Running head: HUMAN LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT AS MEANS FOR SURVIVAL 1

Human Learning and Development through Exploration, Experimentation, Experience and

Exercise in the Acquisition of Knowledge and Skills as Means for Survival

Dona Thanushi N. S. Hettipathirana

Liberty University

EDU 500 – Advanced Educational Psychology

Dr. Carol Mowen

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Human Learning and Development through Exploration, Experimentation, Experience and

Exercise in the Acquisition of Knowledge and Skills as Means for Survival

Man by nature is a social creature and is inquisitive, imaginative, rebellious, explorative,

and innovative. These very qualities have contributed greatly to man’s battle for survival in

nature since the beginning of the species over hundreds of thousands of years through history by

means of learning and development in the making of the “homo sapiens”, the “wise man” or the

modern human. The innumerable discoveries of man through the ages, over hundreds of

thousands of generations have contributed its fair share to the survival of mankind by means of

meaningful generational learning from the Stone Age to the digital era of today.

Man’s constant struggle through history to define learning and development in terms of

its meaning and purpose has given birth to countless philosophical schools of educational

thought. Throughout the history of mankind, man has experimented with numerous practices,

methodologies and theories of teaching and learning for the purpose of educating the successive

generations, through transfer of customs, believes, traditions and most importantly knowledge

and skills, from one generation to the next as means for survival of both the individual and the

society as a whole.

Therefore, learning, I believe, is a matter of existence and survival for both the individual

and the society. In the case of the individual, learning becomes a matter of survival, in the

process of acquiring necessary knowledge and skills in finding one’s means of sustenance,

existence, independence and place in the society. For the existence of the society, learning

provides the means of acquiring, developing, conserving and transferring customs, beliefs,

traditions, knowledge and skills for the benefit and enhancement of present and future

generations.
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Evolution of Human Learning as Means for Survival: A Historical Perspective

Earliest of humans as hunter-gatherers who lived a nomadic lifestyle, allowed the

children to engage in exploration and self-directed play, learning took place as a natural

experience in the quest of means for survival acquiring knowledge about their natural habitat and

skills in crafts by virtue of natural and willful learning (Grey, 2008). In today’s terms they can be

considered as visual and kinesthetic learners, their learning was skill and knowledge intensive

and was acquired through observation, self-direction and self-motivation, driven by the instinct

for survival in adapting to their natural environment by means of exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise (practice).

Constructive elements of the Agrarian Era, such as permanent settlement, development

of language and literacy, and progress of culture and civilization contributed to the progress of

human learning and development. Human learning in the pre-literate societies were carried out in

oral tradition by means of recitation and memorization, knowledge transfer was by means of oral

teaching and auditory learning, information processing and storage was through perception and

memorization of concepts and information. As civilization progressed humans developed writing

systems, scripts and alphabets conserving the oral literature in the form of writing. Since learning

was oriented towards producing good laborers, exploration, experimentation and play was

discouraged and willfulness was considered a vice as the needs for survival in the agrarian

societies were, low skilled labor involving plowing, planting, and cultivation and tending to the

flocks etc. The learning process was heavily based on adult instruction (experience), repetition

(exercise), memorization and suppression of human will and rebellious spirit through harsh

discipline (Grey, 2008).

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Implications of Greek thought to today’s education include: advocacy of public

education; believes in gifted (talented, skilled) individuals; concept of different education

requirements associated with various stages of life; the teaching methodologies such as Socratic

method - teaching and learning through question and answer and dialogic method - teaching

through dialogues; and the belief that the educator should care deeply about the ‘well-being and

future’ of the students. Educational thought of the ancient Greco- Romans was based on moral

grounds in the search of truth and virtue in producing good and virtuous citizens for the state.

Plato’s educational philosophy was based on essentialism, idealism and utopianism (Plato, 1976)

and Aristotle’s views were based on realism oriented on ‘balanced’ development of the body,

mind and soul by means of cultivating the human nature, reason and habit and emphasized the

importance of ‘play’ (Aristotle, 1932). They advocated the teaching of disciplines such as

reading, writing, mathematics, music, literature, history, gymnastics and athletics, which were

important disciplines in the making of the model citizen in becoming great warriors an essential

necessity for the survival of both the individual and the society at the time.

The education in the biblical time was based on religious tradition, community values and

vocational skills. Children learnt through family and community, the conventional

teaching/learning method was rote learning, and auditory learning was the most common

modality of learning as children often learned through listening, recitation, imitation, repetition,

and singing and music. Kinesthetic and visual learning through exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise were part of vocational learning, which was an important contributor for

the survival of both the individual and the society at the time – even Jesus engaged in learning

carpentry from his father Joseph from an early age.

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The rise of Christianity around the fifth century in Europe marked the inception of the

scholastic movement of education which emphasized critical thinking, dialectic reasoning,

logical analysis, inference and deduction and scholastic teaching. Education and learning in the

early medieval period was heavily influenced by the religious thought, ethics and moral and

spiritual education and exploration and experimentation was not much encouraged. As the

masses began to realize the importance education, opportunity for learning began expanding to

larger populations through the Catholic Church. The focus was more on higher education and

institutions were established to study aesthetics, law, medicine and theology as needs of the time

were associated with recreation, development of architecture, development of the justice system,

medical necessities to do with plagues, pandemics and deceases and the influence of the church.

Thus, the learning and development of both the individual and the society was shaped around the

essentials for survival of the individual as well as the society.

The idea of universal compulsory education emerged in the 16th century and developed

through the 17th century with protestant religious movement lead by Martin Luther (Grey,

2008). The school was viewed as a setting where the child receives “moral and intellectual

grounding” needed in becoming “competent adults”. Learning was considered “child’s work”

and was heavily based on recitation and memorization, play was considered as a distraction to

learning and corporal punishment was justified as a means of discipline (Grey, 2008).

During Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, the development of schools as places for

learning was conceptualized to occupy children in learning and the idea of compulsory universal

education started spreading across (Grey, 2008). The objectives of learning and development was

based on exploration and experimentation of knowledge and skills essential for the advancement
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of the industries. The means for survival of the individual and the society at the time was closely

affiliated to the development and survival of the industries.

In 19th and 20th century education advanced towards conventional schools of today.

Education became less harsh, learning was still viewed as “child’s work” and play was

considered an incentive in motivating the child to engage in learning through exploration and

experimentation. Although, learning and development in today’s digital world is heavily

influenced by and depended upon technology and communication, even in the 21st century cyber

era, man still strives to define education in terms of learning and development trying to unlock

the secrets of human thought and cognition. The needs for survival of today’s individual and the

society is closely associated with the competency in various technological advances (experience

and exercise) and the exploration and experimentation in application of these technologies as

relevant to the services and industries.

The need for education of the individuals with disability was not even recognized until

the 19th century, they were subject to discrimination and maltreatment and opportunity for

education and employment was denied to them based on their disabilities. The learning and

development of the disabled individual is profoundly associated with facilitating opportunity for

employment, education and independent living through adaptation in order to survive in the

broader society overcoming their limitations and disabilities. Exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise play more significant roles in the acquisition of knowledge and skills

through adaptive support – alternative/adaptive teaching, learning assessment approaches,

assisted technology, adaptive learning environments etc. in preparation for independent living,

further education and employment for social survival.

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Learning Theory and Its Importance

Learning in the simplest terms can be defined as “a change in an individual that results

from experience” (Slavin, 2012). Thus, a learning theory is intended to conceptualize how the

experience is absorbed, processed and retained in the course of this change or simply ‘learning’.

I believe, that learning theories play an important role in understanding the mind of the learner

and facilitates the educator to be effective in enhancing the productivity of the teaching-learning

process through meeting the needs of the learner.

My theory of human learning and development considers that “people learn, grow and

develop” through four primary approaches exploration, experiment, experience and exercise

(practice) and “the best learning environment” should facilitate and encourage the acquisition of

knowledge and skills as means for survival. This philosophy emphasizes a student centered

approach to teaching-learning as it pertains to special education based on "Applicability of the

learning to the individual's needs in life" (Parker, PLMP Interpretation) as means for survival

developed through the amalgamation of philosophical elements in several educational

philosophies that I share my learning and development tendencies: humanism (exploration,

experience), behaviorism(experience, exercise), traditionalism (exercise, experimentation) and

progressivism (exploration, experience).

Exploration: Humans from birth, engage in exploration of the surrounding environment

through study and observation, discovering skills and knowledge by means of sensory stimuli.

Exploration by means of free or adaptive ‘play’ is of essence during childhood as it promotes

language development, social interaction, critical thinking and problem solving skills vital for

cognitive development. This involves cognition through curiosity, observation, analysis,

innovation and action – visual and kinesthetic learning. Exploration also helps finding ways and
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means of overcoming challenges – personal, natural, social – in the quest for means for survival.

It is important for the special educator to facilitate the special learner with adapted support in

optimizing opportunities for academic, therapeutic and socio-cultural exploration. The educator

too needs engagement in exploration in terms of searching for alternative teaching,

reinforcement and assessment method and availability of opportunities for adaptation and

inclusion and reverse inclusion in general education.

Experimentation: This refers to the inquisitive nature of humans to engage in

investigation through play, study and research, testing simple procedures, natural phenomena,

imaginative thoughts, hypothesis, procedure, techniques, formulations, etc. Imaginative or

adaptive ‘play’ is vital in encouraging experimental engagement in learning. This involves

cognition through examination, analysis, inference, deduction in formulation of concepts. This

promotes creativity, imagination, self-confidence, critical thinking and problem solving skills.

The special educator should be mindful in facilitating experimental opportunities for the special

learner by providing necessary adaptive support for play and research. The educator too needs

engagement in experimentation in finding the most productive approach to teaching, use of

metacognitive skills, reinforcement, adoptive support, and in determining inclusion and reverse

inclusion approaches that most benefits the learner.

Experience: This refers to the ability to understand and interpret knowledge and skills

acquired by exploration and experimentation based on past occurrence in terms of consequences,

applications, procedures and outcomes, cause and effect etc. This facilitates meaningful learning

and Imaginative or adaptive ‘Play’ is essential in the perception of experience. This can also

involve perceiving the surrounding environment and feelings through the sensory receptors and

sense of emotions. The special learner can be provided with incentives and reinforcers to
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facilitate better understanding and interpretation of learning experiences in the process of

mastering the intended knowledge and skills through adaptation. The special educator too builds

on experience engaging in meaningful learning in terms of better handling and directing the

learner in adapting to the learning environment and engagement in learning.

Exercise: This refers to the constant employment of intended or learned knowledge and

skills acquired through exploration, experiment, and experience by means of repetition and

practice. Learning through ‘play’ is vital as it often involves repetition of previous learning

experiences. Special learners often engage in repetitive practice of knowledge and skills in order

to master the learning outcomes. The educator too benefit from exercise as each experience gives

an opportunity to build on the previous one which enhances the teaching experience and might

be beneficial and applicable in the facilitation of other learners.

Knowledge and skills as means for survival: For an individual the means for survival

involves acquisition of knowledge and skills in finding one’s means of sustenance, existence,

independence and place in the society. This involves mastering of necessary knowledge and

skills and adaptive techniques in preparation for further education, vocation or profession,

independent living in becoming productive individuals. Learning and development and education

are vital elements for the survival of any society. It promotes discovery and innovation snd

development of industry meeting the demands and challenges of the time, and most importantly

provides the means of acquiring, developing, conserving and transferring customs, beliefs,

traditions, knowledge and skills for the benefit and enhancement of present and future

generations.

This philosophy has a strong relevance to the learning and development of the special

needs learner as they are engaged in a much more complex battle for survival, not only in
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acquiring knowledge and skills for the purposes of finding means sustenance, existence,

independence and place in the society but also in acquiring the knowledge and skills needed in

the battle overcoming their limitations and disabilities to do with learning and development in

adapting to diverse environments – home, learning, working and social. It is important to the

learner to explore, experiment, experience and exercise to achieve mastery of the intended

knowledge and skills through practice and repetition.

The theory of learning and development through exploration, experiment, experience and

exercise can be applied to the educator as well. It is paramount for the special educator to

explore, experiment and exercise with diverse techniques and approaches to teaching, adaptive

support, assessment etc. in determining the best possible means of provisions needed in

facilitating the learner acquire the intended knowledge and skills. It is often essential for the

special educator to build upon experience in understanding, interpreting, predicting and adjusting

to unexpected outcomes in the learning process involving the special learner. The special

educator should be able to identify, determine and transfer these important knowledge and skills

needed by the special student for survival as demanded by both their specific limitations as well

as social challenges.

Advances in educational psychology and research have contributed immensely in

conceptualization of theories of human learning and development in the 21st century. Therefore,

the knowledge and understanding of various theories of human learning and development is an

asset to the intentional teacher in the 21st century classroom which includes children from diverse

socio-cultural, intellectual and with physical abilities/disabilities. It is of even greater importance

for the special educator in accommodating special needs children through exploration and

experimentation in adaptive teaching, learning and assessment techniques to facilitate

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adjustability and survival in diverse social environments overcoming their limitations and

disabilities.

The three most widely known learning theories, Piaget’s analysis of psychological

functioning in terms of biological maturation, Vygotsky’s analysis of the human psychological

development in terms of culture and history and Erikson’s analysis of development in

psychosocial and emotional stages have timeless value. The Bible discusses the very same

aspects of development in association with the development of Jesus Christ: “As Jesus increased

in wisdom (mental) and stature (physical), in favor with god (spiritual) and man (social)”(Luke

2:52).

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development or Developmental Stages Theory: This

theory defines human development in stages in association with one’s biological maturation and

environmental experiences. His theory is based on theoretical assumptions to do with four factors

that fuel mental development which results in cognitive growth through interaction: maturation

of nervous and endocrine system, learner’s experience involving action, social interaction and

assimilation and accommodation (Webb, 2001). The four stages of development include:

Sensory motor stage (from birth to two years), preoperational stage (from two to seven years),

concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years) and formal operational stage (from eleven to

adolescence). Important implications generated by Piaget’s research include: stage-based

teaching, uniqueness of individual development, conceptual development prior to language,

experience involving action and necessity of social interaction (Webb, 2001). Some limitations

of Piaget’s stages of development are, the description of developmental stages through general

characteristics which leads to assessing children in universal terms, the difficulty in accelerating

the progression of the child through the stages, and existence of the formal operational stage.
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Learning in the sensory motor stage is heavily based on exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise (repeated practice) and thus, early childhood special educator, I believe,

should facilitate and encourage students to engage in free or adaptive ‘play’. The concepts of

assimilation and accommodation in Piaget’s theory are crucial for the learning and development

of the special needs child adapting to survive in the broader society overcoming their medical,

physical and intellectual limitations. Thus, the four approaches of learning in my view -

exploration, experimentation, experience and exercise - are important to the special education

teacher to facilitate optimal adaptation to the learning and social environments by means of

assimilation and accommodation.

The Socio Cultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky: This theory is based on the vital

contributions and influence of the society and culture towards the development of the individual

(Kozulin 2011). He believed that parents, care givers, family, peer and the culture in which an

individual lives in played a vital role in the development of the individual. An important concept

of the Socio-cultural theory of development is the concept of Zonal proximal development

(ZPD). The concept of ZPD of Vygotsky emphasized the importance of focusing not only on the

mastered psychological functions but also the emerging functions that children can display with

adult or advanced peer assistance – “level of development immediately above a person’s existing

developmental level” (Slavin,2012) or the zone of proximal development. According to

Vygotsky complete mastering of a psychological function does not necessarily assure the learner

with favorable learning opportunities and “optimal period for the development of a certain

ability” is at the emergence rather than the mastery of the required psychological functions

(Kozulin, 2011). The application of the ZPD in educational context can be of benefit in

differentiating between absolute and relative school achievements, identification of latent

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progress in failing students and issues with placement of children with special needs (Kozulin,

2011).

In my view Vygotsky’s concept of ZPD is of significant importance especially to the

special education classroom as students are constantly assessed on the mastering of a certain set

of skills specified in relation of goals in the individualized education plan (IEP) in terms of

emerging and mastered skills. It is vital for the special educator to understand and determine

ways and means of applying the concept of ZPD to the 21st century special needs classroom via

“rethinking current classroom practices” (Gredler, 2012) in order to explore, experiment,

experience and exercise the development of emerging skills to facilitate better adaptation and

survival in the learning and social environment.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: This theory presents eight stages of

psychosocial development in relation to a specific challenge involved with self-identity. These

challenges are also “referred to as crisis or conflicts to be resolved” and are associated with a

certain age range (Wilson, 2011). According to Erikson crisis should be solved in chronological

manner before proceeding to the next, a healthy resolution of a crisis results in positive

reinforcement and personal growth and an unresolved crisis can impact negatively in later life.

This can be applied both to the learner (Cross, 2001) as well as the educator (Wilson, 2011) as

the theory discusses development throughout the lifespan of a human being in relation to

chronological age. For instance the psycho social development of gifted children who are

academically ahead of the same age peers can be interpreted as not superior to the same age peer

due to their social experiences being somewhat the same (Cross, 2001) and the motivation in the

educator for effective teaching could come from ‘generativity’ a challenge associated with late

mid-life of an individual (Wilson, 2011).

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This life span development theory of Ericson is vital for the special educator in

understanding, interpreting and addressing the issues and needs associated with emotional

development in the special needs child at various stages of early childhood and adolescent life in

overcoming their limitations and disabilities adapting and adjusting to in preparation for

interaction different individuals and existence in diverse socio-cultural environments and the

ultimate survival in the broader society.

The Effective Teacher and Learning Environment

I strongly believe an effective teacher and an effective learning environment are both

mandatory in effective and meaningful execution of the teaching-learning process. Students will

not be able to benefit from an effective learning environment without an effective teacher and vice

versa. The teaching-learning environment of the 21st century is multi-cultural and diverse therefore,

in order for a teacher to be effective he/she should have a good world knowledge in order to

understand the learner’s background, strengths, weaknesses and needs in facilitating the learner to

adapt and survive in diversity.

The Effective Teacher: An effective teacher, in my view, most importantly should have a

‘calling’ or an ‘instinct’ or the ‘intention’ for teaching – this differentiates between a mediocre and

an intentional and effective teacher. This contributes in developing a sense of commitment and

dedication for the profession. This applies even strongly to the special needs teacher as special

education demands empathy, patience, a strong understanding and bonding with the learner. The

qualities of a good teacher in biblical terms is beautifully articulated in “Show yourself in all

respects to be a model of good works, and in your teaching show integrity, dignity, and sound

speech that cannot be condemned, so that an opponent may be put to shame, having nothing evil

to say about us.” (Titus 2:7-8)

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The intentional teacher in my view should be able to engage the learner in meaningful

learning by providing encouragement, guidance and opportunity for exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise through facilitating adaptation based on the abilities and limitations of the

student. Some attributes that are of essence in the making of an effective teacher include: a

thorough knowledge of the subject matter; ability to engage in lifelong learning as knowledge is

prone to change over time; being a good communicator – able to use effective verbal, nonverbal

and media communication skills; being an effective instructor – be knowledgeable on different

instructional method, learning styles, metacognitive skills, human development and learning;

being an enthusiastic motivator; being a good manager and disciplinarian; and exhibit positive

personal traits such as empathy, honesty, integrity, respect, transparency, curiosity, creativity,

reliability and intelligence (Slavin, 2012 & Brummelen, 2009).

The Effective Learning Environment: The learning environment is the setting in which

the learning takes place. An effective learning environment in my view should be a setting which

facilitate meaningful learning through accommodation of learning by means of exploration,

experimentation, experience and exercise. In perspective of special education the effective

learning environment should be least restrictive, meaning, that students with disabilities should

have a chance at mainstream education through inclusion or reverse inclusion in general

education.

A learning environment should be also be “a safe and secure environment provides the

setting for respectful and honest interchange” (Bummelen, 2009). Therefore, an effective

learning environment needs to be, student centered - learner friendly – facilitate individualized

learning or team teaching as required, cater a diversity of learning styles, open to questioning and

answering, encourage meaningful learning, ; well managed – minimally disruptive, organized,

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time effective and carefully planned; accumulate ideas from diverse sources and people –

students, parents, administrators, other teachers, therapists, counsellors; authentic and transparent

in assessment; cultivate healthy learning habits and skills; and supportive, nurturing and caring

(Slavin, 2012).

Direct Instruction: Direct Instruction is a teacher directed method of teaching that

involves face to face instruction by teachers using carefully planned lessons. It is one of the

oldest and most commonly used teaching practices. Direct instruction is often carried out through

lectures and demonstration. This method can be effectively employed when teaching a new skills

set, introducing new learning contents, providing guidance and direction for activities, when

explicit teaching is required and in teaching students with exceptionalities.

Direct instruction can be employed in providing guidance and knowledge to engage in

learning through exploration and experimentation. It can also be an asset in facilitating to

understand and interpret learning experiences and engage students in exercise of intended and

learned knowledge and skills. An action research study conducted by Bruce and Vargus on

teaching object Permanence to a student with multiple disabilities demonstrate success in using

direct instruction in the special education classroom (Bruce & Vargus, 2013). Thus, direct

instruction can be adapted as required in teaching and facilitating and accommodating students

with disabilities overcome their limitations.

Motivation through Reinforcement and Incentives: Motivation is an essential trait for

survival, it is the behavior that activates the goal oriented nature in a human being, and is often

associated with needs and desires, and according to Maslow can be enhanced through reward and

reinforcement. (Slavin, 2012). Success of the teaching- learning process in my view depends on

the degree of motivation in the two parties involved in the process: motivation in the teacher for
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teaching and the motivation in the student for learning. Lack of motivation in either party can be

obstructive and detrimental to the teaching-learning process. Teacher feedback, grades, praise

and incentives are common means of establishing motivation. Opportunity for free or guided

exploration and experimentation, I believe can be of asset in reinforcing and motivating learner

engagement in the teaching-learning process. On one hand feeling of accomplishment,

achievements and goal orientation can have a positive effect on motivation. On the other hand

blame, failure, bad grades, absence of defined goals etc. can have a negative effect on

motivation. Both tangible and nontangible incentives can be useful in reinforcing and motivating

the special needs student in experiencing and exercising the intended knowledge and skills in the

process of achieving mastery. For instance food is as an incentive is tangible and music is

intangible.

Classroom Management: Classroom management is the process of ensuring smooth

execution of class activities through the prevention of disruptive behavior (Slavin, 2012). It is the

responsibility of the intentional teacher to explore and experiment different approaches in

handling disruptive behavior and exercise the best suitable approach through experience in

eliminating the negative behavior. This involves effective use of classroom time, creation of

lessons that engages both mind and imagination and addresses all styles of learning, maintenance

of discipline through proper response to misbehavior. Practices that contribute to effective

classroom management include: extensive planning, high expectations, proper teaching practice,

whole class instruction, mutual respect, higher degree of motivation, classroom rule established

in consultation with the students, management of routine behavior, proper but least intervention,

establishment of positive relationships through caring, use of technology etc. (Slavin, 2012).

Classroom management is profoundly important for the special educator as the teaching-learning
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process involves heavy interaction and involvement of multiple parties such as: parents,

therapists, counsellors, behavior analysts, medical professional, administrative staff etc. Proper

coordination between the involved parties is key in the smooth execution of the teaching –

learning process as mismanagement might result in further deterioration in the condition of the

special learner due to disturbance, frustration, weariness and demotivation.

Technology: Almost every aspect of twenty first century life is entwined with technology

in some manner and the influence of technology is evident in both general and special education

classroom. Technology, I believe can be effectively employed in achieving meaningful learning

through enhancing the teaching – learning process by enabling the learner to acquire knowledge

and skills through facilitation of opportunities to engage in learning through exploration,

experimentation, experience and exercise in a wide variety of modes such as auditory, visual and

tactile/kinesthetic.

The application of technology in the field of education, is threefold: for teaching, learning

and administrative purposes (Slavin. 2012). Some technological tools and devices utilized in the

general education classroom are computers: word processors, electronic spreadsheets, electronic

databases, presentation software, interactive games and software and the Internet; interactive

whiteboards; clickers; multi- media equipment: projection devices; recorders; etc.

Technology in the modern day classroom is employed for both teaching and learning,

thus, benefitting both the teacher and learner. Most common uses of technology include: lesson

planning, computer-based instruction design and delivery, content presentation, use of

spreadsheets in assessments and data recording processes, as a research tool, interfacing, web

authoring, communication, word processing, computer-assisted instruction, drill and practice,

tutorial programs, instructional games, discussion forums, integrated learning systems and so on
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(Slavin, 2012). The Internet can also be of great value in facilitating knowledge sharing, distance

learning, group learning, interactive learning, self-directed learning and collaborative and

cooperative learning and research etc.

Benefits of the use of technology include: interesting and interactive lessons, integration

of a variety of modalities, making lesson planning efficient and effective, provision of a wide

variety of resources, and assistance in dealing with sensory defensiveness and impairments in

students etc., provision of practice (writing, tests etc.), engaging the learner through interactive

learning, encouraging learning through different contexts, challenging the learner through levels

of difficulty, encouraging independent learning and so on.

The use of technology is of immense importance in special needs education. Special

needs students often have visual impairment, hearing impairment, speech impairment, cognitive

impairment, tactile defensiveness, sensory defensiveness, neuromuscular disorders, ambulatory

issues and so forth. Some devices of assistive technology in special education classroom include:

alternative keyboards and mouse devices, speech synthesizers, switches, screen magnifiers,

screen reading and talking browsers (Christmann & Christmann, 2003).

Adaptive technological devices employed in the special needs classroom include: capability

switches, sensory stimulators, massagers, adapted toys; adaptive equipment - activity chairs,

standers, swings, wheel chairs, gait trainers, walkers etc.

Some challenges involved with the use of technology in the classroom involves the cost

of installation, cost of maintenance and upgrading, too much use dependency on technology,

distractions caused by using cellphones, the Internet and email etc. and the difficulties in

monitoring the use of these devices, cyber bullying etc. (Slavin, 2012). However, the benefits
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and advantages of the use of technology in the classroom greatly outweighs these minor faults

particularly in the special education classroom.

Although, technology is a very effective medium of facilitation for education, it alone

cannot serve the purpose of an intentional teacher. Therefore, in order to facilitate meaningful

learning, the use of technology in the classroom should be objectively and intentionally planned

and should take place under the guidance and mediation of an intentional and knowledgeable

teacher.

Learning Characteristics

Multimodalities: Modalities in learning are the sensory modes or channels through

which a learner receives, absorbs, processes and stores information. The effective use and

integration of different sensory modalities, I believe, is key for survival as sensory input is what

facilitates learning and development through exploration, experimentation, experience and

exercise.

The educator’s knowledge on different modalities of learning is paramount in

understanding the learning style of the student as well as one’s own. Teachers do tend to teach

through one’s own preferred learning style which may or may not be the preferred style of the

student. Therefore, an intentional teacher should be able to engage in whole class teaching

through addressing all modalities of learning in a lesson. All humans begin learning as tactile or

kinesthetic learners but develop one’s own mode of learning with maturity. The first mode of

communication and bonding between a mother and baby takes place through touch and all babies

explore their surroundings through touch and taste.

Although, an individual has a dominant modality of learning, people tend to learn in

multimodalities. The intentional teacher should include all modalities in the planning of lessons
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and activities, and design and delivery of instruction, in order to engage in whole class teaching

and learning. Modalities of learning include: visual, auditory, kinesthetic/tactile and mixed

modalities. (Parker, PLSP)

Auditory learners learn through: hearing instruction and enjoying discussion,

remembering names rather than faces, remembering by speaking repetitiously, moving lips while

reading silently, talking about situations and problems, having illustrations explained, expressing

emotions, listening to music, sitting in the back of classroom (Parker, PLSP)

Visual learners engage in learning through: seeing (watching) demonstrations, learning

situations rather that imaging words, writing down information to keep organized, sitting in the

front of the class, learning to read by sighting words, remembering faces rather than names,

studying without music or movement, written examination as assessment tool.(Parker, PLSP)

Kinesthetic/ tactile learners engage in learning through: Remembering by doing and

participating, moving (acting out) while memorizing, space, moving to music, non-verbal

communication, physical activity when solving problems, how-to-do books and videos,

simulations, group activities, and projects as assessment (Parker, PLSP)

In the special needs classroom a learner can prefer one modality over another due to

disability. If a student is hearing impaired he/she may prefer visual or tactile input, whereas a

visually impaired student may prefer auditory and tactile input. Thus, knowledge and ability of

the special educator to cater all types of learning modalities is vital when teaching students with

exceptionalities.

Ability Grouping: Ability grouping involves dividing the group of students in a class into

smaller groups based on the academic ability. A classroom contains students with a broad range

of abilities. A high achiever in mathematics can be an average student in languages and vice
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versa. Students can transition through groups depending on performance. High achievers can be

grouped with students with equal academic potential and marginal students with marginal and

low achievers with low achievers. Grouping students in this manner can be problematic as low

achiever can get demotivated and fall behind further (Slavin, 2012)

Mixed ability groups and random grouping can also be detrimental to high achievers as

learning can become boring and demotivating (Slavin, 2012). However, from a survival

perspective mixed ability grouping can be constructive as a low achiever can benefit from a high

achiever within the same group facilitating coexistence through collaborative and cooperative

learning. This can be useful in facilitating learning through exploration, experimentation,

experience and exercise, in the meantime cultivating important social concepts such as sharing,

responsibility, meekness, compassion, patience etc. which are of essence to the Christian world

view, as means for survival in broader society. “Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the

earth.” (Mathew 5:5, King James Version)

Ability grouping can contribute positively to the teaching and learning process when

dealing with students with exceptionalities, as this gives freedom to the teacher to engage and

concentrate intense care to the students based on their needs. ‘Honors class’ in today’s school is a

prime example of positive ability grouping. Ability grouping is also evident in dealing with

students with disabilities, for instance, students with multiple disabilities are grouped into one

class with the intention of providing more individualized learning facilitation.

The intentional teacher in my view can use ability grouping in improving

teaching/learning efficacy (Slavin, 2012) through involving high achievers as peer tutors during

group work. For instance, if the high achieving group has completed the task they can employed

is assisting other groups in finishing the task. This promotes peer learning and individual
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learning. However, in order for this succeed both groups should be willing to engage in peer

learning. Otherwise it could lead to complex issues to do with motivation, self-confidence and

personality.

Personal Reflections

Analysis of my personal Learning Styles Profile, Study Skills Inventory, and

Philosophical Methodology of Learning Profile have contributed immensely in understanding

my own learning and development tendencies and the development of my customized learning

theory which combine elements from four educational philosophies with which I share my

learning and developmental tendencies: humanism, behaviorism, traditionalism and

progressivism.

Analysis of my Parker's Learning Style Profile scores concluded my preferences,

strengths and weaknesses. Through this I learnt that I tend to be more competent in dealing with

Things and Data rather than with People which is the preferred outcome to do with teaching

since it by definition deals with people. Therefore, I should work on my people skills as I

believe, that a teacher needs to good people skills to do with communication, understanding,

showing empathy, caring for the students and building a good rapport. My tendency towards

Independent Learning seems much stronger than Dependent Learning. Therefore, I should be

mindful in finding balance and be considerate of the learner's style when employing traditional

and non-traditional teaching methodologies as I might have a tendency to employ non-traditional

teaching method. My preferred modalities are towards Visual and Kinesthetic learning than

auditory learning although, I tend do, hear, see and think to the same degree. I believe, it is

important for the teacher to keep the class on task at all times. My strongest skill is leading and
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the weakest is managing and therefore, I believe I should work on improving my management

skills as these are vital in dealing efficiency and classroom management.

Comparison of pre-test and post-test scores associated with Parker’s study skills

inventory shows overall improvement in all categories and the overall score reflects strength. I

am quite satisfied with the progress I have made through the course of study understanding the

importance and applicability of these vital study skills through the identification and analysis of

my own personal strengths and weaknesses and working towards self-improvement, making

learning more efficient and effective. This helps immensely in identifying and analyzing

strengths and weaknesses in students and assisting them accordingly in order to improve

themselves making the teaching-learning process more effective and efficient. I believe, the

intentional teacher should be able to improve oneself through self-evaluation and self-critique.

Parker’s philosophical methodology of learning profile presents a true analytical

interpretation of my personal learning philosophy. Based on the scores on the PLMP, the learning

philosophy with which I identify myself the most is Behaviorism and the least is Socialism. I

also seem to embody some Humanist, Traditionalist and Progressive philosophical elements.

I truly identify myself with many of the Behaviorist characteristics. I am very

comfortable engaging in activities which involve problem solving, critical thinking and self-

directed learning. Reinforcement is a concept that I treasure very much both inside and outside

of academic periphery. Also it is no surprise that I tend to be Humanist at times as my life

experiences definitely have contributed in shaping my way of thinking and vision of life. I

consider "Applicability of the learning to the individual's needs in life" (Parker, PLMP

Interpretation) to be my motto. Irrespective of the mode it is done through - speaking, writing,

music or mere actions - the concept of self-expression is something I treasure very much.
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I am aware that I have a very strong presence of the Traditionalist elements within me. At

times I am an idealist and this can be greatly attributed to my knowledge of idealist subjects such

as literature, classical studies and philosophy. At another time I can be a realist and this stems

from my curiosity in the scientific interpretation of the world around me. My strong moral

grounding is based on my religion, Roman Catholicism.

The Progressive elements in me stem from my belief in the student centered, experience

centered and needs based approach to education and appraisal and monitoring based assessment

methodologies.

My learning philosophy is very much correlated and associated with my life experience

to do with caring for my special needs son. Analysis, interpretation and establishment of

behavior and skills, problem solving, critical thinking, self-direction, needs

analysis, appraisement, monitoring and reinforcement are traits that I live by in daily life.

Spiritual guidance and reinforcement play a central role in the seeking of hope and strength. I

believe these skills are of essence in the making of an intentional teacher. Therefore, my teaching

philosophy certainly is a cross product molded by the combination of all these learning

philosophies - behaviorism, humanism, traditionalism and progressivism.

Conclusions

Theories on human development and learning have played their role in shaping human

learning and education over centuries and even millennia. I personally believe that development

of the human race over millions of years is somewhat a reflection of the development of the

individual. Human learning, I believe is based on acquisition of knowledge and skills as means

for survival through exploration, experiment, experience and exercise (practice). This philosophy
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is strongly influenced by four educational philosophies that are reflective of my personal

learning and development tendencies: humanism, behaviorism, traditionalism and progressivism.

Since the beginning of the species humans have engaged in acquiring, developing,

conserving and transferring of customs, beliefs, traditions and knowledge and skills that are of

essence for the survival of the human race in the best means known at the time. This can be

observed throughout human history from the Stone Age to the Cyber Era of today. Thus, human

learning and development and hence education has always been, is and will be shaped by means

for survival of both the individual and society as challenges of the time demands.

Man is a creature of nature and thus, depends on instinct for survival. Instinct, I believe is

an important quality of a teacher as real life classroom situations occur and should be handled in

real time, with compassion, dedication and commitment to the betterment of the child. Therefore,

the entwining nature of the influence of technology on today’s human life, at times, is

frightening as it tends to weaken this instinctive and self-directed, independent nature of man.

Learning, I believe, ultimately is focused on providing the individual with necessary

knowledge and skills based on needs of the individual and the contemporary society through

exploration, experimentation, experience and exercise as means for survival of both the

individual and the society. This is even more relevant to the education of the individuals with

disabilities, in making them thrive as productive individuals in surviving in the broader society

overcoming their limitations and disabilities through adaptation, which I consider a moral

obligation that is in concert with Christian world view. Thus, an educator should be mindful to be

authentic, organic and instinctive in molding the little human through the teaching-learning

process facilitating maturation with knowledge and skills that are of essence for the ultimate

survival of the individual and the entire species.

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