Power/Load Flow

L12: Transmission System Effects

Power Flow: Why?

PG1, QG1 PG2, QG2

unknown

PL, QL
Load Flow problem:
Terminology
• For power flow analysis, we use per-phase circuits in the per-unit
system.
• One-line diagram: per-phase circuit diagram without neutral.
• Real, reactive power injection:
• into bus: gen (is defined positive)
• out of bus: load
• There are four variables for every bus:
• P
• Q
• V
• θ
• Losses are a function of flows.
Note: Normally, the bus connected to the largest generating station is selected as the
slack bus.
NETWORK MODELLING

𝐼𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑦𝑠𝑖 + ෍(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑚 )𝑦𝑖𝑚

𝑚𝜖𝑖
NETWORK MODELLING
Off-Diagonal elements

Diagonal elements
NETWORK MODELLING
Solution
Example 2
Example 2
Example 2
Adding or removing branches
Example
 Power FLOW Equations
the current injection into any bus k may be expressed as

Using;
Using Euler formula;

Separating real and imaginary parts

Power Flow eqs

Analytic statement of the power flow problem
• Consider a power system network with N buses.
• NG of which are voltage-regulating generators.
• One is a swing bus.
• So PV buses: (NG-1), and PQ buses: (N-NG)
• Assume:
• Swing bus is numbered bus 1,
• PV buses are numbered 2,…, NG
• PQ buses are numbered NG+1,…,N
• Problem information we have about the network:
1) admittance Y-bus matrix.
2) voltage magnitudes 𝑉𝑘 , (k=1,…,NG) at all generator buses
3) real power injection of all buses except the swing bus, 𝑃𝑘 , k=2,…,N
k

4) reactive power injection of all type PQ buses, 𝑄𝑘 , k=NG +1, …, N

k G
buses for which we know the real power injection => (N-1)
+ +
buses for which we know the reactive power injection => (N-NG)
= =
number of buses for which the left-hand-side is known => 2N-NG-1

Rewriting PF eqs
• We are trying to find the following information about the network:
• The angles for the voltage phasors at all buses except the swing bus (it is 0 at the swing
bus), i.e.,𝜗𝑘 , k=2,…,N [N-1 angle unknowns]

• The magnitudes for the voltage phasors at all type PQ buses, i.e., |Vk|, k=NG+1, …, N
[N-NG voltage magnitude unknowns]

number of equations = number of unknowns

2N-NG-1 equations 2N-NG-1 unknowns
Method of solving:
1) Define the vector of unknown variables
2) Define the vector x as the composite vector of unknown angles and
voltage magnitudes.

With this notation, we see that the right-hand sides of power flow eqs
that depends on elements of unknown vector x, can be written as:
Pk and Qk are the specified injections (known constants) while the right-hand sides
are functions of the elements in the unknown vector x.

Eq(A)

This vector is used during the solution algorithm

SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
AC Power Flow: SOLUTION ALGORITHMS
• Gauss-Seidel method
• Historically, preferred due to reduced computing power.

• Newton-Raphson method
• Fast convergence

• Fast Decouple power flow method

• Faster than NR method
GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

𝑓 𝑥 =0

𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥
Example
Gauss-Seidel applied to PF
(𝐺𝑖𝑗 − 𝑗𝐵𝑖𝑗 )𝑉ത𝑗∗ Slide 19
Gauss-Seidel applied to PF

ത 𝑘∗
(𝑉𝑖 )
Important
Example
Example
Example
NEWTON-RAPHSON Method

𝑓 𝑥 =0
𝜕𝑓 𝑥 𝑘
𝑓 𝑥 ≅ 𝑓 𝑥𝑘 + (𝑥 𝑘+1 − 𝑥 𝑘 ) = 0
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑓 𝑥 𝑘
− ∆𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑓 𝑥𝑘
𝜕𝑥
Newton-Raphson method
Example

(𝑥 𝑘 )2
Example

(𝑥 𝑘 )2
 Newton-Raphson applied to PF
 f1 ( x )   P2 ( x)  P2   P2   0 
        
         
Mismatch eq 
 f N 1 ( x)   PN ( x)  PN   PN   0 

f ( x)         
       P   0
                            Q 
 f N ( x)  Q N G 1 ( x)  Q N G 1   Q N G 1   0   
           
       
 f 2 N  N G 1 ( x)   Q N ( x)  Q N   Q N   0 

 θ2   x1 
Unknown
 θ   x  PF eqs
 3   2 
    
Pk   Vk V j Gkj cos( k   j )  Bkj sin( k   j )  ,
N
 k  2,..., N
 θ   θ N   x N 1  j 1
x   
|V| |V NG 1|  x N 
Qk   Vk V j Gkj sin( k   j )  Bkj cos( k   j )  ,
N

|V N  2|  x N 1  k  N G  1,..., N

 G    j 1

     
 |V |   x2 N  N 1 
 N   G 
 NR Solution update formula

Clearly, an essential step in applying NR to the power flow problem is to enable calculation of the Jacobian
elements

 f1 ( x ( 0) ) f1 ( x )
( 0)
f1 ( x ) 
(0)

  
 x1( 0) x2 xn 
 f 2 ( x ) f 2 ( x )
(0)
f 2 ( x ) 
(0)

J   x  
 1 x2 xn 
     
 f n ( x ) f n ( x ) f n ( x ) 
(0) (0) (0)

 x 
 1 x2 xn 

( 2 N 1 N G )( 2 N 1 N G )

 ( N 1)( N 1)
 ( N 1)( N  N G )
 
Compact expression   J P J
PV 
of Jacobian using J  ( N  NG )( N 1) ( N  N G )( N  N G ) 
above observation.   Q
 
 J 
QV
J

where the first superscript indicates the type of equation we differentiate, and the second
superscript indicates the unknown with respect to which we differentiate
  
    
N

  V2 V j G 2j cos  2   j  B 2j sin  2   j  P 2 
 P2 ( x)  P2   j 1

    
   VN V j GNj cos N   j   BNj sin  N   j   PN 
N

 PN ( x)  PN   j 1

f ( x)             


 
QN G 1 ( x)  QN G 1   V      
N

 

  j 1 G
N 1 V j G N G  1, j sin  N G 1   j  B N G 1, j cos  N G 1   j  Q N G 1 
   

 QN ( x)  QN   
VN V j GN , j sin  N   j   BN , j cos N   j   QN
N

 j 1


 Pj ( x) Pj ( x)
 V j Vk G jk sin( j   k )  B jk cos( j   k )   V j G jk cos( j   k )  B jk sin( j   k ) 
P
J jk  J jk
PV

 k  Vk

P Pj ( x) 2 Pj ( x) Pj ( x)
  Q j ( x)  B jj V j    G jj V j
PV
J jj J jj
 j Vj Vj

Q j ( x) Q j ( x)
  V j Vk G jk cos( j   k )  B jk sin( j   k )   V j G jk sin( j   k )  B jk cos( j   k ) 
Q
J jk  J jk
QV

 k  Vk

Q Q j ( x) 2 Q j ( x) Q j ( x)
   B jj V j
QV
J jj   Pj ( x)  G jj V j J jj
 k Vj Vj
NR Algorithm
1. Specify:
• All admittance data
• Pd and Qd for all buses
• Pg and |V| for all PV buses
• |V| for swing bus, with ϴ=0
2. Let the iteration counter j=1. Use one of the following to guess the initial
solution.
• Flat Start: Vk=1.0 ϴ=0 for all buses.
• Hot Start: Use the solution to a previously solved case for this network.
3. Compute the mismatch vector for x(j), denoted as f(x)
4. Perform the following stopping criterion tests:
• If |∆Pk|< e for all type PQ and PV buses and
• If |∆Qk|< e for all type PQ buses,
• Then go to step 6
• Otherwise, go to step 5.
5. Find an improved solution as follows:
• Evaluate the Jacobian J at x(j). Denote this Jacobian as J(j)
• Solve for ∆x(j) from:
 Factorization

• Compute the updated solution vector as x(j+1)= x(j)+ ∆ x(j).

• Return to step 3 with j=j+1.
6. Stop.
The above algorithm is applicable as long as all PV buses remain within
their reactive limits. To account for generator reactive limits, the above
algorithm needs to be modified to check limits at each iteration.

At the end of solution, all the line flows may be computed using:
Fast Decouple Power Flow Method
• Observation 1:
The resistance of transmission circuits is significantly less than the
reactance. Usually, it is the case that the x/r ratio is between 2 and 10.

• Observation 2:
For most typical operating conditions, the difference in angles of the
voltage phasors at two buses k and j connected by a circuit, which is θk-
θj for buses k and j, is less than 10-15 degrees. It is extremely rare to
ever see such angular separation exceed 30 degrees. Thus, we say that
the angular separation across any transmission circuit is “small.”
Using update eq
Algorithm same as NR except step 5:
DC Power Flow
PF eq [1]:

From Observation 1:

From Observation 2:
• Observation 3:
In the per-unit system, the numerical values of voltage magnitudes
|Vk| and |Vj| are very close to 1.0. Typical range under most operating
conditions is 0.95 to 1.05. So Flat voltage profile for the system is
assumed.
Example
Example
Comparison
6.20