Kayisu et al., 1981),
perhaps due to erosion. This likely shows that some areas
are more difficult to hydrolyze that others (crystalline
regions appearing after partial hydrolysis/digestion). Small
granules disappeared more rapidly during ripening than
large granules (Lii et al., 1982), presumably due to their
greater surface area. Waliszewski et al. (2003) reported a
granule shape for Valery banana starches similar to that
reported by Kayisu et al. (1981), but with larger dimensions
(1488 mm in width and 21108 mm in length). Plantain
starches had a broad range of granule sizes (7.861.3 mm),
with a number average diameter of ca. 26 mm (Table 3)
(Eggleston et al., 1992).

5. Composition and structure of banana starch granules

Fig. 2. Photograph of green banana starch granules: (A) under normal light;
(B) under polarized light (Lii et al., 1982), reproduced with permission of The functionality of starches is dependent on the
the Institute of Food Technologists. proportions of their amylose and amylopectin components,
448 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

Table 3
Granular characteristics of plantain starches (Eggleston et al., 1992)

Starch Density at 30 8C (mL/g) Water-binding capacity (%) Granule size (mm)

Average diameter Range
Plantains
Ihitisim 1.625 63.6 26.5 7.853.1
Agbagba 1.637 62.9 26.6 9.751.6
Obino LEwai 1.621 63.3 26.0 7.861.3
Bobby Tannap 1.621 71.7 24.1 9.156.4
Plantain hybrids
548/4 1.639 64.6 26.4 6.469.8
548/9 1.628 62.5 26.6 9.465.6
582/4 1.625 62.0 29.0 6.469.8
566.32 1.631 62.4 35.1 7.174.3
Cooking bananas
Blugoe 1.629 63.5 30.9 7.276.4
Fougamou 1.641 69.9 16.4 3.950.8

their molecular size and structures, starch granule proper-
ties, and to some degree, other components (lipids and
proteins) associated with the granules.
Amylose contents of banana starch were reported to be
16% by Kayisu and Hood (1981), 19.5% (Cavendish) by
Ling et al. (1982), ca. 17% (Cavendish) by Garcia and Lajolo
(1988), and 40.7% (Valery) by Waliszewski et al. (2003).
Chemical compositions of starches from bananas (plantains,
plantain hybrids, and cooking bananas) were reported by
Eggleston et al. (1992) (Table 4). Amylose contents in
plantains were mostly in the 1011% range. Cereal starches,
on the other hand, typically have amylose contents in the
2025% range. The molecular weight of banana starch
amylose was reported to be 270,000 (Greenwood, 1960).
Debranching of the starch and its b-limit dextrin with
pullulanase revealed that banana amylopectin has popu-
lations of DP n 45 and DP n 15 chains in a molar ratio of 1:6
(Kayisu & Hood, 1981). The b-amylolysis limit of banana
starch was 67.3%, and the average chain lengths of the
pullulanase-debranched starch and the debranched b-limit
dextrin were 26 and 10, respectively. The lmax of the starch
iodine complex (Valery) was reported as 563, 577, 583 nm
Table 4
Composition of starches from plantains (Eggleston et al., 1992)
(Macho) and 589 nm (Criollo) (Bello-Perez et al., 1999;
Nunez-Santiago, Bello-Perez, & Tecante, 2004; Waliszewski
et al., 2003), which gives an additional indication of the
rather high amylopectin contents of these starches. Amylo-
pectin has a lmax of about 560 nm as compared to amylose,
which is about 620 nm. Banana Naegeli dextrin had a lower
concentration of singly branched chains (Fig. 4c) as
compared with normal maize Naegeli dextrin (Fig. 4a).
Chromatographic analysis of Naegeli dextrins indicated a
closely clustered branching pattern of the banana amylo-
pectin (Jane, Wong, & McPherson, 1997). The molecular
weight and molecular distribution (polydispersity) of
banana starch amylopectin has not been published.
Raw starch is a semi-crystalline material, and the degree
and type of crystallinity present is dependent mainly on the
structural characteristics of amylopectin, though retro-
graded (re-associated) amylose also produces a unique
type of crystalline structure. Katz (1937) distinguished three
types (A, B, and C) of crystalline structure for starch
granules. Most cereal starches give A patterns; tuber,
amylomaize, and retrograded starch yield B patterns; and
certain root and seed starches, such as pea and bean starches,

Starch (%) Amylose (%) Protein (%) Ash (%) Phosphorus (%) a-Amylase susceptibility (%)
Plantains
Ihitisim 11.2 0.94 0.34 0.022 1.10
Agbagba 11.9 0.87 0.27 0.020 1.27
Obino LEwai 11.1 0.98 0.32 0.020 1.70
Bobby Tannap 11.3 1.07 0.30 ND 1.83
Plantain hybrids
548/4 10.3 1.08 ND 0.024 1.87
548/9 10.3 1.06 ND 0.031 1.83
582/4 9.1 ND 0.28 0.031 1.82
566.32 12.0 ND 0.32 ND 1.51
Cooking bananas
Blugoe 12.9 0.99 0.41 0.021 2.64
Fougamou 17.2 1.02 0.35 0.027 2.23

ND, not determined.

 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
Fig. 4. HPAEC-ENZ-PAD chromatograms of normal maize (a), potato (b),
banana (c) Naegeli dextrins with 66, 63, and 65% of total acid hydrolysis,
respectively (Jane et al., 1997), reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
show C patterns. B-type diffraction patterns for banana
starch (Fig. 5A) have been often reported (Faisant, Buleon
et al., 1995; Lii et al., 1982; Teixeira, Ciacco, Tavares, &
Bonezzi, 1998). Chang, Li, and Yang (1991), Jane et al.
(1997) and Waliszewski et al. (2003) assigned a C-type
pattern to banana starches. Bello-Perez et al. (2000) reported
a typical A-type diffraction pattern for banana (Macho and
Criollo) starches. So the crystalline type is not clear. We can
only assume that the results of these various investigations
were properly interpreted and that, therefore, banana starch
can have A-type crystallinity, B-type crystallinity, or a
mixture of the two depending on the varietal source and/or
the growing conditions (environment) and/or the isolation
technique. Percentage crystallinity has not been addressed
in the literature so far.
Overall, it appears that the complete picture with respect
to fine structure of banana starch from different plant
sources and its relationship with functionality to application
remains undetermined.
6. Physicochemical properties of banana starch
In terms of food applications, the functionality of starch
is largely related to its gelatinization and pasting character-
istics. When heated in water, starch granules swell
dramatically, as well as lose their crystallinity, at their
gelatinization temperature. Amylose typically leaches out of
449
Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction patterns (A) and differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) (B) for (a) raw green banana flour, (b) a pooled ileal sample
containing undigested banana starch, and (c) a resistant starch residue
prepared in vitro from green banana flour (Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995),
reproduced with permission of CAB International.
granules as they swell. Continued swelling results in
rupturing of the swollen granule structure and solubilization
(at least partially) of amylose and some amylopectin
molecules. Networked amylose and amylopectin molecules
and entrapped swollen granules and fragmented starch
structures are responsible for viscosity and gel character-
istics. The ability of amylose to retrograde rapidly and
amylopectin to retrograde more slowly produces gels and
affects the texture of starch-based products over time. The
versatile physical structures of starch granules and the fine
structure of their constituent polysaccharides are respon-
sible for a wide variety of applications.
It is, thus, pertinent to review the numerous factors that
determine banana starch functionality in foods (or for
industrial purposes) and to compare them to current
commercial starches.
6.1. Swelling power and solubility
Swelling power and solubility provide evidence of the
magnitude of interaction between starch chains within both
450 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
the amorphous and crystalline domains. The extent of this
interaction is influenced by the amylose: amylopectin ratio
and by the characteristics of amylose and amylopectin in
terms of molecular weight distribution, degree of branching,
length of branches, and conformation of the molecules
(Ratnayake, Hoover, & Warkentin, 2002). Certain amylose
lipid complexes restrict swelling and solubilization (Hoover
& Hadziyev, 1981). Also, protein within granules play an
important role in controlling the swelling of granules (Han,
Campanella, Guan, Keeling, & Hamaker, 2002a,b; Han &
Hamaker, 2002).
The swelling and solubility patterns of green Valery
banana starches were compared to those of other starches
(Fig. 6) (Kayisu et al., 1981). Valery banana starch had a
two stage-swelling pattern (Fig. 6a). Dissolution of banana
starch was also compared to that of tapioca, potato, and milo
(sorghum) starches (Fig. 6b). As in the case of swelling
power, the solubility of banana starch was close to that of
milo (sorghum) starch, and much lower than that of tapioca
and potato starches.
Taiwan green banana starch exhibited a wide variation in
swelling power and solubility depending on the ripening
Fig. 6. Swelling (a) and solubility patterns (b) of green Valery banana starch
() with other starches for comparative purposes (Kayisu et al., 1981),
reproduced with permission of the Institute of Food Technologists.
stages (Lii et al., 1982). At 95 8C, swelling power and
solubility were in the ranges 30.135.3 (method of Leach,
McCowen, & Schoch, 1959) and 16.321.7%, respectively,
and in addition, banana starch exhibits rapid increases in
swelling power (from 2.1 to 35.3) and solubility (from 0.14
to 21.7%) within the temperature range 6595 8C. Viscoa-
mylographic data suggested cross-bonding in the granule
(Eggleston et al., 1992; Lii et al., 1982).
Ling et al. (1982) reported that Cavendish starch
granules, which were variable in both shape and size,
exhibited surface cracking when heated in water to 65 8C;
progressively greater swelling, deformation, and erosion
occurred between 708 and 90 8C (Fig. 7).
6.2. Gelatinization
Starch, when heated in the presence of excess water,
undergoes the order to disorder phase transition known as
gelatinization over a temperature range characteristic of the
starch source. This phase transition is associated with
diffusion of water into the granule, water uptake by the
amorphous background region, hydration and radial swel-
ling of the starch granules, loss of birefringence, loss of
crystalline order, uptake of heat, uncoiling and dissociation
of double helices in the crystalline regions and amylose
leaching (Donovan, 1979; Evans & Haismann, 1982).
Gelatinization is followed by pasting. The gelatinization
process, which is a function of the starch: water ratio, can be
followed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Initial
(To), peak (Tp), and completion (Tc) gelatinization tempera-
tures can be obtained from DSC thermograms.
The gelatinization temperature was reported to be
6770 8C (Table 5) (Kayisu et al., 1981) and 69.5 8C
(Waliszewski et al., 2003) for Valery banana starch and in
the range of 70.174.6 8C for Cavendish banana starch
(Ling et al., 1982). For Macho and Criollo banana starches,
gelatinization temperatures of 77 and 74 8C were reported,
respectively (Table 6) (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al.,
2000). Lii et al. (1982) investigated some physiochemical
properties of dessert banana starches as a function of
ripening stage; for stage 1, temperatures of 75, 77.5 and
80 8C for To, Tp and Tc, respectively, were found. These
values are somewhat different from those reported by
Waliszewski et al. (2003) (Table 6). Gelatinization enthalpy
(DH) of Macho banana starch was found to be 14.0 and
16.8 J/g (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000; Nunez-
Santiago et al., 2004). The gelatinization temperature of
starch from green bananas was found to be 69.4 8C with an
enthalpy 17.1 J/g by Faisant, Buleon et al. (1995) (Fig. 5B).
6.3. Pasting properties
In general, banana starches show restricted swelling
patterns with good stability, behaviors that are very similar
to those of slightly chemically cross-linked starches. A
banana starch paste had a Brabender viscoamylograph peak
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458 451

Fig. 7. Scanning electron micrographs at about 1100! magnification of green Cavendish banana starch granules: (a) room temperature, (b) 65 8C, (c) 70 8C, (d)
75 8C, (e) 85 8C, (f) 90 8C (Ling et al., 1982), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.

viscosity four times that of a corn starch paste of the same
concentration (6%) (Ling et al., 1982). Banana starch
paste showed the highest viscoamylograph viscosities after
958C compared to the common food starches in Table 5.
Table 5
Brabender pasting temperature and viscosities of banana and common food starches
Kayisu et al. (1981) reported Brabender viscosity curves for
Valery banana starches (Fig. 8a). At low concentrations, the
banana starch granules apparently resisted mechanical
fragmentation. This explains the absence of a peak viscosity

Starch Pasting temperature (8C) Brabender viscosity units

Peak 95 8C 95 8C hold 50 8C 50 8C hold
Banana 6770 w960 w860 w800 w1190 w1050
Potato 61 2500 850 340 600 630
Tapioca 59 1400 520 280 500 510
Waxy corn 69 1000 400 250 390 370
Corn 73 470 470 350 830 760
Wheat 77 65 60 60 300 270

Adapted from Zobel (1984) with banana data from Kayisu et al. (1981) (Conditions: 7% starch; 1.5 8C/min heating rate; regular 60 min hold at 95 and 50 8C).

Table 6
Thermal properties of banana (Musa paradisiacal) starches (Bello-Perez, Agama-Acevedo et al., 2000; Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004)

Type of starch To (8C) Tp (8C) Tc (8C) TcTo (8C) DH (J/g) T (8C)

Macho 69.6 74.5 81.6 12.0 13.0 77.3
Macho 75.5 80.7 90.0 14.5 16.8 75.0
Criollo 71.4 75.0 80.4 9.0 14.8 74.3

T, pasting temperature from RVA curves.

452 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
Fig. 8. Brabender viscoamylograms of green Valery banana starch (Kayisu
et al., 1981) (a), and Taiwan dessert banana starch (Lii et al., 1982) (b),
reproduced with permission of the Institute of Food Technologists.
and only a slight increase in viscosity during cooking.
Viscosity profiles at higher concentrations (7 and 8%)
demonstrated a pronounced peak viscosity and breakdown.
This behavior may be explained by the fact that, at higher
concentrations, swollen granules occupy most of the space
and cannot move apart from each other, resulting in
fragmentation. Banana starches at higher concentrations
underwent pronounced setback (retrogradation) during
cooling. Lii et al. (1982) reported similar result for Taiwan
dessert bananas, but viscosities for were somewhat higher.
Amylograms of 5% starch pastes showed no pasting peak
and belonged to the restricted-swelling type (Fig. 8b).
Eggleston et al. (1992) reported that no maximum paste
viscosities were observed from plantains (AAB group) at 6,
7, and 8% concentrations (Fig. 9), which indicates that the
swollen granules were rather resistant to breakdown on
prolonged cooking. In conclusion, banana starch may have
the superior property of behaving somewhat like a lightly
cross-linked starch.
6.4. Rheology
Rotational viscometers are often used to examine the
rheological properties of gelatinized starches. Bello-Perez
et al. (1998) cooked banana starch in a boiling-water bath
for 15 and 30 min, cooled the paste to 25 8C, and then
measured the apparent viscosity with a Brookfield
viscometer. The apparent viscosity of the pastes decreased
when the shear rate increased from 2 to 20 rpm, indicating
shear-thinning behavior (Fig. 10a) (Bello-Perez et al., 1998;
Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004). Higher values of apparent
viscosity of banana starch pastes were found when the
suspension was heated for a longer time, and the viscosity of
banana starch pastes remained stable at constant shear rate
20 rpm (Fig. 10b). The cited study did not compare the
rheological properties of banana starch with those of other
commercial starches.
7. Modified banana starches
7.1. Chemical modification
Bello-Perez, Contreras-Ramos, Jimenez-Aparicio, and
Paredes-Lopez (2000) reported the effect of acetylation (DS
0.04) on banana (M. paradisiacal L., var. Macho) starch.
The modified starch had a minor tendency to retrograde. At
high temperatures, acetylated banana starch had a water
retention capacity similar to that of the native starch.
Acetylation considerably increased the solubility and
swelling power of banana starch compared with native
banana starch. When freezethaw stability was studied,
acetylated banana starch drained approximately 60% of
water in the first and second cycles, but in the third and
fourth cycles, the percentage of separated water was low.
Acetylation increased the viscosity of banana starch pastes.
Usefulness of the modified starches as additives in frozen
desserts and as thickeners in soups was suggested.
Waliszewski et al. (2003) carried out a study on properties
of native and pregelatinized, phosphorylated (with sodium
tripolyphosphate), phosphate cross-linked (with sodium
trimetaphosphate) and hydroxypropylated banana starch.
Molar substitutions (MS) of the three chemically modified
starches were reported to be 0.16, 0.20, and 0.017,
respectively. Hydroxypropylated banana starch had more
than 50% higher water-binding capacity than the native
starch. Phosphorylated and hydroxypropylated banana
starches showed improvement in paste clarity; phosphory-
lated starch showed the best freezethaw stability. Hydro-
xypropylated and phosphorylated starches showed
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
Fig. 9. Brabender viscoamylograms of 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8% green plantain hybrid starch (starch suspension was heated from 25 to 95 8C, kept at this temperature
for 20 min, then cooled to 50 8C and held at this temperature for 20 min). (Eggleston et al., 1992), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.
significant decreases in initial temperature of gelatinization.
Results of water-binding capacity and swelling power of
native and chemically modified starches submitted to heating
from 50 to 90 8C are given in Table 7. Chemical
modifications improved starch water-binding when hydro-
philic groups were incorporated. At the lowest temperature
(50 8C), the greatest increase in water-binding was observed
in phosphorylated starch. When the temperature was
increased to 90 8C, water-binding capacity increased, with
the highest value obtained for hydroxypropylated starch. At
90 8C, this modified starch showed over 50% higher water-
binding capacity than the native starch. The results again
indicate that Valery banana starch has fairly restricted
swelling power. Hydroxypropylated starch showed small
increases in swelling power; however, phosphorylated and
cross-linked starch did not. Overall, native banana starch had
low solubility that was improved by chemical modification or
pre-gelatinization. Phosphorylated starch had the best
stability in freezethaw cycles, with no syneresis being
observed after four cycles. After 10 cycles, only 10%
syneresis occurred. Hydroxypropyl and phosphorylated
starch showed significant decreases in initial temperature
of gelatinization. All chemically modified starches showed
significant increase in gelatinization enthalpy.
7.2. Enzymic and physical modifications
There are a number of products that may be made by
treating starches with enzymes. Adams (1979) reported a
small-scale production of vinegar from banana starch. Iizuka,
Uenakai, Svendsby, and Yamamoto (1985) reported a process
to enhance the fermentation by heating of green fingers at ca.
453
80 8C for 30 min. This study greatly improved the digestibility
of the banana starch by glucoamylase and resulted in good
alcohol production by yeast. The addition of pectic enzymes
also accelerated the fermentation process.
Verhoff, Blatteis, and Barrett (1997) developed a process
for conversion of green bananas to syrups using a sequence of
steps involving grinding the bananas, heating the pulp, and
treatment with an a-amylase to convert the starch into malto-
oligosaccharides (liquefaction). They then changed con-
ditions and treated the degraded starch molecules and other
substances in the liquefied fluid with enzymes such as amylo-
glucosidase, pectinase, cellulase, macerase, etc. Finally the
product was filtered and evaporated to a suitable concen-
tration. A 6769% conversion of the total solids to sugars was
achieved. pH and temperature controls in each of the con-
version steps were deemed important to the yield of glucose.
A granular cold-water-swelling starch was prepared from
banana starch by treating it with ethanolic sodium hydroxide
solution. (Bello-Perez, Romero-Manilla, & Paredes-Lopez,
2000). Solubility and swelling profiles were similar for the
modified starches and the freezethaw stability of the
modified starches was increased as compared with the poor
stability of the native starch (Bello-Perez et al., 1999).
Apparent viscosity of the modified banana starch pastes was
higher than that of the native starch pastes. The granular
cold-water-swelling starch was suggested to be useful as an
ingredient of instant foods.
7.3. Prospects and challenges
New and more useful commercial starches can poten-
tially be developed using chemical, physical, and biological
454 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458

physically (mainly via pre-gelatinization) or by slight and

relatively simple chemical modifications to fulfill the needs
of various industries.
Chemically modified food starches generally show better
paste clarity and stability, increased resistance to retro-
gradation, and better freezethaw stability. Banana starch,
along with rice, pea, and amaranth starches, are promising
for new base starches to be employed in modification
processes (BeMiller, 1997). However, it should be pointed
out that the use of chemically modified starches in the food
industry is somewhat restricted in some regions by
sophisticated consumers, legislation, and economics (Lill-
ford & Morrison, 1997). The value of modified banana
starch, if any, will be superior properties for specific niche
applications since no starch competes economically with
native and modified corn starches at this time. However, the
full range of allowable modifications of different banana
starches has not been investigated.

8. Digestibility of banana starch

8.1. Raw starch digestibility

Digestibility of raw native starches has been attributed to

Fig. 10. Effect of mechanical shear on paste viscosity (a) and paste viscosity
at constant shear 20 rpm of 5% (db) (b) banana starch paste determined
using a Brookfield viscometer at 25 8C: & spindle No. 2 and cooked in a
boiling bath for 30 min, % spindle No. 2 and cooked for 15 min, ! spindle
No. 3 and cooked for 30 min, : spindle No. 3 and cooked for 15 min
(Bello-Perez et al., 1998), reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.
modification. The potential is even greater that new useful
starch products will result from combinations of these
modifications with allowable reagents and levels of
addition. Native starches represent many disadvantages,
such as a high tendency of their pastes to retrograde and
synerese, and the poor freezethaw stability and cohesive-
ness of their pastes, thus limiting their application for food
and industrial products (Fleche, 1985; Wurtzburg, 1986).
Many starches available commercially have been modified
Table 7
Water-binding capacity (g of water retention/g of starch!100) and swelling power (g of water/g of dry starch!100) of native and chemically modified Valery
banana starch (Waliszewski et al., 2003)
the interplay of many factors, such as starch source, granule
size, amylose:amylopectin ratio, extent of molecular associ-
ation between starch components, degree of crystallinity,
amylose chain length, and presence of amyloselipid com-
plexes (Cummings & Englyst, 1995). Large granules such as
those of raw potato and banana starches are known to be rather
susceptible to mechanical alteration, especially after being in
the low pH environment of the stomach (Gallant et al., 1992).
Factors imparting resistance to native starches remain obscure,
but several have been proposed: the type and degree of
crystallinity (Ring, Gee, Whittam, Orford, & Johnson, 1988),
amylose content (Behall, Scholfield, Yuhaniak, & Canary,
1989; Cone & Wolters, 1990), and granule size (Franco, do
Rio Preto, Ciacco, & Geraldo, 1992). Morphology and
ultrastructure, such as the specific area and porosity of
granules, should also be considered (Colonna, Leloup, &
Buleon, 1992; Gallant et al., 1992).
The principal commercial starch, corn starch, is digested
by hydrolytic enzymes (amylases) which access the interior
of granules via channels, i.e. corn starch granules are

Starch type Water-binding capacity Swelling power

50 8C 60 8C 70 8C 80 8C 90 8C 50 8C 60 8C 70 8C 80 8C 90 8C
Native 8.9 19.3 35.1 40.4 44.7 1.8 2.2 2.3 7.8 8.7
Phosphate (DS 0.16) 16.7 30.7 41.4 46.1 49.1 3.3 6.1 6.7 9.0 9.8
Cross-linked phosphate (MS 0.20) 9.6 19.6 34.7 42.7 44.7 1.9 3.6 5.9 9.0 9.0
Hydroxypropyl (MS 0.017) 11.5 29.8 48.8 60.8 68.8 2.3 3.2 9.0 12.4 13.8
Pre-gelatinized 40.3 42.8 42.9 43.1 43.0 8.0 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.6
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
primarily hydrolyzed from the inside out (Hood & Liboff,
1983; Leach & Schoch, 1961; Nikuni & Whistler, 1957).
The starch granules of corn and related cereals (sorghum
and millet) have channels connecting the internal cavity
with the external environment (Huber & BeMiller, 1997).
The large granules of wheat, rye, and barley also contain
openings to channels at the equatorial groove (Fannon,
Hauber, and BeMiller, 1992). On the other hand, starches
without pores and channels, such as potato, yam, and lily
starches, digest through surface erosion of the granule
(Gallant, Bouchet, Buleon, & Perez, 1992; Jane et al., 1997).
Banana starch is in the latter category, and raw, i.e.
uncooked, banana starch appears to be resistant to enzyme-
catalyzed hydrolysis (Cerning-Beroard & le Dividich, 1976;
Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Englyst & Cummings, 1986;
Eggleston et al., 1992; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant,
Gallant, Bouchet, & Champ, 1995; Fuwa, Sugimoto,
Takaya, & Nikuni, 1979; Sugimoto, Fujita, Takaya, &
Fuwa, 1980; Teixeira et al., 1998).
8.2. Resistant raw banana starch
Native raw banana starch appeared to be highly resistant
to hydrolysis by enzymes (Cerning-Beroard & le Dividich,
1976; Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Eggleston et al., 1992;
Englyst & Cummings, 1986; Englyst, Veenstra, & Hudson,
1996; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant, Gallant et al.,
1995; Fuwa et al., 1979; Sugimoto et al., 1980). Micro-
scopic observations revealed that raw banana flour con-
tained irregularly shaped starch granules with smooth
surfaces. A smooth and dense surface of native banana
starch granules could partially account for their resistance. It
is likely, as indicated by scanning and transmission electron
microscope studies (Gallant et al., 1992), that the starch
granule has an external thick layer (several mm) of larger
blocklets that impede enzyme action and reduce the rate of
hydrolysis. Perhaps the density of such blocklets is higher at
the periphery of banana starch granules. In addition, some
residual cell walls present in banana flour may have
entrapped starch granules, thereby protecting them from
enzymic attack (Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Tester &
Karkalas, 2002). In conclusion, it is likely that both intrinsic
resistance and encapsulation of starch granules are respon-
sible for the low digestibility of raw banana starch and flour.
The breakdown of starch during banana ripening occurs
rather rapidly, but over a period of many hours. However, as
mentioned above, raw banana starch is known to present a
low susceptibility to non-banana amylases, including the
a-amylase of rats (Fujita, Glover, Sugimoto, & Fuwa, 1982)
and humans (Englyst & Cummings, 1986). Englyst and
Cummings (1986) found that up to 78% of ingested
a-glucans from raw banana starch escaped digestion in the
small intestine of ileostomates. They studied the digestion
and absorption of banana carbohydrates from the small
bowel by feeding ileostomy subjects raw banana from six
batches of different ripeness and measuring the amounts
455
excreted in the effluent. Up to 90% of the starch could be
accounted for in the effluent. The amount of banana starch not
hydrolyzed and absorbed in the human small intestine, and
therefore passing into the colon, may be up to eight times
more than the non-starch polysaccharide (fiber) present in the
banana fruit, of course depending on the degree of ripeness
when the fruit is eaten. Only 23% of the starch fed was
recovered as starch in the ileostomy effluent, but in those
cases where there was substantial starch in the banana, there
was a large increase in the amounts of maltose, maltotriose,
and other starch-derived saccharides recovered in the
effluent. The possible, but not established, difference in the
breakdown of raw banana starch in the ripening banana
versus the mammalian digestive tract could be the result of
different enzyme systems.
Faisant, Buleon et al. (1995) and Faisant, Gallant et al.
(1995) studied the digestion of freeze-dried green banana
flour in the upper gut by an intubation technique in six
healthy subjects over a 14 h period. The banana flour used in
their study was composed of 38 g/kg protein, 92 g/kg
dietary fiber, and total a-glucans 770 g/kg (60 g/kg
oligosaccharides and 710 g/kg insoluble starch). Using
the method of Englyst, Kingman, and Cummings (1992),
resistant starch (RS) content (see Section 8.2) was 542 g/kg
(Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995). Eighty-four percent of
ingested a-glucans reached the terminal ileum, but were
then almost totally fermented in the colon by the microflora,
a potentially positive result relating to colonic health.
Oligosaccharides and the more easily digestible fraction of
RS should ferment more rapidly than the resistant part.
Structural study of the resistant fraction showed that only a
small part of the a-glucans that escaped digestion in the
small intestine was composed of oligosaccharides from
starch hydrolysis; the rest was insoluble starch in granular
form with physical characteristics similar to those of raw
banana starch. The gelatinization temperature of the
recovered resistant starch was reduced to ca. 61 8C,
compared with 69.4 8C for the raw starch (Fig. 5b). The
84% RS value (see Section 8.2) found by Faisant, Buleon
et al. (1995) was greater than the about 72% RS found in
vivo by Englyst and Cummings (1986) in ileostomized
subjects given unripe bananas. The difference may be due to
the degree of banana ripeness in the two studies.
It is important to know structures of the a-glucans that
escape digestion in the small intestine since they will
indicate the digestive mechanism involved and be predictive
of their fate in the colon. Results with banana flour
confirmed that a substantial starch fraction escaped diges-
tion because of limited time and/or capacity for hydrolysis
(Faisant et al., 1993). The major part of the starch granules
collected in the terminal ileum could have been partially
hydrolyzed by amylolytic enzymes. After their passage
through the small intestine, banana starch granules appeared
to be exo-corroded; some exhibited several irregular pits,
crevices or holes (Faisant, Gallant et al., 1995).
456 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
Thus, the porosity and surface area may have been altered
during passage through the small intestine.
8.3. Cooked banana starch
Starch can be classified as rapidly digestible starch
(RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS), and resistant starch
(Englyst et al., 1992). The designations of rapidly available
glucose (RAG) and slowly available glucose (SAG) reflect
the rate at which glucose becomes available for absorption
in the human small intestine. The search for new sources of
slowly digestible and low-glycemic-index starches or
techniques to manipulate, and therefore moderate, starch
digestion properties in ingredients will permit the formu-
lation of starch-based processed foods with low glycemic
indices and extended energy release characteristics. Starch
fractions in raw banana flour (total starch content 75%) were
reported to be RDS 3%, SDS 15%, RS 57%, and RAG 6%
(Englyst et al., 1992).
Digestion performance of cooked banana starch would
be of importance to the food industry, since the consumption
of cooked starch in human food is much more common than
that of raw starch, so the influence of cooking on rate and
degree of banana starch digestion needs to be further
investigated. No recent papers were found on digestion
properties of cooked banana starch, although older citations
give an implication that it may have a comparative long
digestion characteristic. After cooking, the easily digesti-
ble/hydrolyzable starch fraction of banana starch was only
47% of the total, comparable to that of a known low-
digestible cooked yam starch (40%) (Cerning-Beroard & le
Dividich, 1976; Lozano et al., 1973).
9. Conclusion and outlook
The available literature suggests that banana starch has
quality attributes that could give it a place in the commercial
starch industry, both as native starch and as modified food
starch. The specific properties of banana starch include, but
are not limited to, the following:
(1) Relatively low amylose contents in majority of the
reports (ca. 1020%) (Eggleston et al., 1992; Garcia &
Lajolo, 1988; Kayisu & Hood, 1981; Ling et al., 1982)
and high (ca. 12%) protein contents (Bello-Perez et al.,
1998, 1999; Eggleston et al., 1992; Lii et al., 1982;
Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004) compared with protein
contents of !0.6% for common commercial starches
(Tester et al., 2004);
(2) Restricted swelling, low solubility, and negligible
retrogradation. Comparably low swelling power and
low solubility may reflect a more ordered, more
strongly bonded, denser granule structure (Eggleston
et al., 1992; Faisant, Gallant et al., 1995; Kayisu &
Hood, 1981; Lii et al., 1982; Nunez-Santiago et al.,
2004; Sugimoto et al., 1980; Waliszewski et al., 2003;
Zhang & Whistler, 2002);
(3) Sufficient strength to maintain granule integrity during
prolonged heating. Pasting and paste properties of
banana starch suggest that it behaves as if it were
slightly cross-linked. Brabender amylograph showed
high break down and cooling viscosities for banana
starch pastes (Bello-Perez et al., 1998; Ling et al., 1982;
Nunez-Santiago et al., 2004; Rodriguez-Sosa & Parsi-
Ros, 1984);
(4) High resistance of raw banana starch to the attack of a-
amylase and glucoamylase in in vivo and in vitro
digestions, with 7584% of the starch granules ingested
reaching the terminal ileum (Cerning-Beroard & le
Dividich, 1976; Cummings & Englyst, 1991; Eggleston
et al., 1992; Englyst & Cummings, 1986; Englyst et al.,
1996; Faisant, Buleon et al., 1995; Faisant, Gallant
et al., 1995; Fuwa et al., 1979; Sugimoto et al., 1980).
The large amount and low cost of cull bananas is a
compelling reason to undertake a determination of the food
and industrial value of banana starch. Starch can be isolated
in a relatively pure state from reject bananas. There is
evidence that the starch is at least as functional as corn
starch and may have superior properties of behaving like
slightly cross-linked corn starch, which would give it a
higher market value as an unmodified/native starch in many
applications. Its potential acceptance in foods is enhanced
by its absence of flavor. If its properties differ sufficiently
from starches of other plants, it could command a premium
price as a food ingredient. Bananas are a potentially
important alternative source of starch for food and non-
food applications. In addition, there is evidence based on
recent hemicellulose research to warrant the speculation that
useful hemicelluloses can be isolated from residue peels.
In general, utilization of unmodified starches is restricted
by the tendency of amylose to retrograde and shear damage
to swollen granules. Functional properties of starches
available on the commercial market are often slightly
modified chemically so that they better meet food industry
requirements of freezethaw stability of pastes and gels, gel
transparency, stability of gels to syneresis, proper texture,
improved film formation, adhesion, etc. All starches have
similarities that make them somewhat interchangeable in
both native and chemically modified forms in many
applications. However, each starch source is also unique
in one or more properties, so that the functionalities of one
are not duplicated exactly by another. The challenge with
regards to banana starch is to determine and exploit its
uniquenesses.
Although considerable knowledge has been accumulated
in the past two or three decades, a complete picture with
respect to banana starch structure, properties, and appli-
cations and differences between cultivars remains lacking.
The literature provides only a few answers to many
questions regarding banana starch molecular architecture
 P. Zhang et al. / Carbohydrate Polymers 59 (2005) 443458
and how the component parts (amylose, amylopectin, lipid,
and protein) interact to provide the three-dimensional
granular structure that provides its properties. Moreover,
on the issue of the digestion properties of raw and cooked
banana starch, a number of questions remain unanswered,
such as whether cooked banana starch truly has moderated
digestion properties, and, if so, why. By understanding the
molecular structure and composition of banana starch, its
properties can be optimized.
References
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