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Solution possibilities:
○ None (Inconsistent) Elementary Row Operation (EROs)
○ Unique (Consistent)
○ Many (Consistent) 1. Row Replacement crj + ri
Row(i) := Row(i) + c × Row(j)
2. Row Interchange ri ↔ rj
Swap the position of Row(i) & Row(j)
THM. 1:
• 2 matrix are row-equivalent if they differ by a sequences
of EROs
• Linear sys. corresponding to row-equiv. augmented
matrix will have same sol. set
e.g.
e.g.
4. Pivot position:
Location corresponding to leading 1 in RREF of a
matrix
5. Pivot column:
Column containing pivot pos.
e.g.
Pivot cols = 1, 2, 4
e.g.
Augmented matrix:
Rank of Matrix
No. of pivot pos. in matrix
THM. 4:
○ Linear sys. [A | b] is consistent ⇔ RankA = Rank[A | b]
○ [A | b] is consistent with n var.:
No. of basic var. = rankA
No. of free var. = n - rankA
Equation:
: l.c. of vectors in S
Linear Independent (l.i.)
⇔ Equation has unique zero solution:
THM. 6:
THM. 5:
○ If S is l.d.
○ If p > n ⇒ S is l.d.
⇔ Augment matrix is consistent
(⇔ Last col. is NOT pivot)
Definition THM. 7
THM. 8
A: m×n matrix
Followings are equivalent:
a. consistent
a.
b.
: Trivial solution
: Non-trivial solution THM. 9:
: Consistent sys, with sol.
: General sol (associated homogeneous sys.)
Possibilities Solution set No. of free var.
Solution set of :
Unique sol 0
Many sol. ≥1 e.g.
: Basic sols.
e.g.
Codomain: Rm e.g.
: Image of under T, i.e.
is NOT linear transformation:
Range of T = S
linear transformation
⇔
Standard matrix:
⇔
⇔
NOTE:
⇔
is linear transformation
e.g. Find standard matrix of linear transformation that does:
Standard matrix:
One-to-one: ⇔
Onto:
NOTE: Some special standard matrix:
• Rotation on R2 by θ anticlockwise:
THM. 10:
Linear transformation (Standard matrix A) is:
• Reflection on R2 about line passing through O & making 1. One-to-one
angle θ with (+) x-axis: ⇔ has only trivial solution
⇔ All A's cols are pivot, all vars are basic
⇔ A's cols are l.i
Matrix Operators
Basic Matrix Definitions
1. Equality
1. m×n matrix:
⇔
2. Addition
A, B same size m×n
○ Square matrix: Size n×n C = A + B: cij := aij + bij
○ Main diagonal: a11, a22, …, ann
3. Scalar Multiplication
C = kA: cij := k.aij
2. Column matrix:
4. Matrix Multiplication
: m×p matrix
3. Row matrix: : p×n matrix
6. Zero matrix:
5. Power of Matrix:
A0 := In
Properties of Matrix Operators
Ak := A × A × … × A (k times)
i. A + B = B + A
6. Matrix Transpose:
ii. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Changing all rows of A into cols
iii. A + O = A
A: m×n matrix
iv. r(A + B) = rA + rB
AT: n×m matrix: (AT)ij = Aji
(r + s)A = rA + sA
v. r(sA) = (rs)A
x. (AT)T = A
xi. (A + B)T = AT + BT
xii. (rA)T = r(AT)
xiii. (AB)T = BTAT (order REVERSED)
e.g. e.g.
doesn't exist
A → B by ERO
Im → E by same ERO e.g. Find invertible P such that B = PA; B = RREF(A)
Aij: (n-1)×(n-1) submatrix obtained by deleting ith row & When A → B by:
jth col of A i. Row (kri + rj)/Col (kci + cj) Replacement:
Cij = (-1)i+jAij: (i, j)-cofactor detB = detA
• Calculate determinant by Cofactor Expansion ii. Row (ri ↔ rj)/Col (ci ↔ cj) Interchange:
○ Down the kth row: detB = -detA
e.g.
e.g.
A: n×n matrix
i. detAT = detA
ii. det(AB) = detAdetB
iii. det(kA) = kndetA
2. 2D Triangle
(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)
NOTE:
3 points collinear ⇔ det = 0
Eq. of straight line passing through (x1, y1), (x2, y2):
3. Tetrahedron
(xi, yi, zi) i = 1, 2, 3, 4
NOTE:
4 points coplanar ⇔ det = 0
Eq. of plane passing through (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, 2, 3:
a. A is invertible
b. AT is invertible
c. detA ≠ 0
d. C (size n×n): CA = In
e. D (size n×n): AD = In
(One-sided inverse is enough)
f. A In (EROs)
g. A has n pivot pos.
h. A's cols are l.i. & span Rn Basis for Rn
k. is one-to-one
l. is onto
"Zero vector":
iii. Commutative:
4. Function space: Collection of all real-valued function on a set D
iv. Associative:
v. Distributive:
"Zero vector":
vi. Compatibility:
vii. Normalization:
Examples of Subspace
Subspace H of V 1. is a subpace of V
1. Definition:
2. is a subspace of
○
○ H is a vector space
○ Vector addition & scalar multiplication 3. is a subspace of if
induced from V
4. is a subspace of
2. Checking conditions: function space
i. Closure:
: l.c. of vectors in S
NOTE:
e.g. Is a l.c. of S contains infinitely many vectors
is collection of all possible l.c. of every finite subset of S
THM. 1:
is a subspace of V
e.g. Is a l.c. of
is not l.c. of S
Definitions Examples
1. Polynomial space
Equation: is l.i:
is l.d.:
A: m × n matrix : m × n matrix
THM. 2: THM. 3:
⇔ is consistent
THM 4:
⇔ is onto ⇔ Every A's rows has pivot pos.
e.g.
e.g.
is inconsistent
Row Space
: m × n matrix
i.e.
NOTE: is a subspace of
THM. 5:
e.g.
Definition THM. 6:
kerT is a subspace of V
V, W: 2 vector spaces over scalar R ImT is a subspace of W
Kernel of T:
Image/Range of T:
NOTE:
• When V = W, T is called a linear operator on V
• When :
○ T is given by matrix transformation
○
e.g.
A→ REF(A) Method 1:
Span(RowA) = Span(REF(A)) Method 2:
e.g.
e.g. e.g.
Is l.d.
for
in ?
Find Let
For each , we need to find such that: By B-coordinate mapping, W is sent to:
for
THM. 11:
Any l.i set in V can be extended to a basis for V
Characterization of a basis S of vector space V
If H is a subspace of V:
○
Any 2 of the following conditions:
○
a. |S| = n = dimV
b. S is l.i.
NOTE: How to extend a l.i set S to a V's basis:
c. SpanS = V
1. If SpanS = V, S is a basis
2. If not:
e.g. Describe all possible subspace of R 3
3. New set is l.i
Let H subspace of R3 ⇒ dimH = 0, 1, 2, 3
4. Go back to (1) with . This addition must
dimH = 0 ⇒ stop somewhere as l.i. set in V can't contain more
dimH = 1 than dimV = n vectors (Thm. 9)
THM 14
Let be a matrix transformation
Definition Eigenspace
A: n × n matrix •
When has solutions is eigenspace of A corresponding to eigenvalue λ
○ λ: Eigenvalue of A • Non-zero vectors in Eλ are eigenvectors of A
○ : Eigenvector of A corresponding to λ
NOTE:
• must be non-zero
• λ can be any number
Characteristic Equation
e.g.
λ is eigenvalue of n × n mat. A
⇔ has non-zero, multiple solutions
is an eigenvector of ⇔ det(A - λI) = 0
corresponding to eigenvalue λ = -4
THM. 1:
Eigenvalues of a triangular matrix are entries on its main diagonal
e.g.
1. Find eigenvalues λ of A
e.g.
Multiplicity of an Eigenvalue
λ is of multiplicity m
⇔ λ occurs m times as root of characteristic eq.
e.g.
λ1 = 5: Multiplicity = 3
λ2 = 1: Multiplicity = 2
λ3 = -3: Multiplicity = 1
THM. 3:
n×n matrix A is diagonizable
⇔ A has n l.i eigenvectors
⇔ , or:
Characteristic eq. factorizes completely
into linear factors:
e.g. (x - 3), (x - 5)2, …
(x2 - 5), (x3 -x + 1), …
For each i:
dimNul(A - λiI)= Multiplicity of λ
⇔
⇔
⇔
Let
Write :
Characteristic eq.:
Substitute the above result to , we get the solution of :
⇔
⇔
⇔
We have:
1. Inner Product on Rn
○ Normal definition:
i.
ii.
iii.
○ Matrix definition: iv.
⇔
2. Length/Norm of vectors:
: Unit vectors
THM. 2: is orthonormal
THM. 4:
THM. 3: Any orthogonal set S of non-zero vectors is always l.i.
A: m×n matrix
THM. 5:
is orthogonal set
THM. 6:
• n cols of m×n matrix U are orthonormal ⇔ UTU = In
• n cols & n rows of n×n square matrix A are
orthonormal ⇔ ATA = In (orthogonal matrix)
THM. 7:
Linear transformation
Standard m×n matrix U with orthonormal cols.
a. (preserving length)
b. (preserving inner product)
c. ⇔ (preserving
orthogonality)
Definitions THM. 9
NOTE: ⇔
2. Orthogonal Decomposition:
1. Input: l.i
. Find orthogonal basis for ColA
2. Output:
orthogonal
First, find a basis for ColA (by choosing pivot columns of A):
3. Process:
NOTE:
•
Scale
⇔
Solution:
(THM. 9)
Use normal equation:
Since we take:
⇔ (THM. 3)
e.g. (2, 1), (5, 2), (7, 3), (8, 3)
⇔
⇔
⇔
THM. 10:
Least-squares solutions of are solutions of
Normal equation:
⇔ ⇔
e.g. Find least-squares solution of:
Solve:
THM. 11:
A: n×p matrix, l.i. cols Use normal equation:
W = ColA
Standard matrix of orthogonal projection onto W,
, is: