1. analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components: images, feelings and sensations.

The
method called introspection was used to study the structure of the mind – looking inward at pieces
of information passing through consciousness.

2. Functionalism (William James):- Functionalists criticized the structuralists for limiting themselves
to analyzing the content of the mind. According to functionalism, the goal of psychology is to
study the processes/did of mind rather than its contents. The various methods used were
introspection, observation, experiment.

3. Behaviorism (John Waston, 1878-1958):- Watson rejected the position shared by structuralists and
functionalists that the mind is the proper object of study for psychology. In contrary, he emphasized
observable environmental stimuli (e.g. a loud noise, a red stop light, a candy bar, praise from
friends) and the observable behavior or muscular responses that occurred in the presence of such
stimuli. For him, therefore, much of our behavior is the product of our immediate environment and
of our past experience. Hence, psychology should focus not on consciousness or experience but on
behavior-actions that can be observed and measured. The Goal of psychology is to study
observable behavior. The methods used are animal experiments, conditioning experiments.

4. Gestalt psychology: - (Mix Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka):- Gestalt means form,
shape or configuration. These psychologists viewed psychological functions as a patterned whole,
a totality of experience, or Gestalt (the whole experience) or configuration. The whole experience
was not just the sum of its parts; it was more, it was itself. Hence, their credo was "The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts" or "The whole was not simply the sum of its parts," meaning that,
when considered together, the basic elements that compose our perception of objects produce
something greater and more meaningful than those individual elements alone (perception is more
than a series of individuals Sensations). The Goal of psychology is to understand psychological
phenomena as organized, structured wholes or the holistic nature of the conscious mind. Various
methods used are experiment and observation.

5. Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856-1939):- Freud's attempts to treat patients suffering from
physical symptoms, such as paralyzed legs, inability to speak, or loss of body sensations that had no
apparent physical courses (conversion hysteria). He concluded that the disorder was the result of
unconscious psychological conflicts about sex caused by cultural prohibitions against sexual
enjoyment. These conflicts were "converted" into physical symptoms seen in convulsion hysteria,
which often provided the patient with an excuse to avoid engaging in the taboo behaviors. He was
pointing to the importance of unconscious desires and motives in determining behavior. In this
regard, sex or aggression were prime motivators of human behavior. Moreover, he argued that the
mind is like an ice berg in that most of it is hidden beneath the surface. He stated that human beings
are controlled primarily not by rational and couscous processes but rather by drives and urges
hidden with in the unconscious rather our behavior is governed by the unconscious drives. Besides,
Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences. Early childhood experiences play a
great role in personality development. Freud believed that memories of early childhood experiences
stored in the unconscious mind continue to affect behavior throughout life. These unconscious
influences explain the irrationality of much human behavior and the origins of psychological
disorders. In order to understand the unconscious mind, free association in which the patient is
asked to say whatever first comes to mind, dream analysis or interpretation, and analysis of slip
of the tongue.
The Development of Cognitive Psychology

A) Noam Chomsky (1959)

 Linguistic arguments against behaviorism.
 Arguments from language acquisition
 Behaviorists cannot explain how children can produce novel sentences they never heard
 Infinite number of sentences we can produce cannot be learned by reinforcement – there must
be a cognitive algorithmic structure in our mind underlying language
B) Alan Turing (1912-1952)
 Development of computers by with he develop “Turing test” for a computer to think like
human
 Analogy between computers and human minds
 Hardware (brain), Software (mind)
 Thinking can be described in terms of algorithmic manipulation of some information These
ideas gave rise to the information processing paradigm in psychology – cognitive psychology

Current Trends in Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive science is a broad category of loosely associated disciplines that include psychology,
philosophy, computer science, linguistics, anthropology, and neuroscience; of course cognitive
psychology is also a part of its domain. Most researchers are likely to work in an interdisciplinary
fashion. Cognitive Neuroscience: Can we explain cognitive processes by studying the anatomy
(structure) and physiology (function) of the brain? The field of cognitive neuroscience expanded
around the 1980s when neuroscientists started using imaging techniques on people performing
different cognitive functions.

1.4 . Cognitive Psychology and the Brain

Human brain damage (gladiators) and its consequences were noted by Hippocrates who wrote that
people’s behaviour changed after such damage. Similar observations had been made in wars victims
in the 19th century. It was not until World War II that physicians started to document disorders that
were caused by damage to certain regions of the brain. The understanding of brain function comes
largely from brain lesion studies in animals. Lesion studies provide clues to the organization of the
brain. Which brain region engages in what kind of cognitive function? Cognitive functions can
remain elusive because of recovery of function (Lashley, 1932). Parallels between human mind and
machines have been made since ancient times. Computer analogy is recent. There are number of
attributes that are similar between computers and humans mind.
1. Machines or programs using intelligence to solve complex problems, the way humans solve
problems.
2. Application will include computers doing medical diagnoses, flying jet planes, being the senses
of the disabled.
3. Both involves making programs or devices that are efficient, flexible, and learn through
experience. They may or may not mimic human consciousness.
4. Computer simulation involves designing a system that simulates human performance on a
selected cognitive task.
 In general the nervous system is the basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the
world around us. Through this system we receive, process, and then respond to information from the
environment.
Part of the central nervous system

The Cerebral Cortex (outer surface of the brain): responsible for the most sophisticated
information processing in the brain. This part of the brain be responsible for our ability to reason,
plan, remember, and imagine. It contains the lobes. Lobes are the four major sections of the
cerebral cortex: Frontal lobe, parental lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe.
a. Frontal Lobe: occupying the area of the brain nearest the face, it is bounded by the deep
central fissure. It contains major motor and speech and reasoning centers. (Broca’s area)

b. Parietal Lobe: The brain structure to the rear of the frontal lobe; the center for bodily sensations.
This area contains the somatosensory cortex to which information from the skin senses- touch,
temperature, pressure, and so on- is carried. Discrete damage to this area produces a variety of
effects, depending in part on whether injury occurs to the left or right cerebral hemisphere. If
damage involves the left hemisphere, individuals may lose the ability to read or write, or they may
have difficulty knowing where parts of their own body are located. In contrast, if damage occurs in
the right hemisphere, individuals may seem unaware of the left side of their body. For example, a
man may forget to shave the left side of his face.

c. Temporal Lobe:- The portion of the brain located beneath the frontal and parietal lobes. This lobe
plays a key role in hearing and contains a sensory area that receives input from the ears.
Damage to the temporal lobe, too, can result in intriguing symptoms. When such injuries occur in
the left hemisphere, people may lose the ability to understand spoken words. When damage is
restricted to the right hemisphere, they may be able to recognize speech but may lose the ability to
recognize other organizations of sound-for example, melodies, tones, or rhythms (Wericke’s
Aphasia)

d. Occipital Lobe: It is located near the back of the head. Its primary functions are visual, and it
contains a sensory area that receives input from the eyes. Damage to this area often produces a
"hole" in the person's field of vision: objects in a particular location can't be seen, but the rest of
the visual field may remain unaffected. As with other brain structures, injury to the occipital lobe
may produce contrasting effects depending on which cerebral hemisphere is affected. Damage to
the occipital lobe in the right hemisphere produces loss of vision in the left visual field, whereas
damage to the occipital lobe in the left hemisphere produces loss of vision in the right visual
field.

Another way of describing the brain is by considering the functions associated with a given area.
Three major areas have been discovered: the motor areas, the sensory areas, and the association
 areas.

 The Motor Area: one of the major areas of the brain, responsible for voluntary movement of
particular of the body. The body is represented in an inverted sequence in this area. The lower part
of the body is represented near the top of the brain, the trunk in the middle, and the upper body
toward the bottom of the cortex.

 The Sensory Area: It includes three regions: one that corresponds primarily to touch, to sight, and
relating to sound. For instance, the somatosensory area encompasses specific locations associated
with the ability to perceive touch in a particular area of the body.

 The association Area: one of the major areas of the brain, the site of the higher mental processes,
such as thought, language, memory, and speech. Damage to this area cam result in unusual
behavioral changes, indicating the importance of the association area to normal functioning
considers, for instance, the condition known as apraxia. Aproxia occurs when a person is unable
to integrate activities in a rational or logical manner. A person with aproxia who is asked to open
a lock with a key, for example, may be unable to do so in response to the request- but, if simply left
alone in a locked room, wishing to leave, will unlock the door. Apraxia is clearly not a muscular
problem, since the person is capable of carrying out the individual components of the overall
behavior. It is only when asked to carry out a sequence of behaviors requiring a degree of planning
and foresight that the patient shows deficits. It appears, then, that the association area may act as a
kind of "master planner," that is, the organizer of actions.

Other difficulties that arise because of injury to the association area of the brain relate to the use of
language. Problems with verbal expression, known as aphasia, can take many forms.

1. Broca's aphasia:- caused by damage to the part of the brain speech becomes halting and
laborious. The speaker is unable to find the right words- in a kind of tip-of-the-tongue phenomena
that we all experience from time to time, except that in the case of the person with aphasia, it
happens almost constantly.

2. Wernicke's Aphasia:- are difficulties in understanding the language of others. The disorder
produces speech that sound fluent, but makes no sense.

3. The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain. Because
of the way nerves are connected from the brain to the rest of the body, these two symmetrical left
and right halves control the side of the body opposite to their location. The left hemisphere of the
brain, thus, generally controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left
side of the body. Thus damage to the right side of the brain is typically indicated by functional
difficulties in the left side of the body.

Generally, the left hemisphere concentrates on tasks that require verbal strength, like, speaking,
reading, thinking, and reasoning. The right hemisphere has its own strengths in non-verbal areas
such as spatial understanding, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, and emotional
expression.

Neurons and How They Work