Chapter 7

Route Selection Manual Hydrology and Drainage

7 HYDROLOGY AND DRAINAGE

7.1 Introduction
The influence of hydrology and drainage on route selection relates primarily to:

• The implications of routes located on ridge tops, valley floors (including flood
plain routes), valley sides and flat to rolling terrain (see discussion in Chapter 5)
• The location of major bridges as potential fixed points in route selection
• Anticipated levels of flooding, scour and sediment accretion where these factors
control feasibility and significantly influence route option cost comparisons.
The ERA Drainage Design and Bridge Design Manuals both contain relevant information
and should be consulted as appropriate.

7.2 Drainage Implications for Different Route Options

7.2.1 Ridge Routes and Lower Valley Side/Valley Floor Routes
Ridge routes typically cross only small watercourses fed by small catchments whereas
lower valley side and valley floor routes usually encounter a smaller number of much
larger rivers that often require expensive bridging. Furthermore, v-shaped valley side
slopes usually border active valley floor channels with minimal river terracing (Figure 7-1)
providing little option for avoiding flooding and scour hazards. Typically, v-shaped or
incised valleys are found in the headwater reaches of river systems; further downstream,
valleys tend to widen with the development of terraces adjacent to the river flood plain
(Figure 7-2) that allow routes to be selected that can avoid the majority of flooding and
scour hazards. However, topographic constrictions in valley cross-sections, usually
brought about by geological control, can sometimes make it difficult to avoid these hazards
through route selection (Figure 7-3). Adequate provision for scour protection should
therefore be given in the cost estimate for route comparison.

Figure 7-1 V-Shaped Valley Without Figure 7-2 River Terraces Permit Route
Flood Plain Terraces Location in the Foreground

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Figure 7-3 Valley Floor Alignment Made Extremely Difficult by Topographic

Constrictions
7.2.2 Floodplain Routes
Ordinarily, the flood plain is defined as the area inundated by the annual flood. However,
the effects of less frequent and more extreme flooding can extend over much larger areas
than this (Figure 7-4). Four potential factors may influence route selection on flood plains:

• the extreme flood level and the level of the road needed to avoid being flooded
• the migration of meanders which can outflank bridges or erode embankments and
side slopes (Figure 7-4)
• the potential for tributary fans to:
o impact river crossings and embankments
o divert floodwaters in the main river against the opposite valley side, causing
scour (Figure 7-5)
o temporarily block or partially block flood plains, thus causing upstream
flooding
• the potential for loss of flood plain storage or conveyance, due to:
o the effect of tributary fans (above)
o the volume loss caused by the presence of an embankment ‘footprint’, or
o the ‘sterilisation’ of flood plain storage that has become cut off from the
river by an embankment.

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a) Flood Levels and Flood Plain Storage

Loss of flood plain storage due to ‘sterilisation’ can be mitigated, to a degree, through the
use of relief culverts that allow flood waters to return to the main channel, but this will
probably not be sufficiently rapid to attenuate flooding. Loss of storage due to
embankment footprint effects cannot usually be mitigated, except by protecting road
alignments from the resultant increase in flood level by building higher embankments.

Figure 7-4 Flood Plain Routes

If local rainfall and/or river flow data are available these should be used to calculate an
initial estimate of flood levels. In the absence of that data and if a clearly defined natural
channel exists in the flood plain, the depth to the channel invert from the flood plain level
is likely to be approximately equal to the depth of water over the flood plain during a flood
event with an annual exceedance probability of 1%.

The route will need to be located at a level that avoids flooding, typically above the flood
event with an annual exceedance probability of 1%, the 1 in 100 year return period flood.
The height and size of embankment required to achieve this will need to be included in the
cost comparisons between route options, as will the requirements for scour protection of
road embankments and associated drainage structures. It is recommended that, wherever
possible, flood plains are avoided when identifying and selecting route options as they can
pose significant risk to engineering structures. Figure 7-6 illustrates a fairly extreme
example where the entire valley floor is occupied by active flood plains and associated
potential flood and scour effects.

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Figure 7-5 Tributary Fan Pushes the Blue Nile against its Opposite Bank

Figure 7-6 Entire Valley Floor Occupied by Active Flood Plain

b) Meandering, Braided and Anabranching River Systems
The processes of erosion and deposition around meander bends means that meanders tend
to migrate downstream (Figure 7-4). This can cause considerable damage to embankments
and structures, as illustrated in Figure 7-7). These photographs show locations where
meander migration has led to the channel moving relative to a bridge. In both cases the

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channel is now eroding the toe of the approach embankment and failure can be seen on the
embankment slope.
If maps or images are available from different dates it may
may be possible to see how rapidly
the meanders are moving. Meander progression can require extensive river training at
bridges or erosion protection at the toe of embankments or both, and is thus an important
consideration for route selection.

Figure 7-7 Meandering C

Channels on the Adwa-Adigrat
Adigrat Road
Braided and anabranching rivers are often found on flood plains where the sediment yield
of catchments is very high. These rivers comprise more than one channel. Anabranching
rivers typically have two channels: at any time one channel will tend to be dominant,
though the dominant channel may vary over time. Braided rivers have a number of criss criss-
crossing channels as shown in Figure 77-8 and can be particularlyarly problematic in terms of
fixed bridging and culverting points and the changing distribution of scour. Any bridge is
likely to require extensive river training to stabilise the channel location and to reduce the
bridge span to an economical design.
If sufficiently accurate topographic data are available to determine the present location of
the channel and at least at one time in the past, it may be possible to see where migration
has occurred and even to estimate the average rate of migration. An example
example is shown in
Figure 7-9,
9, using aerial photography. However, past rates of movement should be treated
with care if they are used to predict future change, as they are likely to be influenced by
factors such as climate change, deforestation and underlying
underlyi geology.
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Figure 7-8 Examples of Braided River Channels

C

Figure 7-9
9 Meander Migration and Cut-Off
Accretion can also be a problem for bridges and embankments located on flood plains.
Figure 7-10
10 shows a bridge in Ethiopia where accretion has almost filled the waterway
opening in the intervening 60 to 70 years.

Figure 7-10 Accretion at a Bridge

B on a Flood Plain Route
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Route Selection Manual Hydrology and Drainage

c) Tributary (alluvial) Fans

Alluvial fans occur where a sudden reduction in bed gradient causes sediment to be
deposited, most commonly where a relatively steep and active tributary flows out onto the
flatter floodplain of a larger river. These are always difficult locations for route selection
as sediment will be deposited in the main channel. This accretion will cause an increase in
the main channel level and consequent sudden shifts to new channels. Accordingly, where
possible, routes should
hould be selected to avoid crossing such features.
However, if an alluvial fan has to be crossed, it is preferable to locate the crossing point
near the apex of the fan where the upstream channel is likely to be stable and all sediment
is likely to be conveyed
eyed through the bridging structure due to relatively high flow
velocities. A crossing further downstream from the apex would require extensive training
works to confine the watercourse to a desired single channel and regular maintenance
would be needed too keep this waterway clear.

7.2.3 Valley Side Routes

Valley sides are often drained by eroding gullies which may require extensive works to
stabilise. Figure 7-1111 shows gully erosion encroaching upstream to threaten a road. The
actual erosion potential will
ill depend upon flow velocities and the resistance of channel beds
and banks to withstand scour. Channels formed in weaker rock or soil may erode rapidly,
forming gullies. These factors can be assessed in general terms during reconnaissance
surveys and existing
sting eroding gullies can easily be identified from aerial photographs and
large scale satellite imagery.

Figure 7-11 Gully Erosion on the Adwa-Adigrat Road

The presence of even limited gully erosion should be taken as an indication that the whole
topographic unit in which it is occurring may be susceptible to erosion. Whether or not this
is significant enough to influence route selection will depend upon seve severity and the
anticipated cost of stabilisation. In some instances, stabilisation can require extensive
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Hydrology and Drainage Route Selection Manual – 2013

channel protection works for considerable distances above, and particularly below, a road
in order to ensure long-term
term stability.

7.2.4 Flat and Rolling Terrain

errain
While flat and rolling terrains are areas typically where the hazards described above do not
apply (Figure 7-12)
12) there can be localised scour effects (Figure 7-13)
7 and low-lying
lying areas
can be prone to significant seasonal flooding. Adequate provisi
provision
on for scour protection and
flood freeboard will need to be included in route option cost estimates to deal with these
hazards.

Figure 7-12 Culvert in Flat Terrain

Figure 7-13 Erosion

on in Unconsolidated Sediments along
a the Arba Minch-Konso
Konso Road

7.3 Bridge Location

Bridges are relatively expensive to construct and can be prone to scour damage. Selection
of appropriate locations for bridges where the span and need for river training works are
minimised will reduce both capital and maintenance costs. Such locations will be fixed
points that help to define route options.
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The preferred location for a bridge is over a straight, stable reach of the river with a single
channel and erosion resistant materials on which to found the abutments. However, such
combined conditions are rarely encountered and the best available site is selected based on
the following factors:

• channel stability
• channel width
• potential for scour.
A stable channel will require less training works to ensure the watercourse flows through
the waterway efficiently. Within an otherwise unstable channel there may be locations that
are more stable. The reason may be obvious, for example where a rock outcrop provides
natural river training, or less obvious, for example where underlying changes in geology
control the channel geometry. Such locations are likely to be preferred if they can be
found. Alternatively, locations where the channel is situated against a stable valley side
may be more suitable than where the channel is free to shift.
Usually the most significant factor in the cost of a bridge is its span. For that reason a
single narrow channel is preferred as a crossing location to either a broader channel or a
reach where there are multiple channels. Training the river to reduce the width or number
of channels is possible but is likely to be costly and probably ineffective in the long-term.
Similarly, a location where the route crosses a river at right angles will minimise the skew
and hence the length and cost of the bridge. Realigning the river to suit the road alignment
may be possible, but again it is likely to need costly river training works.
Scour at bridges may be exacerbated by a variety of factors, and these should be avoided
where possible:

• Severe scour can occur at the confluence of two streams. It can also be difficult to
estimate extreme flood flows and hence flood levels at such locations. The reaches
upstream and downstream of any confluence should be avoided if possible.
• Scour and bank erosion will occur at bends. They should be avoided unless the
outside of the bend is an erosion resistant valley side.
• Bridge piers cause local scour, so a location that does not need any piers in the river
channel is preferred over a location where piers are required.
• Existing structures, such as an earlier bridge, will alter the channel hydraulics. If
two bridges have to be located close together, their effects on each other will need
to be considered and may require uneconomic spans to be selected to minimise the
interaction of scour effects.
For larger bridges, a preliminary estimate of flood flows will usually be needed at route
selection stage to improve the accuracy of estimation of both the waterway required and
potential for scour, particularly if these factors are considered likely to have a significant
effect on the overall cost estimate for each route option. This preliminary estimate should
be based on readily available information such as catchment characteristics and design
rainfall. Any flow estimate should be compared with data from a physical inspection of
the potential bridge location, to check that the estimate looks reasonable.
Further information on the location of bridges, including requirements for minimum
freeboard above design flood level, can be found in the ERA Bridge Design Manual.

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7.4 Data Sources for Route Assessment

There is a range of data sources available that can assist in route selection with respect to
hydrology and drainage patterns. These include published topographic maps, aerial
photographs and satellite DEM data. LiDAR and other airborne imagery is unlikely to be
available in the majority of cases and is likely to prove too expensive to acquire at route
selection stage. Figure 7-9 illustrates the value in using historical aerial photographs to
assess changes and rates of change to stream channels over time. Satellite imagery can also
offer significant potential given the frequency and increasing resolution of image data
collection.
Specific hydrological information, such as rainfall records or river flow data, may exist,
either within the corridor or from adjacent catchments. Desk study data will almost
inevitably have to be supplemented by field observations in order to obtain the required
data for route selection.

7.4.1 Hydrological Data

In respect of hydrology and drainage, topographic data will help to determine contributory
catchment areas, especially with regard to the major river crossings. Relevant 24-hour
maximum rainfall data can be obtained from the National Meteorological Services Agency
(NMSA) if there are rainfall stations located adjacent to the corridor. In addition, the ERA
Drainage Design Manual divides the country into different rainfall regions. The daily
maximum rainfall data from NMSA can be analysed to derive design rainfalls for various
return periods to be applied to the determination of design discharges. The maximum
rainfall values derived from data analysis should be compared with the ERA regionalised
rainfall values provided in the Drainage Design Manual.

River flow data can be obtained from the Ministry of Water and Energy Resources. The
usefulness of rainfall and flow data at route selection stage will vary according to each
project. As a minimum it is recommended that this data is reviewed to identify any
hydrological constraints on route selection and any requirements for major investments to
accommodate drainage patterns and anticipated flood events.

7.4.2 Field Observations

Although the presence of erosion resistant features or zones can, to an extent, be
determined from aerial photograph interpretation, walkover surveys will be required to
confirm ground conditions. Furthermore, flood marks can only be ascertained from field
observations and consultation with local inhabitants can often provide valuable historical
information that cannot be ascertained from other sources.
Field inspections will be needed at major bridge sites to confirm their viability, particularly
with regard to identifying erosion resistant locations either for use as foundations or as a
point at which river training works can be terminated. Field inspection also provides an
opportunity to collect information on the flood channel: its size, any evidence, physical or
anecdotal, of past flood levels and information on the type of material in the channel bed
and banks. If existing bridges are located on the same reach they should be inspected, as
their performance will give an indication of channel stability and scour risk.

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