Semiconductors Engineering Physics

Introduction:-
At absolute zero a pure, perfect crystal of the most of the semiconductors will be an
insulator. Semiconductors are electronic conductors with electrical resistivity value
generally in the range of 102 to 109 ohm-cm at room temperature, intermediate
between good conductors ( 106 ohm-cm) and insulators ( 1014 to 1022 ohm-cm). The
electrical resistivity of semiconductors dependent on temperature. Devices based on
the properties of semiconductors include transistors, rectifiers, modulators,
detectors, thermostats, and photocells. Broadly speaking we can have two types of
semiconductors i.e. intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:-
1. A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. At absolute zero, the
valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor is completely filled. For this reason at
absolute zero they behave as insulators.

2. However, as the temperature is gradually increased some of the electrons of the

valence band get excited to conduction band. The excitation of electrons from the

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

valence band to the conduction band leaves an equal number of holes in the valence
band.
3. Both electron in the conduction band and holes in the valence band serve as
charge carriers and contribute to the electrical conductivity. Pure form of the
germanium and silicon are the best examples of intrinsic semiconductors.

Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor:-

Calculation of density of electrons:-
Let dn be the number of electrons available between the energy ranges
E and E  dE in the conduction band is
dn  g ( E) F ( E)dE ---------------------------- (1)

Where g ( E )dE is the density of electrons in the energy interval E and E  dE .we

4 3 1
know that g ( E )dE  3
(2 m) 2
E 2
dE
h
Since electron is moving in a periodic potential, its mass has to be replaced by its
effective mass me* and E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec , then

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

4 3 1
g ( E )dE  (2 me
* 2
) ( E  Ec ) 2
dE
h3
1
 c( E  Ec ) 2 dE ------------------------------- (2)

4 3
Where c  (2 me
* 2
)
h3
In equation (1) F ( E ) is the probability occupancy of the electrons for a given energy
level E. i.e.
1
F (E)  ------------------------- (3)
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 KT 
Now from equation (1),(2) and (3)
1
dn  c( E  Ec ) 2 F ( E )dE

Now to obtain total number of electrons in the conduction band at any temperature
we have integrate equation (1) from Ec to Etop .
Etop 1
1
n  c( E  E ) c
2
 E  EF 
dE
Ec 1  exp  
 KT 

For all possible temperatures E  EF  KT , so that the term unity in the

denominator is neglected. Then

Etop 1
1
n  c( E  Ec ) 2
 E  EF 
dE
Ec exp  
 KT 
Etop
 E  EF 
1
 
Ec
c( E  Ec ) 2 exp  
 KT
 dE


In the above integral the upper limit is taken as infinity. Since the probability of
electrons occupying upper level of conduction band is zero at infinity.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics


 E  EF 
1
n   c( E  Ec ) 2 exp    dE ---------------------- (4)
Ec  KT 

E  Ec
To solve this integral let us assume that x
KT
 E  Ec  kT x

dE  kT dx
f E  Ec then x  0
and E   then x  
Now equation (4) becomes

 E  Ec  Ec  EF 
1
n  c  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp    dE
Ec  KT 

 E  Ec   E  EF 
1
n  c  ( xKT ) 2 exp    exp   c dx ( KT )
0  KT   KT 

 E  EF   E  Ec 
3
n  c( KT ) exp   c x
1
2
exp   dx
KT  KT 
2

 0 

 E  EF 
3
n  c( KT ) exp   c x e x dx --------------------------- (5)
1
2
KT 
2

 0

Simplifying above integral, we get

1
 1
2
x
0
2
e x dx 
2

Now equation (5) becomes

1

 E  EF   2
3
n  c( KT ) exp   c
2

 KT  2

 12   Ec  EF 
4 
3 3
n  3 (2m ) ( KT )   e 
* 2 KT 

2
 2
e 
h  
 

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 Ec  EF 
2
 2 me*kT    KT 
n  2 2  e
 h 
i.e. the number of electrons per unit volume of the material is given by
3
2
 Ec  EF 
 2 me kT   
*
KT 
n  2  e ------------------------- (6)
 h2 
Calculation of density of holes:-
Let dp be the number of holes available between the energy ranges E and E  dE in
the valence band is
dp  g ( E ) 1  F ( E )  dE ------------------------------ (7)

Where g ( E )dE is the density of holes in the energy interval E and E  dE . We know
that
4 3 1
g ( E )dE  3 (2m) E 2 dE
2
h
Since hole is moving in a periodic potential, its mass has to be replaced by its
effective mass mh* and Ev is the energy of the top of the valence band

4 3 1
g ( E )dE  3 (2mh ) ( Ev  E ) 2 dE
* 2

h
1
 c( Ev  E ) 2 dE ------------------------------- (8)

4 3
Where c  3 (2mh )
* 2

h
In equation (7) 1  F ( E )  is the probability of existence of holes in the valence band.

For all possible temperatures EF  E  KT , so that the term unity in the

denominator is neglected. Then

1
1  F (E) 
E E
exp  F  1
 KT 

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 E E
1  F ( E ) = exp   F 
 KT 

Now equation (7) becomes

1
dp  c( Ev  E ) 1  F ( E )  dE
2

 E E
1
p  c( Ev  E ) 2 exp   F  dE
 KT 

Now to obtain total number of holes in the valence band at any temperature we
have integrate equation (1) from Ev to  .

EE
Ev

1
p  c( Ev  E ) 2 exp  KT F  dE ------------------------ (9)


Now equation (9) becomes

 E E E E
Ev 1
p   c( Ev  E ) exp   F V V
2
 dE
  KT 
 E  E   EF  EV
Ev

1
p   c( Ev  E ) exp   V
2
 exp    dE
  KT   KT 
Ev  E
To solve this integral let us assume that x
KT
 Ev  E  kT x

dE  kT (dx)

 EF  EV  2  x
3 1
p  c(kT ) exp     x e dx ----------------------------- (10)
2

 KT 0
Simplifying above integral, we get
1
 1
 2

x 0
2
e x dx 
2
Now equation (10)

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 12 
 E  EV  
3

p  c(kT ) exp   F
2 
 
 KT  2 
 
3
 2 mh KT   EF  EV 
* 2
p  2  exp   
 KT 
2
 h 
i.e. the number of holes per unit volume of the material is given by
3
 EF  EV 
 2 mh KT    * 2
KT 
p  2 2  e ---------------------- (11
 h 
Intrinsic carrier concentrations:-
In an intrinsic semiconductor n  p  ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.
3
3
 EF  EV  Ec  EF 
2

 2 mh KT 
* 2  KT   2 me kT    *
KT 
ni  np  2 
2
 e

2  e
 h2   h2 
3
 Ec  EF  EF  EV 
 2 KT 
3

  mh me  e
2 
ni  np  4 
2 * *  KT 

 h 
2

3
 EC  EV 
 2 KT 
3

  mh me  e
2 
ni  4 
2 * *  KT 

 h 
2

Where Ec  Ev  Eg is the forbidden energy gap. Hence

3 3  Eg 
 2 KT    2 KT 
m 
2 4

ni  2   h
*
me *
e  

 h 
2

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

Fermi energy:-
Since n = p in intrinsic semiconductor,
3
3
 Ec  EF  EF  EV 
2

 2 me kT  *
  KT   2 mh KT   
* 2
KT 
2 2  e
 
 2 2  e
 h   h 
3
 Ec  EF  3  EF  EV 

m    mh 
2   KT    KT 
*   * 2  
e e e
3
 Ec  EF   EF  EV 
     m * 2
e  KT 
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
3
 EF  EV  Ec  EF 
  m  * 2
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
3
 2 EF   EV  Ec 
 KT     m  * 2
e  
e  KT 
  h* 
 me 
Apply the log on both sides
3
 2 EF   EV  Ec 
 KT      mh*  2
e  
e  KT 
 * 
 me 
3
2 EF E  Ec  m * 2
 V  log  h* 
KT KT  me 

3  mh* 
2 EF  KT log  *    EV  Ec 
2  me 
If we assume that me*  mh*

 E  Ec 
EF   v 
 2 
Thus Fermi level is located half way between the valence band and conduction bands
and its position is independent of temperature.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

Extrinsic Semi-conductors: -
If a small amount of a pentavalent (or) trivalent impurity is introduced into a pure
germanium (or) silicon crystal, the conductivity at the crystal increases appreciably
and the crystal becomes an “Extrinsic” Semi-conductor.
Extrinsic semi-conductors are of two types: n- type and p- type.
n- Type semiconductors: -

1. When a pentavalent (antimony, phosphorus (or) arsenic) atom replaces a Ge

atom in the crystal lattice. Four of its five valence electrons form covalent
bonds with neighbouring Ge (or) Si atoms.
2. The fifth electron free at room temperature to move about in the crystal and
acts as a charge carrier. The crystal is now called an “n- type semi-conductor”
because it has an excess of negative charge carries. The impurity is called a
“donor” because it donates the conducting electrons.
3. In the energy level diagram, the impurity atoms introduce discrete energy
levels for the electrons just below the conduction band. These are called
“donor impurity levels”.

4. Therefore, at room temperature, the ‘fifth’ electrons of donor atoms are

thermally excited from the donor levels into conduction band.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

5. At ordinary temperature, almost all the electrons in the conduction band

come from the donor levels. Only a few come from the valence band.
Therefore, the main charge carriers responsible for conduction are electrons
contributed by the donors. Thus, in an n-type semi-conductor the electrons
are the “majority carriers” and the holes are “minority carriers”.
Carrier concentration in n- type semi-conductor: -

Consider an extrinsic semi-conductor doped with donor atoms. The donor

atoms give rise to donor levels Ed close to the conduction band Ec as shown in

figure. Let N D be the number of impurity atoms gives rise to a single electrons state

at Ed . Then the number of electrons in the energy level Ed would be

nd  ge  Ed  Fe  Ed  ----------------------------------- (1)

But, ge ( Ed )  N D represents the density of states and

1
Fe ( ED )  Ed  EF --------------------------------------- (2)
e kT
1
Substituting the above values in equation (1) we get
1
nd  N D Ed  EF ------------------------------ (3)
e kT
1
Total number of energy states per unit volume at Ed is N D . The total number of filled

energy state per unit volume at Ed is nd . The total number of vacant energy states

per unit volume at Ed is N D   N D  nd .

From equation (3)

ND
ND  ND 
 E  EF 
1  exp  d 
 KT 

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 
 1 
N D   N D 1  
 1  exp  Ed  EF  
  
  KT  
  Ed  EF  
 exp  KT  
 ND    
 1  exp  Ed  EF  
  
  KT  
ND
ND  ------------------------------ (4)
 EF  Ed 
exp   1
 KT 

The density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT 
ne  2   e kT
---------------------------------- (5)
 h2 
Where EF = Energy of the Fermi level

EC = Energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band.

Density of empty donors (or) number of vacancies per unit volume in the
donor level of energy Ed is
N
ND  D
( EF  Ed )
---------------------------------------- (6)
e KT
1
The concentration of electrons in conduction band must be equal to the
number of vacancies per unit volume in the donor level. Therefore, equating
equations (5) and (6)
3/2
 2 me* KT  EF  Ec
N
2  e KT
 D
( EF  Ed )
-------------------------------- (7)
 h2  e KT
1
If we suppose EF  Ed  kT . We can neglect 1 from the denominator of R.H.S.

of equation (7). Hence,

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT  ND
2  e KT
 EF  Ec
 h2  KT
e
3/2 EF  Ec
 2 me* KT  N
2  e KT
 D
EF  Ed
 h2  KT
e
3/2 EF  Ec ( Ed  EF )
 2 me* KT 
2  e KT
 N D .e KT

 h2 
Taking log on both sides, we get
 2 me* KT  EF  EC E  EF
log 2  2   log N D  d
 h  KT KT

2 EF  Ec  Ed ND
 log 3/2
KT  2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
ND
2 EF  Ec  Ed  KT .log 3/2
 2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
ND
2 EF  Ec  Ed  KT .log 3/2
 2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 
EC  Ed KT ND
EF   .log 3/2
----------------- (8)
2 2  2 me* KT 
2 
 h2 

Putting the value of EF from equation (8) in equation (5), we get

 Ed  Ec ND 
  KT .log 3/2 

2  2 me KT 
*

3/2

2   Ec 
 2 me* KT   h2 
ne  2  2  exp  
 h   kT 
 
 
 

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 
3/ 2  
 2 me* KT   Ed  Ec 1 ND EC 
= 2  exp   log 
 h2  2 KT 2  2 me KT
*

3/ 2
KT 
 
 2  2  
  h  
 
3/2  
 2 me* KT   Ed  Ec 1 ND 
= 2  exp   log 3/2 
 h2  2 KT 2  2 me* KT  
 2
  
  h2  
3/2 Ed  Ec
 2 me* KT 
1/2
 ND  1
ne  2     .e 2 KT

 2 
3/4
 h2   2 me* KT 
 
 h2 
3/4
 2 me* KT  
E
 ne   2 N D 
1/2
 
2 KT
e ------------------------- (9)
 h2 
When E  Ec  Ed ionization energy of the donor.

The equation (8) at T = ok becomes

Ed  Ec
EF 
2
This shows that the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between the donor levels and the
bottom of conduction band as shown in figure. But when the temperature is
increased the Fermi level falls below the donor level and at high temperature the
Ec  Ev
value of EF becomes .
2

P- Type semi-conductor: -
1. When a trivalent impurity (boron, aluminum, gallium (or) indium) atom replaces a
Ge atom in the crystal lattice. Only three valence electrons are available to form
covalent bands with the neighbouring Ge atoms.
2. This results into an empty space (or) a positive hole around the impurity atom. An
electron bound to a neighbouring Ge (or) Si atom drops into the hole, when an

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

external field is applied, there by creating a new hole. This phenomenon continues
and the hole moves in the crystal lattice, acting as a positive charge – carrier. The
crystal is called a p- type semi-conductor because it has an excess of positive charge
carriers. The impurity is called an ‘acceptor’ because the impurity atoms create holes
which accept electrons.
In the energy level diagram the trivalent impurity atoms introduce vacant discrete
levels just above the top of the valence band. There are called “acceptor impurity
levels”.

At room temperature, electrons are easily excited from the valence band into the
acceptor levels. The corresponding holes created in the valence band are the main
charge carries in the crystal when an electric field is applied.
Thus, in a p- type semi-conductor the holes are the majority carriers and few
electrons, thermally excited from the valence band into conduction band are
minority carriers.
Carrier Concentration p-type semi-conductor: -

Consider a semi-conductor doped with N A number of acceptor atoms per

unit volume. The acceptor atoms give rise to acceptor levels Ea slightly above the

valence band energy Ev as shown in figure.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

If some of the atoms, let na get ionized by accepting electrons, then those

atoms are becoming negatively charged.

The number of such electrons na occupying energy level Ea would be

na  ge ( Ea ) Fe ( Ea )  N A ----------------------------------- (1)

But ge ( Ea )  N A represents the density of states and

1
Fe ( E ) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  a 
 KT 
NA
na   N A ------------------------------------ (2)
 E  E F 
1  exp  a 
 KT 
Ea  EF
Since Ea  EF  KT , e KT
is a large quantity and thus 1 can be 6 neglected from

denominator.
 Number of electrons per unit volume in acceptor level
EF  Ea
 N Ae kT
---------------------------------------------- (3)

Since we have neglected the effect of conduction band, the number of electrons in
the acceptor level is equal to the number of holes in valence band.
The density of holes per unit volume in the valence band is given by
3/2 Ev  EF
 2 mh* KT 
nh  2   e KT
----------------------------------- (4)
 h2 
Now, equating equation (3) and (4)
3/2 Ev  EF EF  Ea
 2 mh* KT 
2  e KT
 N A .e KT
------------------------------- (5)
 h2 

Taking log of both sides (5) we get

3/2
 2 mh* KT  Ev  EF E  Ea
log 2     log N A  F
 h2  KT KT

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3/2
Ev  EF  EF  Ea  2 mh* KT 
 log N A  log 2  
KT  h2 
3/2
2 EF  ( Ea  Ev )  2 mh* KT 
  log N A  log 2  
KT  h2 
2 EF  ( Ea  Ev ) NA
  log 3/2
KT  2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
NA
2 EF  Ea  Ev  KT log 3/2
 2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
Ea  Ev KT NA
EF   log 3/2
--------------------------------- (6)
2 2  2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 

Putting the values of EF from (6) in (4) we get

 Ea  Ev KT NA 
 Ev  2  2 log 3/2 
  2 mh* KT  
2 
 
3/2
 2 mh* KT   h2 
nh  2  2  exp  
 h   KT 
 
 
 
 
3/2  
 2 mh KT 
*
 Ev  Ea 1 NA 
nh  2   exp   log 3/2 
 h2  2kT 2  2 mh* KT  
 2  
  h2  
3/2 1/2 Ev  Ea
 2 mh* KT   NA  1
 2    e 2 KT

 2 
3/4
 h2   2 mh* KT 
2 
 h2 
3/4 Ev  Ea
 2 mh* KT 
nh  (2 N A ) 
1/2
 e 2 KT

 h2 

If we put E  Ev  Ea we have

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

3/4
 2 mh* KT  E
nh  (2 N A ) 
1/2
 e 2 KT
-------------------------- (7)
 h2 
At T = 0k, the form of equation (6) becomes
Ea  Ev
EF 
2
Hence, in this case, the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between the acceptor
levels and the top of valence band.
But when T increases the Fermi level rises.
Ea  Ev
At high temperature the value of EF becomes i.e., EF approaches the
2
center of band gap and crosses the acceptor level which makes the substance an
intrinsic semi-conductor.
It is clear from equation (7) that density of the holes in the valence band is
proportional to the square root of the acceptor concentration.
Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors:-
The relationship between kinetic energy Ek and k is given by

k 2
Ek  ---------------- (1)
2me*

Where me* is effective mass of the electron.

From the above equation Ek vs. k is parabola curving upward in energy for

increasing value of ‘k’. From the fig the parabolic energy band, which is known as the
“conduction band”. The downward curve refers to the band of possible energy
levels known as the “valence band”. Where electrons reside but cannot easily move
around. The negative curve for the valence band can be described by using a
negative effective mass.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

There are two basic types of arrangement of the conduction band and valence band
in semiconductor materials
 Direct band gap semiconductors
 Indirect band gap semiconductors
Direct band gap semiconductors:-
 In direct band gap semiconductors the upper band (conduction band) and
lower band (valence band) have their minimum and maximum at same value
of ‘k’
 Electrons near the top of the valence band are able to make transition to
states near the bottom of the conduction. This process is called “Fundamental
absorption”

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 Here electron decay from the conduction band can recombine with holes in
the valence band and directly emitting a photon of energy “ h ”
 Life time(recombination time) of charge carriers is very less
 Due to recombination process these are used in fabrication of LED and LASER
diodes.
Indirect band gap semiconductors:-
 Indirectband semiconductors in which the bottom of the conduction band
does not lie at the origin.
 In indirect band gap semiconductors have displacement in ‘k’ between the
minimum of the upper band and lower band.
 In this case the electron cannot make a direct transition from the top of the
valence band to the bottom of the conduction band.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 In these materials also transition takes place, but as a two-step process. The
electrons absorbs both a photon and phonon supplies the required
momentum.
 Here an electron from conduction band recombine with a hole valence band
indirectly. The electrons decay to defect level by emitting phonon .now
electrons in defect level combine with holes in valence band by emitting
photons.
 Life time of charge carries is high
 Due to longer life time these are used to amplify the signals as in case of
diodes and transistors.
Formation a PN junction:-

 A P-N junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors to

gather in very close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary
interface where two regions of the semiconductor meet. In N- type the
“donor” ion is represented by plus sign because, after this impurity atom
donates an electron it becomes a positive ion and in P-type acceptor ion is
indicated by minus sign because, after this atom accepts an electron, it
becomes a negative ion.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

Space-charge region:-

 There is a large concentration of holes in the P-type material and a large

concentration of electrons in the N-type material. Because there is density
gradient across the junction, holes will initially diffuse to the right across
the junction, and electron to left. The flow of holes from P-region results a
negatively charge acceptor ions and flow of electrons from N-region leaves
positively charged donor ions.

 The unneutralized ions in the neighborhood of the junction are referred to

as “uncovered charges”. Since the region of the junction is depleted of
mobile charges, it is called depletion region, the space-charge region or
transition region. The thickness of this region is of the order of the
wavelength of visible light ≈ 0.5 micron.
Electric field intensity:-

 The direction of the electric field E in the transition region points in negative
X-direction i.e. from the positive to negative charges of the transition region.
The electric field is zero at the edges of the transition region since practically
there would be no field in the neutral p and n regions. As result E must be
maximum at the junction as shown in fig.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

Potential Energy diagram of the PN junction:-

 The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at slightly

lower energy levels than the valence and conduction bands in a p-type
material. This is due to differences in the atomic characteristics of the
penta valent and the trivalent impurity atoms.

 An energy diagram for a p-n junction at the instant of formation is

shown in Figure. As you can see, the valence and conduction bands in
the n region are at lower energy levels than those in the p region, but
there is a significant amount of overlapping.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

 The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper part of the
conduction band in terms of their energy can easily diffuse across the junction
(they do not have to gain additional energy) and temporarily become free electrons
in the lower part of the p-region conduction band. After crossing the junction, the
electrons quickly lose energy and fall into the holes in the p-region valence band as
indicated in above Figure.

 As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form and the
energy level of the n- region conduction band decreases. The decrease in the
energy level of the conduction band in the II region is due to the loss of the higher-
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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

energy electrons that have diffused across the junction to the p region. Soon, there
are no electrons left in the n-region conduction band with enough energy to get
across the junction to the p-region conduction band.

 At this point, the junction is at equilibrium; and the depletion region is

complete because diffusion has ceased. There is an energy gradient across the
depletion region which acts as an "energy hill" that an n-region electron must climb
to get to the p region.
I-V Characteristics of PN Junction

Forward biasing:-
When external d.c voltage applied to the junction in such a direction
that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called
forward biasing.
Figure shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material (contacts
and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward bias. This
external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS the resistor, R, limits the current to a
value that will not damage the diode.

Notice that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n-region of the diode and
the positive side is connected to the p-region. This is one of the requirements for
forward bias. A second requirement is that the bias voltage VBIAS , must be greater
than the barrier potential.

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 Semiconductors Engineering Physics

When forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough
energy from the bias-voltage source to overcome the barrier potential and
effectively "climb the energy hill" and cross the depletion region. The energy that
the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion region is equal to the
barrier potential. In other words the electrons give up an amount of energy
equivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion region.
This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the p-n junction equal to the
barrier potential (0.7 V), as indicated in Figure. An additional small voltage drop
occurs across the p and n regions due to the internal resistance of the material.
For doped semi conductive material, the resistance, called the dynamic resistance, is
very small and can usually be neglected.
Reverse biasing:-
When external d.c voltage applied to the junction in such a direction that s
the potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse biasing.

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