The detection of missing baryons in galaxy halos with ki-

netic Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect

S.H. Lim1 , H.J. Mo1,2 , Huiyuan Wang3 , & Xiaohu Yang4

1
arXiv:1712.08619v1 [astro-ph.GA] 22 Dec 2017

Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA 01003-9305, USA

2
Physics Department and Center for Astrophysics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 10084, China

3
Key Laboratory for Research in Galaxies and Cosmology, Department of Astronomy, University

of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China; School of Astronomy and

Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

4
Department of Astronomy, and Tsung-Dao Lee Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shang-

hai 200240, China; IFSA Collaborative Innovation Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shang-

hai 200240, China

One unsettled problem in cosmology is that the baryon fractions identified as stars and cold

gas in halos of galaxies and galaxy groups are lower than the universal fraction. The de-

tection of the missing baryon component1 and the study of its properties are crucial for un-

derstanding how physical processes produce the galaxy population we observe2 . Numerical

simulations show that part of the missing baryons are in a warm-hot circum-galactic medium

(CGM)3,4,5 . Such a gas component, predominantly ionized, can be investigated via its ther-

mal and kinetic Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effects (tSZE and kSZE)6 , the distortions of the Cosmic

Microwave Background (CMB) spectrum by free electrons in thermal and bulk motions, re-

spectively. Detection of kSZE has been reported recently at 2 − 4σ level7−13 based on the

1
collective signals associated with large-scale structure traced by galaxies. However, it is dif-

ficult to explain the results in terms of baryons associated with galaxy systems of different

masses, and so their implication for the missing baryon problem in halos is uncertain. Here

we present the first measurement of kSZE as a function of mass of galaxy groups down to

∼ 1012.3 M , from about 40,000 galaxy groups with known masses and peculiar velocities, us-

ing the Planck CMB maps. The gas fractions in galaxy groups are inferred to be comparable

to the cosmic fraction, indicating that the missing baryons are found. Combined with tSZE

measurements, our results imply that the CGM is warm-hot, with effective temperatures

about 105 - 106 K.

When CMB photons encounter free electrons in their journey to us, their energy spectrum

changes due to Compton scattering, an effect referred to as Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect (SZE)6 . The

kinetic SZE (kSZE), in particular, refers to the Doppler shift of CMB photons caused by the bulk

motion of the scattering electrons (see Methods). Detecting kSZE signals from CMB observations

is challenging. First, the signals are weak; even for massive clusters of galaxies, the kSZE ampli-

tude is an order of magnitude lower than the thermal SZE (tSZE), and two orders of magnitude

smaller than the primary CMB fluctuation. As such, stacking of a large number of similar galaxy

systems is needed to detect the effect. Second, since the kSZE is directly proportional to the ra-

dial peculiar velocity of the galaxy system, and since the peculiar velocities of different systems

have a symmetric distribution around zero, stacking individual systems without using the velocity

information leads to cancellation rather than enhancement of signals. Third, the large beam sizes

of current CMB experiments (1 − 10 arcmin for Planck) requires assumptions of the locations

2
and gas profiles of the galaxy systems to be stacked, in order to extract the kSZE they produce.

Finally, since the observed effects are projected on the sky, signals from low-mass systems may be

contaminated by projections of the more massive systems along the same line of sight (LOS).

In our analysis, we use galaxy groups identified from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data

Release 7 (SDSS DR7)14 . All the groups have accurate estimates of masses, spatial positions and

peculiar velocities. These properties of individual groups are used in a multi-frequency matched

filter (MMF) technique to optimize the signal-to-noise and to extract kSZE from galaxy groups

over a large range of masses. They are also used to interpret the kSZE in terms of the total amount

of ionized gas associated with these groups.

We use the 100, 143, and 217 GHz channel maps from Planck15 2015 data release. To mini-

mize Galactic contamination, the brightest 40% of the sky is masked using the masks provided in

the data release. We also mask radio and infrared point sources using the corresponding masks.

From the maps so obtained, subtractions are made of the tSZE (see Methods), (∆T /TCMB )tSZ =

g(x)ytSZ , where ytSZ is the Compton parameter, given by the Planck NILC ytSZ -map16 , and g(x) =

x coth(x/2) − 4 is the conversion factor at a given x ≡ hν/(kB TCMB ). Integrating over the Planck

bands gives g(x)TCMB = −4.031, −2.785, and 0.187 for the 100, 143, and 217 maps, respectively.

Finally, each of the resulting maps is subtracted by a constant to zero the average background. The

final maps still contain components other than the kSZE, such as the primary CMB and instrumen-

tal noise. These are included in our MMF (see Methods).

We use galaxy groups17 identified from the SDSS DR7 with a halo-based group finder17,18 .

3
Halo masses of groups are estimated from abundance-matching based on the ranking of their char-

acteristic luminosities. Tests using realistic mock catalogs show that the halo masses given by the

group finder match well the true masses, with typical scatter of 0.2 − 0.3 dex. Following conven-

tions in SZE studies, we define a halo by a radius R500 , within which the mean density is 500 times

the critical density at the redshift of the halo. The corresponding halo mass is M500 . The masses

provided in the group catalog, M200 , are converted to M500 by assuming the NFW profile19 and

a model for the concentration20 . We adopt the radial peculiar velocities, vr , reconstructed for the

same sample of groups21 . Our final sample contains all groups with z ≤ 0.12, within which groups

with M200 > 1012.5 h−1 M are complete.

To extract kSZE associated with galaxy groups, we employ the MMF, which is designed

to minimize source confusions and background contamination, and to maximize the signal-to-

noise by imposing prior on the signals given the noise power spectra22,23,24 (see Methods). The

spatial filter for the MMF is modeled with a density profile, ne (r) = ne,0 [1 + (r/rc )2 ]−3β/2 , where

rc = rvir /c is the core radius of a group with concentration c, and β = 0.86 is the best-fit value

obtained from South Pole Telescope (SPT) cluster profiles24 . Note that rvir and c are determined

by the halo mass and redshift of the galaxy group in question. A MMF is put at the location of

each of all the groups in each of the three frequency maps according to the halo mass and redshift

of the group. Using the peculiar velocity information for individual groups, we simultaneously

constrain the amplitudes of the filters (which are proportional to the central densities ne,0 ) at six

values of M500 , log(M500 /M ) = 12.3, 12.7, 13.1, 13.5, 13.9, and 14.3, using linear interpolations

in logarithmic space to predict the filter amplitude for each group according to its M500 . The

4
numbers of groups in the six mass bins are 23997, 9795, 3780, 1287, 346, and 58, respectively.

The best match is sought based on the sum of the χ2 over all the pixels covered by the filters.

The filters are truncated at 3θ500 , where θ500 = R500 /dA (z) is the angle subtended by R500 , 1 with

dA (z) the angular diameter distance of the group in question. Simultaneously matching the filters

to all individual groups automatically takes into account the LOS contribution from other halos, an

important source of contamination to the signals of low-mass systems.

The amplitudes of the filters obtained from the matched filters, together with the assumed

spatial profiles, can be used to estimate the mean kSZE flux within R500 for a group of a given mass,
R
dA (z)2 K500 ≡ σT R500
ne dV . The results obtained from the entire sample are shown as yellow

triangles in Fig. 1. The error bar for each mass bin, representing the scatter among individual

groups, is estimated by tuning the amplitudes of the filters for the groups in the M500 bin to attain

the best match, while fixing the amplitudes for other mass bins to their best fit values. The large

scatter is clearly due to the high level of noise in the data. One known source of noise is the

error in the peculiar velocities. The typical uncertainty in the radial component, vr , is between

70 and 90 km s−1 ,21 and so the signals from groups with peculiar velocities lower than this are

all dominated by noise. To reduce the effect of this uncertainty, we separate the total sample into

two sub-samples, according to whether |vr | is smaller or larger than 80 km s−1 . The ratio in the

total number of groups between these two sub-samples is about 1/2. The amplitudes of the MMF

are then tuned independently for the two sub-samples to obtain a best match to the data. The blue

squares with error bars in Fig. 1 show the results obtained for the |vr | > 80 km s−1 sample. The
1
Test using a truncating radius up to 10θ500 shows no significant difference in the results.

5
scatter among different groups is now significantly reduced in a number of mass bins, although the

averages are similar to those obtained from all groups.

One unique property of the kSZE is that two similar groups with opposite peculiar velocities

produce temperature fluctuations of opposite signs. To check that the signals we detect are indeed

produced by kSZE, we divide the |vr | > 80km s−1 sample into two sub-samples, one with vr >

80 km s−1 , the other with vr < −80 km s−1 , and tune the amplitudes of the MMF independently

for groups in these two sub-samples along with the |vr | < 80 km s−1 sample to achieve the best

match to the data. The results obtained for these two sub-samples are shown in Fig. 1 as the

violet and green triangles, respectively. The two give similar K500 in all but the most massive

bin, where the large fluctuation might be due to the small number of groups in the bin. This

demonstrates that the signals we detect are indeed the kSZE. Finally, to test the effect of possible

background variations, we divide the total sample into three sub-samples, each containing groups

in a ∼ 1/3 portion of the sky coverage, and repeat the procedures to obtain K500 for groups with

|vr | > 80 km s−1 in each sub-sample. The results of the three sub-samples, shown as the blue

crosses in Fig. 1, are again similar except again for the most massive bin.

To summarize, all the seven samples analyzed give consistent results, although sample-to-

sample variations are large, demonstrating that our detection of the kSZE is reliable. The dashed

line in Fig. 1 shows the ‘self-similar’ model prediction in which the total number of electrons

within R500 is Ne,500 = [(1 + fH )/2mp ] · fB M500 , with fH = 0.76 the hydrogen mass fraction, mp

the proton mass, and fB = ΩB /Ωm = 0.16 the cosmic baryon fraction. Our data follow well the

6
self-similar model, indicating that the total ionized gas fractions in halos of different masses are

comparable to the universal baryon fraction and that the missing baryons are found.

Fig. 1 shows that the K500 - M500 relation is approximately a power law. This motivates an-

other way to extract the kSZE, in which we assume K500 (dA (z)/500Mpc)2 = A×(M500 /1013.4 M )α ,

and use the matched filter method to constrain the values of α and A. The results for the same seven

samples as described above are shown as the colour points in Fig. 2. The data points are clustered

in a region (A, α) ∈ (0.015 ± 0.003, 1.2 ± 0.3). As comparison, each of the small dots shows

the result of a random sample, in which the MMF for each group is randomly placed in the sky

coverage. The distribution of the 200 random realizations is around (A, α) = (0, 0), as expected

from a zeroed mean background. The symmetry relative to (0, 0) is because the peculiar velocities

have a roughly symmetric distribution around zero. At a given α, the scatter in A is about 0.03,

similar to that among the observed samples. With this as the statistical uncertainty, our detection

is at a level of about 5σ.

Fig. 3 shows the gas fraction within R200 obtained from the integrated fluxes of K500 and the

assumed gas profile. The data points are the averages of and the scatter among the seven samples,

while the shaded band contains the predictions of the power laws enclosed by the ellipse in Fig. 2.

The inferred gas fraction is consistent with the universal baryon fraction, and much higher than the

baryon fraction in stars and cold gas.

Recently Lim et al.26 applied a MMF method similar to the one used here to the Planck

NILC ytSZ -map (Methods) to measure tSZE produced by galaxy groups. The gas fraction inferred

7
from the tSZE assuming the virial temperature, Tvir = µmp GM200 /2kB R200 , with µ = 0.59 the

mean molecular weight, is shown in Fig. 3. This fraction is much lower than that given by our

kSZE data except for the most massive groups, indicating that the average temperature of the

gas responsible for the kSZE in lower-mass groups is much lower than the virial temperature.

The effective temperature, estimated by combining the gas mass obtained from the kSZE and the

thermal energy content given by the tSZE is shown as a function of halo mass in Fig. 4. The

effective temperature is about 105 -106 K for halos with M200 ≤ 1014 M , much lower than the

corresponding virial temperatures.

The detection of kSZE has been made for a small number of systems27 and from statistical

measurements based on, e.g., pair-wise and cross correlation methods 7,8,9,10,11,12,13 . Using peculiar

velocity fields reconstructed from galaxy distributions and the aperture photometry, Hernández-

Monteagudo et al.8 , Planck collaboration9 , and Schaan et al.11 found that a significant fraction of

baryons may be associated with the large-scale structure traced by galaxies. A similar conclusion

was reached by Hill et al.10 by cross-correlating galaxies with CMB maps. The signals measured

in these analyses are the averages over individual galaxies in the galaxy samples used, including

effects both confined to galaxy halos and unbound over large scales. These results, therefore, con-

strain the total amount of free electrons associated with the large-scale structure traced by galaxies,

but cannot be interpreted directly in terms of baryon fractions in halos of different masses. Thus,

the missing baryon problem on halo scales, which has important implications for galaxy formation

in dark matter halos, was unresolved. Our analysis differs from these earlier studies in that the

halo-based group catalog with reliable halo mass enabled us to probe the kSZE and baryon frac-

8
tion in halos of different masses separately for the first time, and in that the simultaneous matching

of filters to the CMB maps takes into account the LOS contamination by projection effects. In

addition, the combination of kSZE and tSZE measurements not only allows us to obtain the to-

tal mass, but also the effective temperature of the warm-hot gas associated with galaxy systems.

This has the advantage over absorption studies28 where gas metallicities and ionization states are

needed to obtain the total gas mass. Clearly, the synergy of these observations should be exploited

in the future to provide detailed information both about the warm-hot CGM and about the galaxy

formation processes that produce them.

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Acknowledgements We thank the Planck collaboration for making the full-sky maps public. We thank Ei-

ichiro Komatsu for helpful discussions. HM acknowledges the support from NSF AST-1517528. This work

is also supported by the China 973 Program (No. 2015CB857002) and the National Science Foundation of

China (grant Nos. 11233005, 11621303, 11522324, 11421303, 11503065, 11673015, 11733004)

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Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Author Contributions All authors contributed to the development of this paper, with SL leading the data

analysis, HM formulating the idea, HW and XY providing data on peculiar velocities and galaxy groups,

respectively, and SL and HM co-writing the paper.

Correspondence Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to HM (hjmo@umass.edu).

Methods

The kinetic Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect The CMB spectrum is distorted when CMB photons in-

teract with free electrons that are moving collectively. In this kinetic Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect

(kSZE), temperature change is characterized by a dimensionless parameter,

  Z
∆T σT
k(r̂) ≡ (r̂) = − ne (v · r̂)dl, (1)
TCMB kSZ c

where TCMB = 2.7255 K, σT is the Thompson cross-section, c the speed of light, ne the free

electron density, v the velocity of bulk motion, r̂ the unit vector along a line-of-sight, and dl the

path length along the line-of-sight. Assuming that electrons are moving together with the galaxy

system containing them, which is justified by the fact that the correlation length of the peculiar

velocity field is much larger than a halo size7,8 , we have

vr
k(r̂) = − τ, (2)
c
R
where τ = σT ne dl, and vr is the CMB rest-frame peculiar velocity of the galaxy system along

the line-of-sight.

13
The thermal Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect and the hot gas fraction The distortion of the CMB

spectrum by hot free electrons in a galaxy system via the inverse Compton process is known as the

thermal Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect (tSZE). The temperature change generated by tSZE is charac-

terized by a dimensionless parameter,

  Z
∆T σT
(r̂) = g(x)ytSZ (r̂) ≡ g(x) Pe dl, (3)
TCMB tSZ me c2

where ytSZ is the Compton parameter, g(x) = x coth(x/2) − 4 the conversion factor at a given

x ≡ hν/(kB TCMB ), me the electron rest-mass, and Pe = ne kB Te is electron pressure.

Recently, a matched filter technique has been applied to the Planck NILC ytSZ -map to extract

the tSZE associated with galaxy groups of different halo masses19 . The analysis produces estimates

of the integrated tSZE flux within R500 ,

Z
2 σT
dA (z) Y500 = Pe dV , (4)
me c2 R500

where dA (z) is the angular diameter distance to the group. Taking into account the redshift de-

pendence, one can then infer from Y500 the thermal energy content of the group, as represented by

the volume integration of the pressure. It is found that the thermal energy contents obtained for

low-mass groups are much lower than that expected from the universal baryon fraction at the virial

temperature of the groups19 .

The multi-frequency matched filter technique Because the SZE signals are typically lower than

various other sources, such as the primary CMB anisotropy, Galactic foreground, and cosmic in-

frared background, optimizing the signal-to-noise is essential for extracting the signals reliably.

Using a simple aperture photometry may lead to large uncertainties17 . To minimize the contamina-

14
tion, we employ the multi-frequency matched filter (MMF) technique15,16,17 . Recently, a general

formalism of applying MMF to SZE measurements has been developed17 , which is adopted for

our analysis. In the MMF formalism, the Fourier transform of the filter that maximizes the signal-

to-noise is given by
"Z #−1
|τ̂ (k0 )B̂(k0 )|2 d2 k 0 jν τ̂ (k)B̂(k)
F̂ (k) = (5)
P (k 0 ) (2π)2 P (k)

where τ̂ (k) is the Fourier transform of the assumed spatial profile of the gas distribution, B̂(k)

is the Fourier transform of the Gaussian beam function that mimics the convolution in the Planck

observation, and P (k) is the noise power spectra. For the kSZE analysis, P (k) = PCMB |B̂|2 +

Pnoise where PCMB is the CMB spectrum and Pnoise the power spectra of the Planck noise map at

each frequency, as given by the Planck data release. The quantity jν in the above equation is a

frequency-dependent conversion factor between the differential temperature of the CMB and the

filter; jν = g(x) for tSZE, and is frequency-independent for kSZE.

15
 K 500 (d A (z)/500 Mpc) 2 [arcmin 2 ]
10 1 all groups (errorbar = scatter among groups)
|v r | > 80 (errorbar = scatter among groups)
v r > 80
10 0 v r < - 80
subsamples |v r | > 80
self-similar
10 -1
10 -2
10 -3
10 -4
10 -5
10 12 10 13 10 14 10 15
M 500 [M ]

Figure 1: The K500 -M500 relations obtained from seven samples: all groups (yellow); groups with

|vr | > 80 km s−1 (skyblue); groups with vr > 80 km s−1 (violet); groups with vr < −80 km s−1

(green), and groups with |vr | > 80 km s−1 in three parts of the sky (blue). The data points for some

samples are shifted by 0.05 dex horizontally for clarity. The dashed line shows the ‘self-similar’

model, Ne,500 = [(1 + fH )/2mp ] · fb M500 , where Ne,500 is the total number of electrons within

R500 , fH = 0.76 the hydrogen mass fraction, mp the proton mass, and fB = ΩB /Ωm = 0.16 the

cosmic baryon fraction. Error bars indicate the scatter among individual systems in each mass bin.

The symbols with downward arrows near the bottom indicate negative values.
16
 0.020
all groups
|v r | > 80
0.015 v r > 80
v r < - 80
A (normalization)

0.010 subsamples |v r | > 80

offset: random
(200 realizations)
0.005
0.000
0.005
0.010
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
(slope)

Figure 2: The results obtained from the power-law model, K500 (dA (z)/500Mpc)2 = A ×

(M500 /1013.4 M )α , for the seven observational samples (coloured symbols), and for the 200 ran-

dom realizations in which the filters are put at random positions in the sky coverage (black dots).

The shaded ellipse covers the area occupied by the observational samples.

17
 all 7 samples
(errorbar=scatter among the samples)
tSZE (assuming T gas = T vir )
10 0 f cold = f star + f cold gas
M gas / M 200

10 -1 fB = 0. 16

10 -2

10 -3
10 12 10 13 10 14 10 15
M 200 [M ]

Figure 3: The ratio between gas mass and halo mass within R200 as a function of halo mass inferred

from the observed K500 - M500 relations. Data points and error bars are the averages of, and the

scatter among, all the seven samples, respectively. The shaded band is based on the ellipse shown

in Fig. 2. The dashed line shows the universal baryon fraction of fB = 0.16. The dot-dashed

line represents the gas mass fraction inferred from the tSZE26 assuming the gas to be at the virial

temperazure, with the shaded band indicating the typical uncertainties in the data. The dotted

line shows the mass fraction in stars29 and cold gas30 , with the shaded band indicating the typical

uncertainties in the data.

18
 all 7 samples
10 8 (errorbar=scatter among the samples)
T gas = T vir

10 7
T gas [K]

10 6

10 5

10 4
10 12 10 13 10 14 10 15
M 200 [M ]

Figure 4: Effective gas temperature obtained by dividing the electron thermal energy obtained from

the tSZE measurement by the total number of electrons obtained from the kSZE. Data points and

error bars show the averages of, and the scatter among, all the seven samples, respectively. The

shaded band is based on the ellipse shown in Fig. 2. The dashed line shows the virial temperature

as a function of halo mass.

19