Running head: THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 1

Theories of Psychological Development

Dona Thanushi N S Hettipathirana

Liberty University

EDU 500 – Advanced Educational Psychology

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 2

Theories of Psychological Development

This paper, “Theories on Stages of Development of Humans” reviews three articles based

on educational implications of the following developmental theories:

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development on Developmental Stages Theory

2. Vygotsky’s Cultural-Historical Theory

3. Erikson’s Lifespan Theory of Psychosocial Development

These theories contribute immensely in enhancing the educator’s perception and to

optimizing the productivity of the teaching-learning experience. The following articles

demonstrate the implications of these theories to educational practice.

Piaget: Implications for Teaching by Patricia Kimberly Webb

The article “Piaget: Implications for Teaching” by Patricia Kimberly Webb focusses on

elaborating the implications of Piaget’s of Theory of Cognitive Development for educational

practices in contemporary terms. Piaget’s theory defines stages of development in terms of

associations between one’s biological maturation and environmental experiences (McLeod,

2009). Webb exposes the reader to Piaget through a brief review of Piaget’s theoretical

assumptions based on the four factors that fuel mental development which results in cognitive

growth through interaction: maturation of nervous and endocrine system, learner’s experience

involving action, social interaction and finally assimilation and accommodation (Webb, 2001).

Piaget also believed that “the balance between assimilation and accommodation maximizes

cognitive functioning” (Webb, 2001).

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 3

The latter part of the article presents five important implications generated by Piaget’s

research: stage-based teaching, uniqueness of individual learning, conceptual development prior

to language, experience involving action and necessity of social interaction (Webb, 2001).

Piaget presents his theory in terms of four stages of development: Sensory motor stage (from

birth to two years), preoperational stage (from two to seven years), concrete operational stage

(seven to eleven years) and formal operational stage (from eleven to adolescence). Webb brings

out several limitations with regard to Piaget’s stages of development to the attention of the reader

such as stages being describes in general characteristics which results in assessing children in

universal terms, the difficulty in accelerating the progression of the child through the stages,

existence of the formal operational stage.

Webb engages in educating the reader on the implications of Piaget’s concepts to present

day education through the application of this theory in her own teaching experiences as well as

exploring through existing educational research on the application and implications of this

theory. Webb winds off the article through presenting a set of recommendations for the design of

teaching-learning experiences in order to optimize the cognitive development of an individual in

form of a summary of the implications provided at the end of the article.

Introduction to Vygotsky’s “The Dynamics of the Schoolchild’s Mental

Development in Relation to Teaching and Learning” by Alex Kozulin

The article “Introduction to Vygotsky’s ‘The Dynamics of the Schoolchild’s Mental

Development in Relation to Teaching and learning’” by Alex Kozulin presents the reader with

one of Vygotsky’s lectures “The Development of the Field of Dynamic Assessment and

Cognitive Education”, an important piece of literature in the field of developmental psychology.

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 4

Kozulin’s explores Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) in three

different contexts – developmental, educational and assessment based – and enables the reader

understand the theory of ZPD in a multi-dimensional approach.

In analyzing the theory in developmental context Vygotsky emphasized the importance of

focusing not only on the mastered psychological functions but also the emerging functions that

children can display with adult or advanced peer assistance. According to Vygotsky complete

mastering of a psychological function does not necessarily assure the learner with a favorable

learning opportunities and “optimal period for the development of a certain ability” is at the

emergence rather than at the mastery of the required psychological functions (Kozulin, 2011).

In the assessment-based context Vygotsky focuses on assessing children on a variety of

means of assessment processes ranging from totally independent to assisted, so that it enables the

identification of emerging skills. This facilitates and contributes in solving some practical

problems such as the determination of school readiness, optimization of class composition and

identification and assessment of special needs among students (Kozulin, 2011). Kozulin

compares Vygotsky’s ZPD in assessment-based context to the today’s “dynamic assessment”.

The most important approach to looking at theory is the educational context of ZPD.

Here Vygotsky’s views are discussed in a twofold manner one theoretical aspect and the other an

application aspect. In the theoretical aspect Vygotsky views the relationship between

development and education as the “driving force of the child’s development” instead of

regarding a certain level of development as predefined requirement for education. The

application or practical aspect of ZPD according to Vygotsky is based on the relationship

between application of academics and everyday concepts.

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 5

The application of the ZPD in educational context can be of benefit in differentiating

between absolute and relative school achievements, identification of latent progress in failing

students, issues with placement of children with special needs (Kozulin, 2011).

Kozulin concludes that many of these issues are of significance relevance as suggested by

research and statistics in for the current educator even decades after they were written by

Vygotsky. The author also discusses some difficulties and limitations in understanding this article

by Vygotsky such as: article being based on stenographic records of the lectures given by

Vygotsky, problems associated with translation from Russian to English especially in terms of

the overlap between Russian terminology and English and the absence of references to the

psychologists and educators mentioned in Vygotsky’s work (Kozulin, 2011).

Why Do We Do What We Do? By Ruth A. Wilson

Ruth A Wilson, discusses the lifespan theory of psychosocial development of Eric

Erikson in easy to understand terms in her article titled “Why Do We Do What We Do?”. Here

Wilson’s focus is on the psychosocial development of the educator rather than that of the learner

in discussing the association between ‘generativity’ and motivation in early childhood educators.

Erikson presents eight stages of psychosocial development in relation to a specific

challenge involved with self-identity. These challenges are also “referred to as crisis or conflicts

to be resolved” and are associated with a certain age range (Wilson, 2011). According to Erikson

crisis should be solved in chronological manner in proceeding to the next, a healthy resolution of

a crisis results in positive reinforcement and personal growth and unresolved crisis can impact

negatively in later life.

THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 6

She regards ‘generativity’, a positive challenge found in a later stage of the Erikson

model as the force behind the motivation found in early childhood educators. According to

Wilson, Erikson’s own suggestions expressed ‘generativity’ as everything generated that can

outlive the self and that can contribute to the improvement of society in a positive and continuing

manner (Wilson, 2011).

In her concluding thoughts she goes further in applying the challenge of ‘generativity vs.

stagnation’ to society as a whole in concluding that ‘generativity’ as the propellant needed in

“creating a better world for future generations”(Wilson,2011). Wilson also draws the attention of

the reader to some criticisms involving the theory such as: whether the stages need to be

regarded chronological and whether the particular crisis occur only within the suggested age

ranges (Wilson, 2011).

All these theories, Piaget’s analysis of psychological functioning in terms of biological

maturation, Vygotsky’s analysis of the human psychological development in cultural and

historical terms and Erikson’s analysis of development in psychosocial terms have timeless

value. Although, these theories on development of human mind and behavior formulated decades

ago in the twentieth century all have limitations and weaknesses on their own they have and still

continue to inspire learners, educationists and psychologists of the twenty first century.
THEORIES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 7

References:

Webb, P.K. (2001). Piaget: Implications for Teaching. Theory into Practice, 19(2), 93-97.

Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A

N=5203607&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Kozulin, A. (2011). Introduction Vygotsky’s “The Dynamics of the Schoolchild’s Mental

Development in Relation to Teaching and Learning”. Journal of Cognitive Education and

Psychology, 10(2), 95-97. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A

N=65316641&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Wilson, R.A. (2011). Why We Do What We Wo . Exchange, 200, 90-92. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A

N=62252612&site=ehost-live&scope=site

McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html