Topic 3 Setting, Theme

and Stage
Directions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define and explain the meaning of theme and setting;
2. Describe the theme and setting from any drama text; and
3. Understand and explain what stage directions are.

INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, we looked at plot and character, two important elements to consider
when studying drama. In Topic 3, we will look at one other element of drama,
which is setting. But what is the overall rationale of looking at plot, character
and setting? These elements of drama point to the intended message or theme of
the drama.

Under this topic, there will be a discussion on stage directions. Drama texts are
different from the other literacy genres because of the stage directions. Why
should there be stage directions? What is the importance of stage directions?
These and other related questions will be answered in this topic.
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 39

3.1 WHAT IS SETTING?

Setting refers to the total environment that is presented in the play. This includes:
(a) Time period (is it set in the 17th century, 18th century, 20th century)
(b) Place (such as in a room, kitchen, downtown, dark alley)
(c) Historical milieu (such as during the World Wars)
(d) Social environment (rich, poor, working class environments)
(e) Political and perhaps even spiritual realities (religious, non-religious,
Islamic, Christian, etc)

Some settings tend to be stereotypical. Some mood or behaviour of the characters

seem to be set in similar environments within a play or in several plays. Thus,
declarations of love by moonlight on a balcony, high-flown reveries on a
mountain-top, a rendezvous in an inn, ghostly appearances among ruins and
brawls in cafés” are examples of stereotypical settings (Bal, 1985).

The setting is usually established primarily through description and also

narration. Why is it important for you to know or be aware of the setting of
drama?

Firstly setting is related to the characters. The setting gives the readers or the
audience a sense of what kind of characters are in the drama. For example, if a
play is about an emperor, the setting would be something which is grand and
rich, to illustrate the power that the emperor holds.

For example, read Act 1 of The Importance of Being Ernest. The morning room
in AlgernonÊs flat is described as “luxuriously and artistically furnished”. What
does this tell you about Algernon? As mentioned in Topic 2, the setting tells us
about AlgernonÊs background, i.e. rich and aristocratic. Imagine having a setting
in which the furniture is simple, dull and unrefined. Would this appropriately
reflect AlgernonÊs life?
40 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

EXERCISE 3.1
Read the setting for Act 2:

Setting: “Garden at the Manor House. A flight of grey stone steps leads
up to the house. The garden, an old-fashioned one, full of roses. Time of
year, July. Basket chairs and a table covered with books, are set under a
large yew tree.”

What does the time of the year (July) and the roses tell you about the
season? Why do you think there is a table with books? What does that
tell you about the characters that appear in this act?

Setting can also be related to theme. This means that the setting may point to the
theme of the drama. For example, in a drama about the economic injustice of life,
you may have in one act a richly furnished setting while in another act, the
setting is poor and sparse, to show the economic discrepancy between one class
of people from another.

There is a tendency for readers to skim through the description of the setting in
plays. It is important to go through the description as it is a kind of symbol that
helps „give the plays their meaning‰.
(Barnet & Cain, 2000)

In addition, setting is important as it can set the mood of the drama (the mood
can also be set by the lighting and sound). Sometimes, the setting is described in
the lines uttered by the characters. For example, in one of ShakespeareÊs play,
King Lear, when Lear is the king, the audience hears that they are in a country
“With plenteous rives and wide-skirted meads”. In contrast, when Lear is
stripped off his power, the place is where “For many miles about/ThereÊs scarce
a bush”. Another example is in another of his plays, Troilus and Cressida, in
which Troilus asks the following:

Troilus: Why should I war without the walls of Troys that find such cruel battle
here within?

From the above utterance by Troilus, the audience knows that the setting is at
Troy.
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 41

As setting involves time, utterances by the characters reveal the time of the event
in the play. The following lines are from Troilus and Cressida, spoken by one of
the characters:

Look Hector, how the Sun begins to set; How ugly night comes breathing at his
heels, Even with the vail and darking of the Sun, To close the day up, HectorÊs
life is done.

Again, from the above utterance, the audience knows that the event takes place
during sunset.

EXERCISE 3.2

Read Act 1, the part where Lady Bracknell “interviews” Jack about his
background. Read the full context, after which read the following
extract for the purpose of this activity:

Lady Bracknell: That is satisfactory. What between the duties expected

of one during oneÊs lifetime, and the duties exacted from one after oneÊs
death, land has ceased to be either a profit or a pleasure. It gives one
position, and prevents one from keeping it up. ThatÊs all that can be said
about land.

Jack: I have a country house with some land, of course, attached to it,
about fifteen hundred acres. I believe; but I donÊt depend on that for my
real income. In fact, as far as I can make put, the poachers are the only
people who make anything out of it.

From the above extract, what do you know about the assets that Jack
has? What does this tell you about JackÊs background? Does he come
from a rich or poor family?

The costume can be described as the language of the drama. For example, we
know that Algernon is from a rich family. How do you think he should be
dressed? Similarly, Lady Bracknell is from an aristocratic and rich family. Her
dressing should reflect the class that she is from.

The costume should also reflect the event that takes place in the drama. For
example, in Act 2, Jack enters and breaks the news that his “brother” is dead. He
is in mourning clothes as described by Chasuble “I trust this garb of woe does not
betoken some terrible calamity?” How do you think Jack should be dressed?
42 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

Obviously he has to be dressed in mourning clothes. There would be a mismatch

(and confusion) if the audience were to hear one thing and see something
different (such as if Jack were to wear clothes as if he was going to a picnic).

Setting can be elaborate or simple. An elaborate setting is intended to give a

sense of realism the scene presented is meant to be as true-to-life as possible and
in which the audience succumbs to that illusion. For example, in the Victorian
melodrama horses were brought on stage to make the drama more appealing.
Now, look at the Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: A stage production of on the verge

The picture is taken from a stage production of On the Verge by the State
University of New York in 1991.

Now, compare it with the following picture.

Figure 3.4: A stage production of Marion Bridge

 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 43

Figure 3.4 is taken from a production entitled “Marion Bridge”, performed in

2004.

Which setting do you consider as simple? The first or the second? Which do you
consider as elaborate? What makes the setting elaborate? The colour, costume,
lighting? The two pictures show two different types of setting that be presented
on stage.

Whether the setting is simple or elaborate, the setting aims at presenting a

message that is to be captured by the audience. In contrast, a bare setting may
also have some intended meaning. Detailed settings are not given so as to
present a generalised background that can be set up anywhere and at any time to
give the intended effect.

For example, the setting for Samuel BeckettÊs drama Waiting for Godot is stated
merely as “A country road. A tree”. This is because the play focuses on the
existence of human beings in general.

EXERCISE 3.3

Read through the three acts again. Now, keeping in mind the plot and
the possible themes of this drama, describe in detail the setting for each
act.

For example in Act 1, Oscar Wilde only wrote that AlgernonÊs room is
“luxuriously and artistically furnished”. The furnishing is not given in
detail. We do not know what pieces of furniture are in the room, what
kind of material or what colour.

In your respective groups, discuss with your friends and come up with
details for the setting. Pay attention also to the colour and material.
Ensure that each detail of the setting is consistent with the events that
occur in the respective acts.
44 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

EXERCISE 3.4
1. Read Act 3 of The Importance of Being Earnest. Where is the
setting of this act?
2. Compare this setting with the setting in Act 2 (in the garden with a
flight of grey stone steps leading up the house). What do you think
the “grey stone” symbolises? Does grey denote something
cheerful?
3. What happens in Act 2? Are there some conflicts between the
characters? Which characters? Could these conflicts be
foregrounded by the setting of grey stones?
4. Now in Act 3, the setting changes to the morning room. The grey
stone steps are not in sight. Does the change of setting imply
something? Is there an element of cheerfulness suggested in this
setting? What happens in Act 3?
5. In Act 3, we see the resolution of the plot. The characters reconcile
(the women forgive Jack and Agy for deceiving them). Is this
reconciliation consistent with the mood that is created by the
setting? Explain.

3.2 WHAT IS THEME?

Theme is the intended message that the playwright wants to convey to his
readers or audience. According to Barnet & Cain (2000), theme is the “underlying
idea” of the drama, its “moral attitudes, its view of life, its wisdom”

A drama text may have more than one possible theme. There is, however, usually
a dominant or central theme, that is a theme that runs throughout the drama.
This dominant or central theme is accounted for by all the major events in the
drama.

Sometimes the central theme of a play is explicitly presented. Most often, it is

implied. The reader or the audience of the drama has to ÂextractÊ the theme of the
play by looking at some aspects of the drama such as the characters and the
setting. This is because the characters are the ones that usually present the theme
through their dialogue, actions and gestures.
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 45

The setting will also contribute to the central theme of the drama. In other words,
the theme is usually illuminated through a combination of these elements of
drama.

3.2.1 How to Identify Theme?

To identify the central theme (and the other additional themes) of a drama piece,
you have to first read the whole drama text. List out the main events that
happen in the drama. Next, you can go through the following “checklist” that
may help you to arrive at a possible theme of the play.

Please note that this checklist is not meant to be ÂstaticÊ, or used religiously. It is
not something that you have or must follow so as to see the theme of the play.
Rather, it is a guide that is aimed at helping (if you are a novice at understanding
theme) or training you to state the central theme of the play. Once you have
enough practice in looking for the theme in drama texts, you need not use the
checklist as shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Checklist for identifying the theme in drama

46 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

Once you have listed out the points, think through those points. Then write out
the points in a coherent paragraph. Following are possible themes of The
Importance of Being Earnest, adapted from Van Kirk (2004). Read through it with
full awareness of its organisation and structure.

(a) Theme 1: Duty and Respectability

For the Victorians, the term “earnestness”, defined as “serious or
determined, especially too serious and unable to find your own actions
amusing” (Cambridge Advanced LearnerÊs Dictionary, 2003) is at the top of
the code of conduct.

For those from the aristocratic class, appearance and style are more
important than substance. Consequently, even though a person is involved
in adultery, leads a secret life, or has illegitimate children, society at large
would turn a blind eye to these vices as long as an outer sense of propriety
is maintained.

This emerges throughout The Importance of Being Earnest. Wilde, in his

play, questions whether the more important issues of everyday life are
overlooked in favour of trivialities and appearances. For example, for
Gwendolen, her marriage proposal must be done correctly.

Act 2

JACK: Gwendolen, will you marry me? (Goes on his knees)

GWENDOLEN: Of course I will, darling. How long you have been about it!
I am afraid you have had very little experience in how to propose.
[Ú]
Yes, but men often propose for practice. I know my brother Gerald does.
All my girlfriends tell me so.

Thus, for Gwendolen, “in matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity is
the vital thing”. (Act 3)

Another event that exemplifies the focus on triviality is the tea event in Act
2. Even in situations where there is antagonism and serious conflict, there
has to be some order and correctness in the way of executing conflict on one
another.

Gwendolen and Cecily think that they are engaged to the same person and
are in conflict with each other. When Gwendolen requests no sugar, Cecily
adds four lumps to her cup. Although Gwendolen asks for bread and
butter, Cecily offer her a slice of cake. In an aside, Gwendolen comments
that Cecily is a “detestable girl” (Act 2). It is also when the servants are out
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 47

(i.e. when no one is watching them) that Gwendolen lashes out verbally at
Cecily.

In short, the drama seems to centralise on the aristocratÊs triviality of things

· that everything is done properly no matter what those good manners
might be hiding.

(b) Theme 2: The Absence of Compassion

Another possible theme that emerges in The Importance of Being Earnest is
the absence of compassion. Read the following and look for the supporting
quotations from the drama text.

The Victorians show little sympathy or compassion for two issues: illness
and death. This is exemplified by Lady Bracknell who, when she hears that
Burnbury (the imaginary friend of Algy) is seriously ill, feels that in dying,
he acted appropriately because he received the correct medical advice.
Apparently, she is too busy worrying about her own life, her daughterÊs
marriage and her nephewÊs error in judgment to worry.

EXERCISE 3.5

Can you find the quotation by Lady Bracknell from Act 1 to show her
lack of sympathy for dying people?

In fact, Lady Bracknell is more concerned with AlgernonÊs availability to

arrange music for her on Saturday and hopes that Burnbury does not have
a relapse so as to hinder Algernon from doing that task.

(c) Theme 3: Lack of concern for religion by the Victorians

Another possible theme that one can extract from WildeÊs drama is the lack
of concern for religion by the Victorians.

EXERCISE 3.6
Read through the whole play. Which character do you think symbolises
religious thought? List out all the utterances and behavior of this
character.

List out also the utterances made by other characters with regard to
religion or religious activity. Read through your list and think of one
common trait that emerges.
48 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

(d) Theme 4: Idleness of the Leisure Class

Another theme that emerges in The Importance of Being Earnest is the
idleness of the leisure class. The following is a sample paragraph on this
theme:
Apart from the centrality of trivial matters in the life of the Victorian
aristocrats, another emerging theme from the play is the idleness of these
same aristocrats and their indulgence in the pleasures of life. Algernon is
the typical example who lives the life of a hedonist, enjoying the worldly
pleasures of food and gossip.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Do you remember how Algernon is characterised? Read through Topic
2 again.
Do you remember the events in the drama in which Algernon is
associated with food? In which acts are these events to be found? Note
down the answers.

Note, though, that AlgernonÊs fixation on idleness is not a matter of

laziness, but the result of someone who has lived a life of esteeming the
sense of aesthetic uselessness. This parallels the 19th century philosophical
thought of aestheticism (the Aesthetic Movement) as espoused by Walter
Pater, who argued that artÊs primary relationship is with beauty, not with
reality. He argues that art is useless in the sense that it has no social
purpose or practical use, it is only for beauty sake.

In the next section, we shall look at one more element that distinguishes
drama from the other literary genres, which is stage directions.

3.3 STAGE DIRECTIONS

One element that differentiates drama from the other genres (poetry, short story
and the novel) is that in drama, stage directions are given. Stage directions are
the “playwrightÊs indication to the actors or readers for example, offering
information about how an actor is to speak a line” (Barnet & Cain, 2000).

The conventional way of writing the directions is to write them in parenthesis. In

the past (before the advent of the printing press), stage directions were solely for
the theatre performers only. Even if there were stage directions written on the
texts, they were usually sparse.
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 49

Similarly, Classical and Renaissance texts are constructed mostly of dialogues

and contain few stage directions. One reason for this was that the playwright
was also usually the director of the play or even the main actor. In other words,
the playwright had a direct role in the production of the play.

In contrast, many modern and post-modern drama texts have an even balance of
dialogues and stage directions, as the playwright slowly takes backstage and the
director takes a more important role. Now, playwrights begin to insert their
“voice” by putting in the stage directions.

The technical term for stage directions is didascaliae. The didascaliae came into
popular use in modern, contemporary drama scripts. One reason for this may be
the playwright wishes to have more control or wants to make full use of lighting,
sound, costume and special effects. This way, the playwright need not describe
the scenery through the charactersÊ dialogue.

For example, instead of having the character commenting on his movement, the
playwright merely has to write out the stage direction to that effect.

Some dramatists argue that didascaliae is more specific than stage directions as it
includes all written information in the drama text that is not spoken by the
character. There are four parts to the didascaliae:
(a) Extra-textual which is the epilogue or the preface;
(b) Autonomous, when the playwright challenges or severs the referential
bond between the dialogue and the didascaliae;
(c) Technical, that is how certain mechanical devices are to be used; and
(d) Normal, which are phrases that are subordinate and referential to the
dialogue spoken by the characters.

For the purpose of this module, the term “stage directions” will be used more
often instead of “didascaliae” so as to make your reading of this topic easier
(instead of having to deal with too many technical jargon).

Stage directions are sometimes written as “s.d.” in drama scripts. During the
days of Shakespeare, the directions were written in Latin. These Latin words are
sometimes used even in the 21st century. Thus, it is sometimes common to read
the following words in modern publications of plays:
50 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

ACTIVITY 3.2

“Curtain” is another stage direction written in drama texts. This is to

direct the closing of the curtain to indicate the end of the play. If there
is no curtain, what improvisation can one make?. Discuss in class.

Modern stage directions are usually added at the beginning of each act to
provide information about how the playwright imagines the details of how the
stage should be and what the performers on the stage should do. Sometimes the
stage directions can be long. For example in the play A Streetcar Named Desire,
the opening stage direction is about a page long.

Stage directions include gestures that characters in the drama present. These
gestures also give some insight into the charactersÊ behaviour, and add
understanding to the primary theme or intended message of the play.

Sometimes the characters cannot voice out their thoughts and emotions. These
have to be presented through the gestures of the characters, that is the stage
directions given for the performers to follow. Thus, as readers of drama, it is
important to read through the stage directions to gain insight into the motives or
unspoken emotions of the characters.

Stage directions, then, are important as they give the reader knowledge of the
charactersÊ thoughts and feelings that are not presented directly in the dialogue.
 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS ! 51

In Act 2 of The Importance of Being Earnest, for example, Gwendolen and Cecily
are in a tensed but witty conversation. Oscar Wilde puts in the following stage
directions:

Enter Merriman, followed by the footman. He carries a salver, table cloth, and
plate stand. Cecily is about to retort. The presence of the servants exercises a
restraining influence, under which both girls chafe.

Thus, when the servants are away, their conversation gets heated up but in front
of the servants, they are mindful of their manners.

What do these stage directions tell the reader of the drama? It seems that, Oscar
Wilde is questioning and highlighting the role of the lower class, whose presence
is perceived to be minor but without which the upper class would behave
inappropriately, is also suggesting that the behaviour of the upper class is
controlled by the lower class.

EXERCISE 3.7
Read through Act 2 again. What are the other stage directions given by
Wilde to show the restrain that Cecily and Gwendolen have in the midst
of their heated conversation?

Here is one example:

Merriman: Shall I lay tea here as usual, Miss?
Cecily. [[Sternly, in a calm voice.]] Yes, as usual.

Can you find another example from the same Act?

The stage direction is an important element of drama which the reader of the
drama text should study so as to gain better insight or understanding of the
overall message and themes of the drama.

In the production of the play, however, some directors take the stage directions
as merely suggestions on to how the play is to be produced or executed and not
as instructions that are to be rigidly followed.
52 TOPIC 3 SETTING, THEME AND STAGE DIRECTIONS

This topic examines three important elements of drama:

! Setting (the environment of the drama)
! Theme (the underlying message of the drama)
! Stage directions (instructions for the performers and directors as to how
certain things in the play is to be carried out)

All three elements can give further insights into the themes of the drama.

Aesthetic movement
Aside
Epilogue

1. What are the elements of drama that contribute to the understanding of

theme?

2. What are some of the elements that should exist in a critique of a drama
text?

Bal, M. (1985). Narratology: Introduction to the theory of narrative (translated by

Christine van Boheemen). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Barnet, S. & Cain, W. E. (2000). A short guide to writing about literature (8th
ed.). New York: Longman.
Barranger, M. S. (1995). Theatre: A way of seeing (4th ed.). California:
Wadsworth.
Van Kirk, S. (2004). On wildeÊs: The importance of being earnest. New Jersey:
Wiley.