White Paper

WCDMA Radio Link Engineering Basics: Lessons Learned

from 2G IS-95 CDMA and GSM Networks

Although 3G is still in the early stages of rollout, good overviews of the key aspects of WCDMA
networks are becoming increasingly available, which are well suited for engineers, managers,
and industry executives looking to gain a higher-level understanding of these new technologies.
However, there is still some confusion surrounding the terminology used in reference to
WCDMA (3G, UTRA, UMTS, etc), which this paper aims to clarify.

By exploring experiences with 2G CDMA and GSM technology, as well as reviewing the basic
features of WCDMA and comparing it to 2G, lessons can be learned and applied to WCDMA
with great effect particularly when attention is focused on the WCDMA radio link and the key
radio-related parameters, which require tuning before a WCDMA system can be commercially
launched.

WCDMA Terminology
WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is the air-interface technology forming the
basis of UTRA. The term Wideband is used to differentiate WCDMA from the 2G CDMA based
technology - pioneered by Qualcomm - called cdmaOne or IS-95 CDMA. WCDMA uses a
bandwidth over three times wider than cdmaOne.

UTRA (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access) is the third generation (3G) radio network
technology specified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a joint standardization
project consisting of standardization bodies from Europe, Japan, Korea, the USA, and China.
UTRA has two modes, UTRA-FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and UTRA-TDD (Time Division
Duplex). UTRA-FDD is based on a harmonized version of WCDMA technology agreed to by the
various members of 3GPP. UTRA-TDD is likely to experience further harmonization related to
the TD-SCDMA standard proposed by the Chinese standards body CWTS.

UTRA Release-99, Release 4 and Release 5

Release-99, the first release of a global, harmonized UTRA standard by the 3GPP was
completed in 1999. In September 2000, yearly releases were discontinued in favor of content-
based releases. As a result, UTRA Release 2000 was split into Release 4 and Release 5, with
planned completion dates of March 2001 and December 2001 respectively.

Release 4 contains relatively minor adjustments to Release-99, whereas Release 5 is likely to

include more substantial modifications such as data rates up to 10 MBps on the downlink. Other
key features planned post- Release-99 will focus on harmonization of the UTRA-TDD standard
with the TDD mode from CWTS, and interconnectivity of UTRA-FDD and IS-41 -based core
networks.
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UMTS (Universal Mobile Telephone System) is an ETSI (European Telecommunications
Standards Institute) term for third generation (3G) wireless technology designed to provide
seamless global coverage through interoperability of terrestrial and non-terrestrial (e.g. satellite)
networks. The term UTRA was originally used by ETSI to refer to the terrestrial radio component
of UMTS, and in this context, UTRA stands for UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access. The Terrestrial
Radio Access component of UMTS was submitted to the 3GPP by ETSI as an input into the
WCDMA harmonization process.

IMT-2000 provides a framework for a single global 3G standard which is the result of
harmonization efforts of manufacturers and operators around the world. IMT-2000 is a multi-
mode standard, which provides compatibility across multiple core network and air-interface
standards.

Figure 1 - IMT-2000 Terrestrial Radio Interfaces

UTRA-FDD represents one component of the IMT-2000 framework, which also includes
cdma2000 (a CDMA-based technology specified by 3GPP2) and other air-interface
technologies. Within the IMT-2000 framework, UTRA-FDD is referred to as IMT-DS (Direct
Spread) because it is a direct-spread CDMA technology, and cdma2000 is referred to as IMT-
MC (Multi-Carrier) because it offers a wideband mode using more than one carrier. TD-SCDMA
(submitted by Chinas CWTS) and UTRA-TDD form yet another component of IMT-2000,
referred to as IMT-TC.

WCDMA Technology Basics

WCDMA Principles
WCDMA is a code-division multiple access technology which separates each users voice or
data information by multiplying the information by pseudo-random bits called "chips". The
pseudo-random bit sequences have a rate of 3.84 Mcps (millions of chips per second), resulting
in the narrowband information bits of the user being spread across a much wider bandwidth of
approximately 5 MHz. For this reason, CDMA technology is sometimes referred to as spread
spectrum.
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1 Data Symbol
1
Data
-1
1 Chip Data
Spreading Process: Bandwidth
Spreading Code 1
-1
Spread signal 1
= Data x Code -1
Spread Signal
De-spreading Process: Bandwidth
Spreading Code
1
-1
Data = 1
Spread signal x -1
Code
De-spread Data
Bandwidth

Figure 2 - Spreading and de-spreading the signal

In the spreading process, information symbols, which occupy a relatively narrow bandwidth, are
multiplied by a high-rate spreading code consisting of chips. The resulting spread signal has a
wider bandwidth dependent on the number of chips per symbol. In the de-spreading process,
the spreading code is multiplied by the spread signal to recover the original data symbols. The
de-spreading process converts the wide bandwidth spread signal back to the original narrower
bandwidth of the data symbols. Spreading codes are specially designed to allow the symbols
from multiple users to occupy the same spectrum at the same time, while still allowing the
original information to be retrieved.

WCDMA Specifications and Features

Key specifications of UTRA-FDD or WCDMA technology:

Multiple access technique: Direct-spread code division multiple access.

Chip rate of spreading codes: 3.84 Mcps (millions of chips per second).

Carrier bandwidth: 4.4 5 MHz, multiple carriers supported.

Base station synchronization: Asynchronous.

Duplexing options: Frequency division and time division duplex.

Handoff modes: Intra-system soft handoff; GSM-WCDMA. Hard handoff supported in early
versions of standards; hard handovers to other systems such as cdma2000 will be
supported in future releases.
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Key features of WCDMA:

Soft handoff: user equipment (UE) and base stations use special rake receivers that allow
each UE to simultaneously communicate with multiple base stations. The diversity gain
associated with soft handoff is known as the "soft handoff gain factor".

Multipath reception: the rake receivers also allow the UE to decode multiple signals that
have traveled over different physical paths from the base station. For example, one signal
may travel directly from the base station to the UE, and another may reflect off a large
building and then travel to the UE. This phenomenon, "multipath propagation", also provides
a diversity gain. The same effect occurs on the uplink from the UE to the base station.

Power control: transmissions by the UE must be carefully controlled so that all

transmissions are received with roughly the same power at the base station. If power control
is not used, a near-far problem, where mobiles close to the base station over-power
signals from mobiles farther away, occurs. The base station uses a fast power control
system to direct the mobile to power up or power down as its received signal level varies
due to changes in the propagation environment. Likewise, on the downlink, transmissions
from the base stations are power-controlled to minimize the overall interference throughout
the system and to ensure a good received signal by the UE.

Frequency reuse of 1: every base station in the CDMA system operates on the same
frequency for a given carrier, so no frequency planning is required. As every site causes
interference to every other site, careful attention must be paid to each site's radio
propagation.

Soft capacity: capacity and coverage are intertwined in CDMA, depending on the number
of users in the system and the amount of interference allowed before access is blocked for
new users. By setting the allowed interference threshold lower, coverage will improve at the
expense of capacity. By setting the threshold higher, capacity will increase at the expense of
coverage. Because of the fundamental link between coverage and capacity, cells with light
traffic loads inherently share some of their latent capacity with more highly loaded
surrounding cells.
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WCDMA Compared to GSM and IS-95 CDMA

WCDMA vs. GSM

WCDMA has some similarities with GSM technology, however, it is a fundamentally different
technique for allowing multiple users to share the same spectrum and as a result it has many
differences.

Key differences between WCDMA and GSM

Carrier size
Frequency reuse
Intra-system Handoff
Frequency diversity
System capacity
Power control
Cell search procedure
Transmit diversity
WCDMA
5 MHz CDMA
1 ~4-18
Soft handoff (simultaneous
communication with multiple
base stations)
Rake receiver demodulates
multipath signals for diversity
gain
Soft, depending on loading
threshold and intra-system
interference
1500 MHz both links
Using Synchronization
channel and scrambling code
Supported on downlink
GSM
200 kHz TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access)
Hard handoff (connection with
one cell breaks before next
connection is made)
Equalization and frequency
hopping reduce multipath
interference; not a diversity
gain
Hard, depending on frequency
reuse scheme
2 Hz or less (very slow)
Using frequency channels
Not supported

WCDMA vs. IS-95 CDMA

WCDMA has many similarities with the 2G CDMA technology deployed extensively in the US
and Asia-Pacific, and the 3G evolution of that technology called cdma2000. There are also key
differences between WCDMA and cdma2000:

Key similarities and differences between WCDMA and IS-95 CDMA

Carrier size and chip rate
Intra-system Handoff
Inter-system Handoff
Multipath reception
Power control
WCDMA
5 MHz / 3.84 Mcps chip rate
Soft / softer handoff supported
Handoff to GSM supported via
slotted mode measurements
Yes (rake receiver), can
resolve more multipath signals
due to ~3x wider bandwidth
relative to cdma2000 1X
Both links fast at 1500 Hz
IS-95 CDMA
1.25 MHz / 1.2288 Mcps chip
rate
Soft / softer handoff supported
Handoff to AMPS supported
Yes (rake receiver)
Uplink at 800 Hz; slow power
control on forward link
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Key similarities and differences between WCDMA and IS-95 CDMA
Base station synchronization
Cell search procedure
Base station identification
Mobile assisted handoff
measurements
Transmit diversity
WCDMA
Asynchronous
Uses primary and secondary
codes on Synchronization
Channel (SCH) to obtain
timing for each cell
512 unique scrambling codes
reused on Common Pilot
Channel (CPICH)
Measures Ec/Io (signal to
noise ratio) of CPICH primary
scrambling code; thresholds
based on relative CPICH Ec/Io
levels used to trigger
transitions between active list
and neighbor lists (no
candidate list)
Supported on downlink
IS-95 CDMA
Synched to GPS time; base
station must connect to GPS
antenna with a sky view
Uses search windows which
specify time offsets for
searching relative to GPS-
based timing reference
512 time offsets of same PN
code reused on Pilot Channel
Measures Ec/Io of pilot
channel; absolute pilot Ec/Io
thresholds used to trigger
transitions between active,
candidate, and neighbor lists
Not supported

WCDMA and 2G IS-95 CDMA systems share one particularly important similarity: as the total
amount of traffic in the system increases (due to voice or data users), the downlink becomes the
limiting factor:

CDMA Coverage Vs.

Traffic Load for
Uplink and Downlink
Coverage, dB

Downlink

Uplink

Traffic Load, kbps

At high load, downlink

is limiting factor

Figure 3 - WCDMA and cdmaOne downlink limitations

White Paper
UTRA Radio Link Engineering Basics

By considering similarities between WCDMA and IS-95 CDMA technology and experiences
gained optimizing IS-95 technology in the US and Asia Pacific, we can gain insight into some of
the critical parameters which must be optimized prior to the launch of a WCDMA radio network.
In particular, because of the potential for downlink limitations and the utilization of downlink
pilots for cell synchronization and handoff control, it is likely that tuning of RF downlink-related
parameters will be of critical importance.

Key parameters for RF Optimization of WCDMA networks are likely to include:

CPICH power level
Primary SCH power level
Secondary SCH power level
CPICH neighbor lists
Antenna downtilt
Antenna azimuth

There are also likely to be a large number of secondary parameters which have importance in
the RF engineering process, and other critical parameters that will surface during preliminary
field trials and rollout of the technology.

The following sections will explore the key parameters and their impact on the Radio Link in
more detail.

CPICH and SCH Power Levels

The soft handoff algorithms for WCDMA are based on measurements made by the UE on the
Primary Scrambling Code of the Common Pilot Channel (CPICH). The CPICH is one of the
downlink channels utilized by each sector or cell. If the mobile is unable to clearly receive one
dominant CPICH, due to interference or coverage problems, the result is likely to be dropped
calls, failed initiations, poor voice quality and/or poor data throughput. The quality of the CPICH
can be measured in terms of Ec/Io, which is a representation of the signal to noise ratio for
spread spectrum signals. Increasing or decreasing the relative power allocated to this channel
may modify the CPICH coverage.

As part of the CPICH measurement process, the UE must first synchronize with the base
stations frame and slot timing that is done through use of the Primary and Secondary
Synchronization Channels (SCH). The quality of these channels may also be measured in terms
of Ec/Io and the relative power levels for these channels may be modified to affect coverage.

The following diagram is from an actual 2G CDMA network with some pilot coverage problems
(yellow dots indicate potential problem areas). In this specific case, multiple pilots (5) serve one
region such that no one signal is dominant over the others. This situation is commonly referred
to as "pilot pollution". The pilot pollution creates an abnormally high level of interference, which
is likely to result in the performance problems previously indicated.
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Figure 4 - Pilot pollution

One potential technique for addressing this problem is to make modifications to CPICH power
levels to create a dominant server. A similar technique has been used extensively in the
deployment of 2G CDMA networks, as a quick, cost-effective means of mitigating pilot pollution.

Neighbor List Configuration

Another important parameter is likely to be neighbor lists of CPICH scrambling codes and code
groups. There are a total of 8 code groups with 64 scrambling codes assigned to each sector
out of a total of 512 possible scrambling codes. As the UE moves throughout the network, the
network must constantly provide it with neighbor lists, which tell the UE which CPICH
scrambling codes it should be measuring for handoff purposes. If neighbor lists are improperly
configured, the result can be dropped calls due to missing neighbors or delayed handovers,
which can also lead to dropped calls due to unnecessary scanning of neighbors.

Antenna Orientation
Because of the relationship between coverage and capacity in WCDMA networks, and the fact
that the same frequency is reused throughout the entire network, controlling intra-cell
interference in WCDMA networks is extremely important. With GSM networks, frequency
planning is available as a tool to mitigate intra-cell interference, however, for WCDMA frequency
planning this is not an option. Therefore, techniques such as downtilt and azimuth changes,
which direct RF energy from undesired areas to desired areas, are likely to be crucial in
controlling pilot pollution and maximizing capacity.
White Paper

Figure 5 Changing the antenna orientation

Changes to downtilt have been the most effective technique for controlling pilot pollution
in 2G CDMA networks, however, this technique is more time-consuming and expensive
than other techniques, such as pilot power modifications.

This whitepaper is based on the harmonized 3GPP specification for WCDMA, called
UTRA-FDD.

Please visit the Actix website, www.actix.com, for more information on Actix products.